Lecture Notes on Basics of Quantum Computing

Aradhya Kumar Shukla

Department of Physics, GLA University
Mathura- 281406, India

E-mail: ashukla038@[Link]
Contents

1 Introduction 2

2 Basic Linear Algebra 8

2.1 Vector Space: Definition and Examples 8
2.2 Basis Vector: Basic Properties 9
2.3 Hilbert Space: Definition and Properties 10

3 Quantum Mechanics in Dirac’s Bra-Ket Notation 11

3.1 Normalization and Orthogonality in Quantum Mechanics 13
3.2 Superposition Quantum States 15
3.3 Quantum Mechanical Operators and their Properties 17
3.4 Commutation and Anticommutation Relation 23

4 Pauli Spin Matrices 26

4.1 Key Algebraic Properties 26
4.2 Commutator and Anticommutator of Pauli Matrices— Proof 27

5 Quantum Bit (Qubit) 29

5.1 Definition and Properties 29
5.2 Differences between Bits and Qubits 31
5.3 Challenges with Qubit 32

6 Measurement of Single Qubit: Born Rule 32

6.1 Measurement in Computational Basis (Z-basis) 33
6.2 Measurement in X-basis 34
6.3 Measurement in Y-basis 34

7 Representation of Single Qubit on Bloch Sphere 37

7.1 Definition of Bloch Sphere 37
7.2 A Single Qubit on Bloch Sphere: Derivation 38
7.3 Properties of the Bloch Sphere 40

8 Single Qubit Quantum Gate 40

8.1 Types of Single Qubit Gates 41
8.2 Identity Gate 41
8.3 Pauli-X Gate 42
8.4 Pauli-Y Gate 43
8.5 Pauli-Z Gate 44
8.6 Hadamard Gate 45
8.7 Phase Gate (S Gate) 46

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9 Interdisciplinary Applications of Quantum Computing 48

1 Introduction

Today’s computers- both in theory (Turing machines) and practice (PCs, HPCs, laptops,
tablets, smartphones, . . . ) are based on classical physics. They are limited by the classical
fact that systems can be in only one state, called bits (0 or 1), at the time. However, modern
quantum physics tells us that the world behaves quite differently. A quantum system can
be in a superposition of many different states at the same time, and can exhibit interference
effects during the course of its evolution. Quantum computation is the field that investigates
the computational power and other properties of computers based on quantum-mechanical
principles. It combines two of the most important strands of 20th-century science: quantum
mechanics (developed by Planck, Einstein, Bohr, Heisenberg, Schrodinger and others in the
period 1900–1925) and computer science (whose birth may be dated to Turing’s 1936 paper).
An important objective is to find quantum algorithms that are significantly faster than any
classical algorithm solving the same problem.
Moore’s law and Future of Computers: Moore’s law is the observation that the num-
ber of transistors in a dense integrated circuit doubles about every two years. Moore’s law
will soon run into major physical constraints!
In recent years, Moore’s Law has faced increasing challenges. As transistors have
become smaller and smaller, it has become increasingly difficult and expensive to continue
shrinking them.

• Physical Limits: As transistors approach the atomic scale, quantum mechanical

effects become more pronounced, making it difficult to control the flow of electrons.

• Manufacturing Costs: The cost of building state-of-the-art semiconductor fabrica-

tion facilities (fabs) has increased dramatically. These fabs require advanced equip-
ment and processes to manufacture chips with increasingly smaller transistors.

• Power Dissipation: As transistors become smaller and more densely packed, the
amount of heat generated by the chip increases. This heat can damage the chip and
limit its performance.

• Economic Factors: The increasing costs of research, development, and manufac-

turing have made it more difficult for companies to continue investing in shrinking
transistor

On the other hand Richard F. Feynman quotes that “when we get to the very, very
small world – say circuits of seven atoms – we have a lot of new things that would happen
that represent completely new opportunities for design. Atoms on a small scale behave like
nothing on a large scale, for they satisfy the laws of quantum mechanics. . . ” In quantum

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computing, information is encoded in quantum bits or qubits, which can exist in a super-
position of states and can be entangled with each other—features that provide exponential
parallelism. Over the last two decades, advancements in quantum hardware technologies,
including superconducting circuits, trapped ions, and photonic systems, have led to the
realization of prototype quantum processors. Though still in the early stages, quantum
computers are now being developed and tested by major tech companies and research insti-
tutions around the world, marking a promising step toward solving previously intractable
computational problems.

