📘 ETHICS & MORALITY

1. Ethics

 Definition: The philosophical study of what is right and wrong, good and bad.

 Example: Whether lying is always wrong or can be justified in some situations.

2. Morality

 Definition: The system of beliefs, values, and principles about right and wrong behavior held by individuals or
societies.

 Example: Different cultures may have moral views on marriage, diet, or warfare.

🔁 Ethics is the theoretical framework, morality is the practice.

📘 VALUE

 Definition: Principles or standards of behavior that are considered important.

 Example: Honesty, justice, freedom.

 Types:

o Moral values: Honesty, compassion

o Social values: Respect, tradition

o Personal values: Ambition, independence

📘 FACTUAL VS. MORAL JUDGMENT

 Factual Judgment: Based on observable or measurable facts.

o Example: “She stole the money.”

 Moral Judgment: Based on a value or ethical claim.

o Example: “Stealing is wrong.”

✅ Moral judgments require ethical reasoning, not just factual observation.

📘 WHY STUDY MORAL THEORY?

 Clarifies right vs. wrong

 Helps resolve moral conflicts

 Builds ethical institutions

 Encourages critical thinking

 Supports moral motivation and character development

📘 BRANCHES OF ETHICS
1. Meta-Ethics

 Studies the nature of ethical properties, statements, and judgments.

 Example: What does “good” mean?

2. Normative Ethics

 Concerned with moral standards and principles for behavior.

 Example: Utilitarianism, Deontology

3. Applied Ethics

 Application of ethical theory to real-life issues.

 Example: Medical ethics, environmental ethics

📘 MORAL REALISM

 Definition: Moral facts exist independently of human opinion.

🔹 Moral Naturalism

 Morality is grounded in natural facts (e.g., pleasure, well-being).

➤ Is-Ought Problem (David Hume)

 One cannot derive an "ought" from an "is".

 Example: Just because people are aggressive doesn’t mean they ought to be.

➤ Naturalistic Fallacy (G.E. Moore)

 You can’t define “good” through natural properties like pleasure.

 Open Question Argument: “Is pleasure good?” is a valid question, so they’re not identical.

🔹 Non-Naturalism

 Moral facts exist but aren’t reducible to natural facts.

 Example: Goodness is a non-natural property we can intuitively recognize.

📘 MORAL ANTI-REALISM

 Denies objective moral facts.

🔹 Error Theory (J.L. Mackie)

 All moral claims are false because there are no moral facts.

🔹 Ethical Subjectivism

 Moral truths depend on individual beliefs.

 Example: Lying is wrong for me, but not necessarily for others.

🔹 Cultural Relativism
  Moral values are determined by cultural norms.

 Example: Polygamy is acceptable in some cultures but not others.

🔹 Emotivism

 Moral statements express emotions, not truths.

 Example: “Stealing is wrong” = “Boo to stealing!”

🔹 Skepticism

 We can’t have knowledge about moral facts.

🔹 Nihilism

 There is no moral truth or value.

📘 MORAL MOTIVATION & AKRASIA (Weakness of Will)

 Akrasia: Knowing what is right but failing to do it.

🔹 Internalism

 Moral judgments are necessarily linked to motivation.

 Example: If I say “stealing is wrong”, I am motivated not to steal.

🔹 Externalism

 Motivation requires an external desire, not just moral judgment.

🔹 Humean Theory

 Motivation = desire + belief. Moral reason alone can’t motivate.

🔹 Anti-Humean Theory

 Moral beliefs themselves can motivate action.

📘 VALUE THEORY

🔹 Values in Different Fields:

 Aesthetics: Beauty, harmony

 Politics: Justice, equality

 Economics: Efficiency, utility

🔹 Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Value

 Intrinsic: Valuable in itself (e.g., happiness)

 Extrinsic: Valuable as a means (e.g., money)

📘 GOOD AS AN ETHICAL VALUE

 Good: That which promotes well-being, virtue, or fulfillment.

 Example: Altruism is considered good because it helps others.

📘 EVIL

 Evil: Intentionally causing harm or suffering.

 Example: Torturing others for pleasure.

Good vs. Evil

 Good: Promotes well-being

 Evil: Destroys well-being

📘 WHY DO PEOPLE DO EVIL?

🔹 Dark Triad Traits:

1. Machiavellianism – Manipulativeness

2. Narcissism – Self-centeredness

3. Psychopathy – Lack of empathy

🔹 Stanford Prison Experiment (1971, Zimbardo)

 Normal people given authority roles can act cruelly.

 Shows how environment influences behavior.

🔹 Milgram’s Obedience Experiment (1963)

 People obey authority figures even against their conscience.

 65% administered “fatal” shocks under pressure.

