Lifespan Development

Prenatal Development
Biological Foundations of Human
Development
Evolutionary Psychology
• Evolutionary psychology focuses on
how universal patterns of behavior and
cognitive process have evolved over
time
• Evolutionary psychologists study a
variety of psychological phenomena
that may have evolved as adaptations
• The theory of natural selection (Darwin)
refers to the survival and reproduction of
organisms better suited for their
environment over those poorly suited
• Evolutionary psychology enhances our
understanding of development through
how we choose mates and achieve
reproductive success
Heredity and Chromosomes
• There are two types of gametes involved in reproduction: male
gametes (sperm) and female gametes (ova)
• Male gametes are produced in the testes through spermatogenesis
beginning at about 12 years of age
• Female gametes are stored in the ovaries and are present at birth
though immature with only about 400 becoming mature eggs
• Once a ripened egg is released from the ovary, it moves into the
fallopian tube and reaches the uterus in 3 to 4 days
• Once a single sperm unites with the nucleus of the egg, a new cell
with the combined genetic information from both parents, is a
zygote
• Chromosomes are long strings of genetic material known as
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Heredity and Chromosomes, continued I

• DNA is a helix-shaped molecule

made up of nucleotide base pairs
[adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine
(C), and thymine (T)
• Each chromosome has sequences
of DNA make up genes that control
a number of visible characteristics
• Each gene has multiple variations or
alleles (specific versions of genes)
• In meiosis, segments of the
chromosomes from each parent
form pairs and genetic segments
are exchanged as determined by
change
Heredity and Chromosomes, continued II
• Each parent contributes half the genetic information carried by the
offspring with the resulting characteristics determined by the
interaction of parental genetic material
• Genotype is the genetic makeup of the individual while the
phenotype refers to the person’s inherited physical characteristics
• 22 of chromosomes from each parent are similar in length to a
corresponding chromosome from the other parent with the
remaining chromosome looks like an X or Y (XY: male; XX: female)
• Genetic inheritance of traits for humans is based upon Gregor
Mendel’s model of inheritance
• Genes on autosomes (any chromosome other than a sex
chromosome) have alleles and their associated traits are
autosomal dominant or autosomal recessive
Genetic Variation and Inheritance
• Dominant genes are expressed while recessive
genes are only expressed in the absence of a
dominant gene
• If a person has only one recessive gene for a
disease, they would be a carrier (i.e., cystic fibrosis)
• Someone is homozygous for an allele when they
have two copies of the same allele and
heterozygous when they have a combination of
alleles
• Harmful genes like cystic fibrosis come from a gene
mutation, or a sudden permanent change
A Punnett Square
Chromosomal Abnormalities and Genetic Testing
• Chromosomal abnormalities occur when the
chromosome structure is altered and includes:
• Deletions – portion is missing or deleted
• Duplications – portion is duplicated
• Translocations – portion is transferred to another
• Inversions – portion has broken off and
reattached upside down
• Insertions – portion has been deleted and
inserted into another chromosome
• Rings – portion has broken off and formed a
circle Figure 1. The three major single-
chromosome mutations: deletion (1),
• Isochromosome – formed by the mirror image duplication (2) and inversion (3).
copy of a chromosome segment
Chromosomal Abnormalities and Genetic Testing,
continued
• One of the most common chromosomal abnormalities is on pair #21,
down syndrome
• A chromosomal abnormality on #23 results in a sex-linked
chromosomal abnormality
• Turner syndrome occurs in 1 of 2,500 live female births when an ovum
lacking a chromosome is fertilized by a sperm with an X
chromosome, resulting in a zygote with an XO composition
• Klinefelter syndrome (XXY)occurs in 1 out of 700 live male births and
results when the ovum containing an extra X chromosome is fertilized
by a Y sperm
Prenatal Testing
• Prenatal screening focuses on finding problems among a large
population with affordable and noninvasive methods and
commonly includes ultrasounds, blood tests, and blood pressure
readings
• Prenatal diagnosis focuses on pursuing additional detailed
information once a particular problem has been found and can be
invasive
• Screening can detect problems such as neural tube defects,
anatomical defects, anatomical defects, chromosomal
abnormalities, and gene mutations
• Prenatal diagnosis is intended to enable timely medical or surgical
treatment of a condition, to give parents the change to abort a
fetus, and to give parents the chance to better prepare for a baby
with special needs
Behavioral Genetics