Comparison between Classical and Quantum Computers

Classical Computing Quantum Computing

Based on classical electrical circuits Based on principles of quantum
being in a single state at a time, either mechanics, such as superposition and
ON or OFF. entanglement, allowing systems to be in
multiple states simultaneously.
Information is stored and processed Information is stored and processed
using bits (0 or 1), typically via voltage using qubits, based on properties like
or electrical charge. spin of electrons or polarization of
photons.
Uses binary code (0 or 1) to represent Uses qubits, which can represent 0, 1, or
information. a superposition of both simultaneously.
Built using CMOS (Complementary Built using superconducting qubits,
Metal-Oxide Semiconductor) transistors. quantum transistors, or SQUIDs
(Superconducting Quantum Interference
Devices).
Data processing occurs in the Central Data processing occurs in the Quantum
Processing Unit (CPU), which includes Processing Unit (QPU), composed of
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), interconnected qubits performing
registers, and control unit. quantum operations.
Follows deterministic computation Follows probabilistic computation
models. models due to quantum behavior.
Efficient for simple, logical, and Efficient for complex, high-dimensional
deterministic operations. problems like factoring large numbers,
simulating quantum systems, and
optimization.

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 Features Classical Computers Quantum Computers
Basic Unit Bit (Either 0 or 1) Qubit (Can be in multiple
states simultaneously due to
superposition)
State Boolean logic using gates like Quantum logic using gates
AND, OR, NOT like Hadamard, CNOT, etc.
Logic Operation Uses classical logic operations Uses quantum operations
that exploit superposition
and entanglement
Speed Limited by classical Can perform certain
processing speed calculations much faster due
to parallelism in
superposition
Memory Stored in binary digits (bits) Stored in qubits, which hold
more information due to
quantum properties
Entanglement Not possible Possible; allows qubits to be
correlated in a way that
affects system behavior
Error Sensitivity Less sensitive to noise and Highly sensitive; requires
errors quantum error correction
Applications Software, gaming, general Cryptography, quantum
computing, simulations, etc. chemistry, optimization,
machine learning, etc.

Disadvantages of Classical Computing:

• Limited parallel processing: Classical computing can perform limited parallel

processing, which can limit its performance for certain types of problems.

• Inefficient for certain types of problems: Classical computing can be inefficient

for certain types of problems that involve large numbers of variables or complex
relationships.

• Limited by classical physics: Classical computing is limited by classical physics,

which can make certain types of problems impossible to solve or prohibitively difficult.

Advantages of Quantum Computing:

• Massive parallel processing: Quantum computing can perform massive parallel

processing, which can enable faster solutions for certain types of problems.

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 • Efficient for certain types of problems: Quantum computing is efficient for
certain types of problems that involve large numbers of variables or complex relation-
ships.

Disadvantages of Quantum Computing:

• Specialized hardware: Quantum computing requires specialized hardware, includ-
ing cryogenic equipment to maintain the qubits at low temperatures and specialized
control electronics to manipulate the qubits.

• Expensive: Quantum computing is expensive, as it requires specialized hardware

and expertise.

• Limited applicability: Quantum computing is highly specialized and is suited for

certain types of problems, making it less applicable for many applications.

• Fragile: Quantum computing is fragile and sensitive to external disturbances, which

can cause errors in computations.

Brief History of Quantum Computing

• 1981 – Physicist Richard Feynman proposed the idea of quantum computers, not-
ing that classical computers could not efficiently simulate quantum systems.

• 1985 – David Deutsch of Oxford University formulated the first general-purpose

quantum computing model based on quantum Turing machines.