📘 CASE STUDY IDEAS

1. Trolley Problem (Applied Ethics)

o Save 5 lives by sacrificing 1—what’s morally right?

2. Whistleblowing in a Corporation

o Conflict between loyalty and moral responsibility.

3. Cultural Relativism & Women’s Rights

o FGM or dress codes across cultures: moral critique vs. cultural respect?
 4. Stanford Prison Experiment

o Impact of institutional roles on ethical behavior.

5. Milgram Experiment

o Moral responsibility in hierarchical systems.

6. Charitable Giving

o Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation.

SESSIONAL EXAM NOTES: MORAL PHILOSOPHY

1. ETHICS & MORALITY

Ethics refers to the philosophical study of morality. It involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts
of right and wrong behavior.

Morality is a set of principles or rules concerning the distinction between right and wrong or good and bad behavior,
often derived from societal, religious, or cultural norms.

2. VALUE

Definition: A value is a principle or standard that is considered important or desirable.

Example: Honesty, freedom, equality.

3. FACTUAL VS MORAL JUDGMENT

 Factual Judgment: Concerned with what is the case. Example: "The earth revolves around the sun."

 Moral Judgment: Concerned with what ought to be. Example: "People ought to be honest."

4. NEED TO STUDY MORAL THEORY

 Provides a framework for analyzing moral issues.

 Helps clarify ethical principles.

 Assists in making informed and consistent moral decisions.

5. META, NORMATIVE & APPLIED ETHICS

 Meta-Ethics: Studies the nature, origin, and meaning of ethical concepts (e.g., "What is 'good'? Are moral
facts real?")

 Normative Ethics: Examines standards for right and wrong behavior (e.g., Utilitarianism, Deontology, Virtue
Ethics).
  Applied Ethics: Applies ethical theory to real-life situations (e.g., bioethics, environmental ethics).

6. MORAL REALISM

See existing content on Moral Realism, Naturalism, and Non-Naturalism (already detailed).

7. MORAL ANTI-REALISM

See existing content on Error Theory, Ethical Subjectivism, Cultural Relativism, Emotivism, Skepticism, and Nihilism.

8. MORAL MOTIVATION AND AKRASIA (WEAKNESS OF WILL)

 Akrasia: Acting against one’s better judgment. Example: Knowing smoking is harmful but doing it anyway.

Internalism, Externalism, Humean, Anti-Humean — see detailed content above.

9. VALUE THEORY

A. VALUE

Values are standards of behavior or beliefs regarding what is important in life.

B. VALUES IN DIVERSE FIELDS

 Politics: Justice, freedom.

 Religion: Compassion, piety.

 Economics: Efficiency, sustainability.

 Education: Curiosity, discipline.

C. INTRINSIC VS EXTRINSIC VALUES

 Intrinsic Value: Something valuable in itself. Example: Happiness, knowledge.

 Extrinsic Value: Valuable as a means to an end. Example: Money, tools.

D. GOOD AS AN ETHICAL VALUE

"Good" is often defined as what ought to be pursued or desired. Its interpretation depends on the ethical theory
(e.g., pleasure in hedonism, duty in deontology).

E. EVIL

Acts or intentions that are profoundly immoral or wicked. Often seen as the direct opposite of good.

F. GOOD VS EVIL

A classic moral dichotomy. Ethical systems attempt to define and distinguish these concepts through rules, principles,
or outcomes.

G. WHY DO PEOPLE DO EVIL?

 Dark Triad (Personality Psychology): Machiavellianism, Narcissism, Psychopathy.

 Milgram’s Obedience Experiment: Demonstrated how authority figures could pressure individuals to commit
unethical actions.

10. CASE STUDIES BASED ON THE ABOVE TOPICS

1. Utilitarian Dilemma: A doctor can save five patients by sacrificing one healthy person. What should they do?

2. Cultural Relativism in Practice: Debate on whether female genital mutilation should be criticized or accepted
as cultural tradition.

3. Error Theory Applied: Analyzing why moral laws in legal systems may rest on beliefs in moral facts that don't
exist.

4. Milgram Study: Ethical implications for obedience in military or corporate settings.

5. Hedonism vs Experience Machine: Why most reject the idea of plugging into a machine that simulates
endless pleasure.

6. Akrasia in Addiction: A smoker knows it's harmful but continues to smoke.

7. Moral Subjectivism: Interpersonal conflicts due to differing personal moral beliefs, e.g., dietary ethics.

8. Moral Realism Debate: Can we objectively claim the Holocaust was wrong?

9. Virtue Ethics in Eudaimonia: A case where a person lives a simple, virtuous life with community respect and
inner peace.

10. Stanford Prison Experiment: How environment and power dynamics lead to moral collapse.