• The ”nature/nurture” debate questions the role of heredity versus

environment in our personality
• Most scholars agree that there is a constant interplay between
nature and nurture
• While genetic predispositions are important, other factors are in
part the effect of epigenetic, above the genome, changes
• Epigenetics describe psychological development as the result of
an ongoing, bi-directional interchange between heredity and the
environment
• Behavioral genetics is the science of how genes and environments
work together to influence behavior and can be studied in
adoption studies and twin studies
Behavioral Genetics, continued
• Monozygotic twins occur when a single zygote or fertilized egg splits apart
in the first two weeks of development and creates two separate but
identical offspring
• Dizygotic or fraternal twins share the same genetic material as would any
other children with the same mother and father
• In the uterus, 60-70% of monozygotic twins share the same placenta (a
temporary organ connecting the fetus to the uterine wall) but separate
amniotic sacs (a thin but tough transparent pair of membranes that hold a
developing embryo/fetus until shortly before birth)
• Conjoined twins: monozygotic twins whose bodies are joined during
pregnancy
• Vanishing twins: as many as 1 in 8 pregnancies start out as multiples but
only a single fetus is brought to full term
• Twin studies: a behavior genetic research method that involves a
comparison of the similarity of monozygotic and fraternal twins
Practice Question 1

Shelby is talking with her doctor about prenatal screening. She

wants to know what will be covered in the screening. Which of the
following is not a condition prenatal screening tests routinely screen
for?

A. genetic diseases
B. birth defects
C. cancer
D. chromosomal abnormalities
Practice Question 2

Which of the following is not considered a recessive trait or disease?

A. red hair
B. nearsightedness
C. Huntington disease
D. male pattern baldness
Prenatal Development
Periods of Prenatal Development
• The Germinal Period (Weeks 1-2)
• The fertilized egg forms a zygote as a one-cell structure
• The genetic makeup and sex of the baby are set
• During the first week, the zygote divides and multiplies through process of
mitosis for about 7-10 days and has 150 cells then implants into the uterine
lining
• The Embryonic Period (Weeks 3-8)
• Upon implantation, the multi-cellular is called an embryo
• The placenta, a structure connected to the uterus to provide nourishment
and oxygen from the mother to the embryo via the umbilical cord, is formed
• Cells continue to differentiate, the heart starts beating, organs begin to form
and function
• Growth occurs from head to tail(cephalocaudal) and from the midline
outward (proximodistal)
• About 20% of organisms fail during the embryonic period
Periods of Prenatal Development, continued

• The Fetal Period (Weeks 9-40)

• Fetus (at about 9 weeks), about the size of a
kidney bean and begins to look human
• By 12 weeks, the fetus has all body parts
• By 16 weeks, the fetus is about 4.5 inches long
with fully developed fingers and toes and visible
fingerprints
• Organ systems continue to develop and
rudimentary neurons in the brain are
developed by 24 weeks
• The age of viability is reached at about 22 to 26
weeks
• By week 37 all of the fetus’s organ systems are
developed enough that it could survive outside
the mother’s uterus without risks associated with
premature birth
Environmental Risks

• The developing child is most at risk for severe problems in the first
three months
• Teratogens are factors that can contribute to birth defects which
include some maternal diseases, drugs, alcohol, and stress as well
as environmental and occupational exposures
• Alcohol: consumption particularly during the second month of
prenatal development may lead to neurocognitive and behavioral
difficulties that can last a lifetime and can frequently result in fetal
alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD)
• Tobacco: Nicotine levels travel through the placenta to the fetus
and has been associated with low birth rate, placenta previa, birth
defects, preterm delivery, fetal growth restriction, and sudden
infant death syndrome
Environmental Risks, continued I
• Drugs: if prescription medication is required, the lowest possible dose
should be used
• Illicit drugs can cause low birth-weight, withdrawal symptoms, birth
defects, or learning and behavioral problems
• Environmental Chemicals: can include an exposure to a wide array
of agents including pollution, organic mercury compounds,
herbicides, and industrial solvents
• Sexually Transmitted Infections: can complicate pregnancy and may
have serious effects on both the mother and developing baby
• Maternal Diseases: maternal illness increases the chance that a baby
will be born with a birth defect or have a chronic health problem
• Maternal Stress: Because of a link in blood supply between mother
and fetus, stress can leave lasting effects on a developing fetus
Environmental Risks, continued II