• 1994 – Peter Shor developed Shor’s Algorithm, which demonstrated that quan-
tum computers could factor large numbers exponentially faster than classical com-
puters, threatening classical cryptographic systems.

• 1995 – Schumacher proposed “Quantum bit” or “qubit” as a physical resource.

• 1996 – Lov Grover introduced Grover’s Algorithm, which showed that quantum
computers could search an unsorted database in square-root time, faster than any
classical algorithm.

• 1998 – the first quantum computers on two qubits, based on NMR (Oxford; IBM,
MIT, Stanford).

• 2001 – IBM and Stanford created a 7-qubit quantum computer using liquid-state
NMR technology, demonstrating Shor’s algorithm on a small scale.

• 2011 – D-Wave Systems announced the first commercially available quantum com-
puter (D-Wave One), using a technique called quantum annealing.

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• 2019 – Google AI Quantum claimed to achieve quantum supremacy by per-
forming a specific task on a 53-qubit quantum processor (Sycamore) that would take
a classical supercomputer thousands of years.

• 2020s – Major tech companies like IBM, Google, Microsoft, and startups expanded
efforts to build scalable, fault-tolerant quantum computers.

• Present (2025) – Quantum computing remains in the NISQ (Noisy Intermediate-

Scale Quantum) era, with active research in quantum error correction, improved
qubit coherence, and real-world quantum applications.

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Prerequisites for Understanding Quantum Computing

1. Linear Algebra: Vectors and matrices, Inner product, outer product, Eigenvalues
and eigenvectors, Tensor (Kronecker) products, Unitary and Hermitian matrices
Why it’s important: Quantum states are represented as vectors and quantum gates
as matrices.

2. Basic Quantum Mechanics: Superposition and interference, Entanglement, Quan-

tum measurement and wavefunction collapse, Heisenberg uncertainty principle, Spin
and two-level systems
Why it’s important: Quantum computing relies on the rules of quantum physics,
not classical mechanics.

3. Complex Numbers: Euler’s formula: eix = cos(x) + i sin(x), Complex conjugates

and magnitudes, Use in wavefunctions and amplitudes
Why it’s important: Quantum states and operations are generally expressed using
complex numbers.

4. Probability Theory:Basic probability rules, Conditional probability, Expectation

values
Why it’s important: Measurement outcomes in quantum computing are proba-
bilistic.

5. Classical Computing Basics: Binary logic and classical gates (AND, OR, NOT),
Classical algorithms and complexity, Programming logic and control flow
Why it’s important: Helps to understand the difference and advantages of quantum
computing.

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2 Basic Linear Algebra

Linear Algebra is a branch of mathematics that deals with vectors, matrices, and systems of
linear equations. It is like a language that helps describe physical and geometric problems in
a simple, logical way. We use linear algebra in physics, engineering, computer science, and
especially in quantum mechanics to represent states, transformations, and measurements.

Important Concepts:
• Scalars: Just regular numbers (like 3, -5, or 2.7).

• Vectors: Arrows in space having both direction and magnitude. Example: ⃗v = (3, 4)

• Matrices: A table of numbers used to transform vectors.

• Operations: You can add vectors, multiply them by numbers, or apply matrices to
them.

2.1 Vector Space: Definition and Examples

A vector space is a mathematical structure consisting of a set of vectors and a field of
scalars, along with operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication that satisfy spe-
cific axioms. Essentially, it’s a space where you can add vectors and multiply them by
scalars (numbers) in a way that behaves consistently according to established rules.
A vector space must allow:

• Addition: ⃗a + ⃗b is still a vector.

• Scalar multiplication: c⃗a is still a vector.

• Zero vector: A special vector like (0, 0) that does nothing when added.

• Opposite vectors: For any vector ⃗a, there exists −⃗a so that ⃗a + (−⃗a) = 0

The set of all 2D and 3D vectors like (x, y) and (x, y, z) where x, y and xare real
numbers is a vector space.

Inner Product (Dot Product)

In vector spaces, an inner product is a way to “multiply" two vectors to produce a scalar
(a single number). It generalizes the familiar dot product from Euclidean space to more
abstract vector spaces. Inner products allow us to define concepts like length (norm) of a
vector, distance between vectors, and orthogonality (vectors being perpendicular).
For 2D Vectors:
⃗a · ⃗b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 .

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 For 3D Vectors:
⃗a · ⃗b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 ,

if the result is 0, the vectors are perpendicular.

For functions (in quantum mechanics):

Z
⟨ψ|ϕ⟩ = ψ ∗ (x)ϕ(x) dx.

This generalizes the dot product to wavefunctions.

2.2 Basis Vector: Basic Properties

Basis vectors are a set of linearly independent vectors that can be combined to form any
other vector within a given vector space. They are essentially the building blocks of the
vector space. In simpler terms, they are a minimal set of vectors that can “reach" every
other vector in that space through linear combinations (scaling and adding).

Key Properties of Basis Vectors

■ Linear Independence: No vector in the basis can be expressed as a linear combi-

nation of the other vectors in the basis.

■ Spanning: The basis vectors, through linear combinations, can generate any vector
in the vector space.

Examples:

• Standard Basis for R2 (2D plane):

The most common basis for the 2D plane (also known as R2 ) is the set of vectors
î = (1, 0) and ĵ = (0, 1). Any vector in the plane, like (2, 3), can be written as a
linear combination of î and ĵ : (5, 2) = 5 ∗ (1, 0) + 2 ∗ (0, 1) = 5i + 2j.

• Standard Basis for R3 (3D space):

The standard basis for 3D space is î = (1, 0), ĵ = (0, 1) and k̂ = (0, 0, 1). Similarly,
any vector in 3D space, like (3, −2, 1), can be expressed as a linear combination:
(3, −2, 1) = 3 ∗ (1, 0, 0) + (−2) ∗ (0, 1, 0) + 1 ∗ (0, 0, 1) = 3î − 2ĵ + k̂.

One can say that a basis vector is like a “direction" in space. Just as any 3D
vector can be described using the unit vectors î, ĵ, k̂, any quantum state can be
described using quantum basis vectors.

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2.3 Hilbert Space: Definition and Properties
David Hilbert (1862–1943) was a brilliant German mathematician who laid the foundation
for many areas in modern mathematics. The concept of Hilbert space is named after him
because of his work on infinite-dimensional spaces used in solving differential and integral
equations.
A Hilbert space is a vector space equipped with an inner product that also satisfies
the property of completeness. It can be thought of as a generalization of Euclidean space
with the added feature of completeness. It has operations of vector addition and scalar
multiplication that satisfy certain axioms (associativity, commutativity, etc.). The vectors
in the space can be real or complex numbers, or even functions, depending on the specific
Hilbert space. It has two most important properties:

1. It has an inner product, so we can measure angles and lengths.

2. It is complete, meaning there are no missing points. All "converging sequences" lead
to a vector that is still in the space.

Figure 1. Hilbert Space and Inner Product.

Examples:
• R2 , R3 : finite-dimensional Hilbert spaces.

• L2 (R): the space of square-integrable functions. Used in quantum mechanics.

Key Properties of Hilbert Space

■ Vector Addition and Scalar Multiplication – like regular vector spaces.

■ Inner Product – defines lengths and angles:

⟨ψ|ϕ⟩ = a complex number

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 ■ Norm: Length of a vector: p
∥ψ∥ = ⟨ψ|ψ⟩

■ Orthonormal Basis: A set of vectors that are:

X
⟨ei |ej ⟩ = δij , |ψ⟩ = ci |ei ⟩
i

■ Completeness: Every sequence that gets closer and closer (Cauchy sequence) ends
up at a point inside the space.

Why Do We Need Hilbert Space in Physics?

• In quantum mechanics, every physical system is described by a vector in Hilbert space.

• Observables (like energy or position) are operators acting on this space.

• Probabilities of measurements come from inner products between states.

Think of Hilbert space as the “universe” where all quantum states live.