• There are several considerations in determining the type and

amount of damage that might result from exposure to a
teratogen
• Timing of exposure: if a substance is introduced during a
particular bodily structure’s critical period of development,
damage may be greater
• Amount of exposure: Some substances are not harmful unless the
amounts reach a certain level
• Genetics: genetic make-up plays a role in the impact a particular
teratogen might have on a child
• Being male or female: Males are more likely to experience
damage due to teratogens than females
Complications of Pregnancy and Delivery
• Minor side effects of pregnancy are potentially very
uncomfortable and include nausea, heartburn, gas, hemorrhoids,
backache, leg cramps, insomnia, constipation, shortness of
breath, or varicose veins
• Major complications can pose health risk to the mother and child
and often require special care:
• Gestational diabetes
• Hyperemesis gravidarum
• Preeclampsia
• Deep vein thrombosis
• Increased susceptibility to infections
• Peripartum cardiomyopathy
Maternal Mortality
• About 830 women die from preventable pregnancy or childbirth-
related complications around the world every day
• Almost all maternal deaths (99%) occur in developing countries
• The lifetime risk of maternal death in high-income countries is 1 in 3,300
compared to 1 in 41 in low-income countries
• A pregnancy-related death is the death of a woman while pregnant
or within 1 year of the end of a pregnancy, regardless of the outcome,
duration, or site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or
aggravated by the pregnancy or its management
• Top causes of pregnancy-related deaths include cardiovascular
disease, non-cardiovascular diseases, and infection or sepsis
• Spontaneous abortion, miscarriage, is experienced in approximately
20-40% of undiagnosed pregnancies and in 10% of diagnosed
pregnancies and typically occurs before the 12th week of pregnancy
Practice Question 3

What is the number one cause of pregnancy-related death in the

United States?

A. Hemorrhage
B. Sepsis
C. Preeclampsia
D. Cardiovascular diseases
Birth and Delivery
Childbirth
• Mongan Method or HypnoBirthing (Dick-Read method) emphasizes
relaxation and proper breathing with contractions as well as family
support and education
• The Lamaze Method emphasizes the woman to be in control of
delivery through muscle relaxation, breathing through contractions,
having a focal point during contractions, and having a support person
• The Bradley Method helps women deliver naturally with few or no
drugs emphasizing excellent nutrition and exercise, relaxation
techniques for pain, and the partner as coach
• Nurse Midwives assist with deliveries for women who are at low risk for
birth complications at home, in a birthing center, or hospital
• Home Births are most common for women who have had previous
children, are over 25, and who are white
Childbirth, continued
• Birthing Centers present a more home-like environment than a
hospital labor ward with more options during labor and decor
meant to emphasize the normality of birth
• Water birth can help alleviate discomfort and pressure for the
mother and can include laboring and/or giving birth in a warm
tub of water

Hospital birth is the most common

and can include either natural
pain relief methods or medications
and medical interventions that
relieve pain, such as an epidural or
inhaled nitrous oxide
Process of Delivery
• The first stage of labor is typically the longest with uterine
contractions initially lasting about 30 seconds 15 to 20 minutes
apart but increasing in duration and frequency to more than a
minute and 3 to 4 minutes apart
• During the first stage, the cervix dilates to 10 centimeters or just
under 4 inches and take 12-16 hours for first children and 6-9 hours
for women who have previously given birth
• The second stage involves the passage of the baby through the
birth canal and take about 10-40 minutes with the head delivering
first and the umbilical cord clamped and cut
• The third stage is relatively painless when the placenta is delivered
and occurs within 20 minutes after delivery of the baby
• Cesarean section is the use of surgery to deliver babies and may
be necessary when vaginal delivery poses a risk to baby or mother
Newborn Assessment and Risks
• The Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) assesses the
baby’s motor development, muscle tone, and stress response
• APGAR: conducted 1 to 5 minutes after birth and measures the
heart rate, respiration, muscle tone, reflex response, and color on a
score of 0 to 2 with any total scores 5 or under being a cause for
concern
• Low birth weight is less than 5.8 pounds, resulting in difficulty
maintaining body temperature and higher infection risk
• Premature birth is less than 37 weeks gestation and can be
triggered by anything that disrupts the mother’s system
• A lack of adequate (hypoxia) or complete (apoxia) oxygen shortly
after birth can lead to brain damage and other disorders and is
typically caused by umbilical cord problems, birth canal problems,
blocked airways, and placenta abruption
Practice Question 4

Which stage of labor is typically the longest?

A. The first stage

B. The second stage
C. The third stage
D. They are all the same length