3 Quantum Mechanics in Dirac’s Bra-Ket Notation

Dirac notation, also known as bra-ket notation, is a standard notation in quantum

mechanics for describing quantum states. It was introduced by Paul Dirac in his 1939
publication A New Notation for Quantum Mechanics. The notation was introduced to
represent quantum mechanical expressions in an easier and concise manner. The name
comes from the English word “bracket".

Key Components
■ Ket (|ψ⟩): Any general state in quantum mechanics is represent as a column vector.

Example: !
a
|ψ⟩ =
b
where a, b are complex numbers.

■ Bra (⟨ψ|): The dual vector, or complex conjugate transpose of the ket is represented
in terms of row vector.

Example:  
⟨ψ| = a∗ b∗
where a∗ , b∗ are complex conjugates.
In quantum mechanics, vectors representing quantum states live in a Hilbert space.
To extract physical meaning from these states, we use two important mathematical
operations: the inner product and the outer product.

– 11 –
■ Inner Product (⟨ϕ⟩ ψ): The inner product (also called the braket) between two
state vectors |ψ⟩ and |ϕ⟩ is written as:
!
  a
⟨ϕ⟩ ψ = c d∗ ∗ = c∗ a + d∗ b
b
This is a complex number that tells us how much the state |ϕ⟩ overlaps with the state
|ψ⟩.

Physical Interpretation and Properties

The square modulus |⟨ψ|ϕ⟩|2 gives the probability of finding the system in state |ψ⟩
if it was originally in state |ϕ⟩.

– ⟨ψ|ϕ⟩ = ⟨ϕ|ψ⟩
– ⟨ψ|ψ⟩ = 1 for a normalized state
– ⟨ψ|ϕ⟩ = 0 if the states are orthogonal

Example:
Let " # " #
1 1 1
|ψ⟩ = , |ϕ⟩ = √
0 2 1
Then, " #
h 1 1
i 1
⟨ψ|ϕ⟩ = 1 0 · √ =√
2 1 2
So the probability of measuring |ψ⟩ from |ϕ⟩ is:
1
|⟨ψ|ϕ⟩|2 =
2
■ Outer Product: The outer product of |ψ⟩ and ⟨ϕ| is written as:
! !
a  ∗ ∗ ac∗ ad∗
|ψ⟩ ⟨ϕ| = c d =
b bc∗ bd∗
It produces an operator (a matrix) rather than a number.
Physical Interpretation: The outer product creates an operator that can be used
in quantum measurements and in constructing density matrices in mixed states.
Example: Let " #
1 1 h i
|ψ⟩ = , ⟨ϕ| = √ 1 1
0 2
Then, " # " #
1 1 h i 1 11
|ψ⟩⟨ϕ| = ·√ 11 =√
0 2 2 00
This is a 2 × 2 matrix that can act on other quantum states.

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 Advantages of Dirac’s Notation:

– Compact and intuitive for quantum mechanics.

– Easily generalizes to infinite-dimensional spaces (e.g., position/momentum states).

Feature Dirac Notation (Bra-Ket) Wavefunction Notation

State Representation |ψ⟩ (Ket) ψ(x) (Wavefunction)
Dual Vector ⟨ψ| (Bra) ψ ∗ (x) (Complex conjugate)
R ∗
Inner Product ⟨ϕ|ψ⟩ ϕ (x)ψ(x) dx
|ψ(x)|2 dx = 1
R
Normalization Condition ⟨ψ|ψ⟩ = 1
Operator Action Â|ψ⟩ Âψ(x)
R ∗
Measurement Outcome ⟨ψ|Â|ψ⟩ ψ (x)Âψ(x) dx

Table 3. Comparison between Dirac Notation and Wavefunction Notation

3.1 Normalization and Orthogonality in Quantum Mechanics

In quantum mechanics, quantum states are represented by vectors in a Hilbert space. Two
important mathematical conditions on quantum state vectors are normalization and or-
thogonality. These are essential for physical interpretation and calculations.

Normalization Condition
A quantum state |ψ⟩ is said to be normalized if its inner product with itself is equal to 1:

⟨ψ|ψ⟩ = 1

Physical Interpretation: This means that the total probability of finding the particle
somewhere in space is 1, which aligns with the probabilistic interpretation of quantum
mechanics.
Example: Let the state vector be:
1 1
|ψ⟩ = √ |0⟩ + √ |1⟩
2 2
To check normalization:
  
1 1 1 1
⟨ψ|ψ⟩ = √ ⟨0| + √ ⟨1| √ |0⟩ + √ |1⟩
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
= ⟨0|0⟩ + ⟨1|1⟩ + ⟨0|1⟩ + ⟨1|0⟩
2 2 2 2
1 1
= (1) + (1) + 0 + 0 = 1
2 2
So, the state is normalized.

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Orthogonality Condition
Two states |ϕ⟩ and |ψ⟩ are said to be orthogonal if their inner product is zero:
⟨ϕ|ψ⟩ = 0
Physical Interpretation: If two states are orthogonal, it means they are completely
distinguishable. If a system is in state |ϕ⟩, the probability of finding it in state |ψ⟩ is zero.
Example: Let " # " #
1 0
|ψi ⟩ = , |ψi ⟩ =
0 1
Then, " #
h i 0
⟨ψi |ψj ⟩ = 1 0 =0
1
So, |ψi ⟩ and |ψj ⟩ are orthogonal.

Orthonormality: A Combined Meaning

A set of vectors (states) {|ψi ⟩} in a Hilbert space is said to be orthonormal if they satisfy
the following condition:

⟨ψi |ψj ⟩ = δij

where:
• ⟨ψi |ψj ⟩ is the inner product of two state vectors |ψi ⟩ and |ψj ⟩.

• δij is the Kronecker delta, defined as:

(
1 if i = j (Normalization)
δij =
0 if i ̸= j (Orthogonality)

Example
Consider the standard basis vectors in a two-dimensional Hilbert space:
" # " #
1 0
|ψi ⟩ = , |ψj ⟩ =
0 1
We compute:
⟨ψi ⟩ = 1, ⟨ψj ⟩ = 1 (Normalization)
⟨ψi |ψj ⟩ = 0, ⟨ψj |ψi ⟩ = 0 (Orthogonality)
Thus, {|ψi ⟩ , |ψj ⟩} form an orthonormal basis.

Property Condition Physical Meaning

Normalization ⟨ψi ⟩ = 1 Unit probability (state is properly scaled)
Orthogonality ⟨ψi |ψj ⟩ = 0 for i ̸= j States are distinct (mutually exclusive)
Orthonormality ⟨ψi |ψj ⟩ = δij Both orthogonal and normalized

– 14 –
3.2 Superposition Quantum States
In quantum mechanics, the superposition principle states that if a quantum system
can be in state |ψ1 ⟩ and also in state |ψ2 ⟩, then it can also exist in a linear combination
(superposition) of those states:

|ψ⟩ = c1 |ψ1 ⟩ + c2 |ψ2 ⟩

Here, c1 and c2 are complex numbers called probability amplitudes, and they satisfy the
normalization condition:

|c1 |2 + |c2 |2 = 1

Physical Interpretation

Superposition does not mean the system is either in |ψ1 ⟩ or |ψ2 ⟩; rather, it exists in both
states simultaneously until a measurement is made.

■ Upon measurement, the system collapses to one of the basis states with a probability
given by the square of the corresponding amplitude.

■ Before measurement, the system exhibits behaviors (such as interference) that cannot
be explained by classical probability.

Example 1: Double-Slit Experiment

When a single electron is sent through a double slit:

Figure 2. Double Slit Experiment.[Image Courtesy: Wikipedia]

• It behaves like it passes through both slits simultaneously.

– 15 –
 • This creates an interference pattern, characteristic of wave behavior.

• Upon detection, the electron is found at a single point — the superposed wavefunction
collapses.

This experiment vividly demonstrates the physical reality of quantum superposition. Quan-
tum particles don’t follow a single path. Instead, their behavior is governed by superposed
wavefunctions until measured.

Example 2: Spin-½ Particle

Consider an electron with spin states along the z-axis:

|↑⟩ = spin-up, |↓⟩ = spin-down

A quantum state can be:

1 1
|ψ⟩ = √ |↑⟩ + √ |↓⟩
2 2
This means:

• The electron is in a superposition of spin-up and spin-down.

• Upon measurement along the z-axis, we get:

– Spin-up with probability | √12 |2 = 1

2

– Spin-down with the same probability

Example 3: Qubit in Quantum Computing

A classical bit can be 0 or 1. A qubit, however, can exist in a superposition:

|ψ⟩ = α |0⟩ + β |1⟩ , where |α|2 + |β|2 = 1

This means the qubit simultaneously holds both states. Upon measurement:

• It collapses to |0⟩ with probability |α|2

• Or to |1⟩ with probability |β|2

The concept of superposition plays a crucial role in Quantum computing. This

principle enables quantum computers to explore many computational paths at
once.

– 16 –
 Aspect Classical Superposition Quantum Superposition
State before measurement Definite (e.g., spin-up or down) Combination of multiple states
State after measurement Same as before Collapses to one basis state
Probability Deterministic Probabilistic outcome from amplitudes
Interpretation Object is in one state Object exists in all allowed states

3.3 Quantum Mechanical Operators and their Properties

In quantum mechanics, operators are mathematical entities that represent physical ob-
servables—such as position, momentum, energy, and spin. Unlike classical physics, where
these quantities are described by numbers, quantum mechanics uses operators that act on
quantum states. These operators are crucial for representing physical quantities and their
evolution in a quantum system. Essentially, when an operator acts on a wavefunction, it
transforms it into a new wavefunction. This transformation can reveal information about
the system or describe its evolution over time.

Key Properties of Operators

■ Linearity:
Â(c1 ψ1 + c2 ψ2 ) = c1 Âψ1 + c2 Âψ2
Linear operators ensure superposition is preserved under their action.

■ Eigenvalue Equation:
 |ψ⟩ = a |ψ⟩
Here, a is an eigenvalue (measurable result), and |ψ⟩ is an eigenstate of the operator
Â.

■ Expectation Value:
⟨Â⟩ = ⟨ψ| Â |ψ⟩
This represents the average value of many measurements of observable A on a system
in state |ψ⟩.

Types of Operators

• Position Operator
x̂ψ(x) = xψ(x)
Acts by multiplying the wavefunction with the variable x.

• Momentum Operator
d
p̂ψ(x) = −iℏ ψ(x)
dx
Acts as a differential operator in position space.

– 17 –
 • Hamiltonian Operator (Energy) For a single particle in one dimension:

p̂2 ℏ2 d2
Ĥ = + V (x̂) = − + V (x)
2m 2m dx2
Appears in the time-independent Schrödinger equation:

Ĥψ(x) = Eψ(x)

Physical Meaning

■ Operators define how physical measurements are performed on quantum states.

■ When a system is in an eigenstate of an operator, measurement yields the correspond-

ing eigenvalue with certainty.

■ The expectation value gives the statistical average of outcomes over many identically
prepared systems.

Quantum mechanical operators form the foundation of quantum theory. They replace
classical observables with abstract linear transformations that act on states in a Hilbert
space. Through their eigenvalues, eigenstates, and expectation values, operators allow us
to connect the formalism of quantum theory to real physical measurements and predictions.

Hermitian Operator

In quantum mechanics, Hermitian operators are operators that are equal to their own
adjoint (or Hermitian conjugate). The adjoint operation essentially involves taking the
complex conjugate and transpose of the operator’s matrix representation.
Let  be a linear operator acting on a Hilbert space. It is said to be Hermitian (or
self-adjoint) if:
 = †

That means, for any two state vectors |ψ⟩ and |ϕ⟩,

⟨ψ|Âϕ⟩ = ⟨Âψ|ϕ⟩

Key Properties

■ Real Eigenvalues: If  is Hermitian and  |ψ⟩ = λ |ψ⟩, then λ ∈ R.

■ Orthogonal Eigenvectors: Eigenvectors corresponding to distinct eigenvalues are

orthogonal:
λ1 ̸= λ2 ⇒ ⟨ψ1 |ψ2 ⟩ = 0

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 ■ Complete Set of Eigenfunctions: Hermitian operators have a complete set of
orthonormal eigenfunctions. Any state can be expanded in terms of these eigenfunc-
tions.

■ Expectation Values are Real:

For any state |ψ⟩,
⟨Â⟩ = ⟨ψ| Â |ψ⟩ ∈ R

■ Algebraic Properties:

– If  and B̂ are Hermitian, then  + B̂ is Hermitian.

– ÂB̂ is Hermitian only if [Â, B̂] = 0.

Physical Interpretation

In quantum mechanics, each observable physical quantity is represented by a Hermitian

operator. The eigenvalues of the operator correspond to the possible outcomes of measure-
ments.

Examples of Hermitian Operators

• Position: x̂
d
• Momentum: p̂ = −iℏ
dx
• Hamiltonian (Energy): Ĥ
d
• Angular Momentum: L̂z = −iℏ
dϕ

All of these are Hermitian operators with real eigenvalues, ensuring that measurable
quantities are real.

Measurement and Hermitian Operators

According to the postulates of quantum mechanics, a measurement of an observable A

corresponds to applying the Hermitian operator Â.The result of a measurement is one of
the real eigenvalues of Â. After the measurement, the quantum state collapses into the
corresponding eigenstate.

Example: Momentum Operator

d
Let us verify that the momentum operator p̂ = −iℏ is Hermitian.
dx
Z  
∗ d
⟨ψ|p̂ϕ⟩ = ψ (x) −iℏ ϕ(x) dx
dx

– 19 –
 Using integration by parts and assuming boundary terms vanish:
Z  
d ∗
= iℏ ψ (x) ϕ(x)dx = ⟨p̂ψ|ϕ⟩
dx

Hence, p̂ is Hermitian.

Unitary or Time Evolution Operator

Unitary operators play a fundamental role in quantum mechanics. They are used to describe
the time evolution of quantum systems, ensuring that probabilities are conserved. An
unitary operator is a linear operator that preserves the inner product of quantum states.
This means that if you apply a unitary operator to a quantum state, the “length" and
“angle" between that state and any other state will remain unchanged. The Schrödinger
equation, which governs how quantum systems evolve, uses unitary operators to represent
time evolution. Additionally, unitary transformations are used to change the basis of a
quantum system while preserving the physical properties
A unitary operator Û is a linear operator on a Hilbert space that satisfies:

Û † Û = Û Û † = Iˆ

where Û † is the Hermitian adjoint (conjugate transpose) of Û , and Iˆ is the identity operator.
This condition ensures that Û preserves inner products and norms of quantum states,
and hence the total probability.

Key Properties

■ Norm Preservation:
Û |ψ⟩ = ∥|ψ⟩∥

■ Inner Product Preservation:

⟨ϕ⟩ ψ = ⟨Û ϕ⟩ Û ψ

■ Reversibility:
Û −1 = Û †

■ Eigenvalues of a unitary operator satisfy:

|λ| = 1

– 20 –
Applications of Unitary Operators

A. Time Evolution in Quantum Mechanics

The time evolution of a closed quantum system is governed by a unitary operator:

Û (t) = e−iĤt/ℏ

where Ĥ is the Hamiltonian (a Hermitian operator). The state at time t is:

|ψ(t)⟩ = Û (t) |ψ(0)⟩

B. Rotations and Symmetries

Rotations in quantum mechanics are implemented through unitary operators, such as:
ˆ
Û = e−iθJz /ℏ

where Jˆz is the angular momentum operator around the z-axis.

C. Change of Basis
Switching from one orthonormal basis to another uses a unitary matrix:
X
|fi ⟩ = Uij |ej ⟩
j

Here are few Examples to verify the properties unitary Operator

• Check wether a given operator

" #
√1 √1
A= 2 2 .
− √12 √12

is unitary operator?

Method: Compute the adjoint A† . Since A is real, A† = AT :

" #
√1 − √12
† 2
A =
√1 √1
2 2

Now multiply:
" #" # " #
√1 − √12 √1 √1 10
A† A = 2 2 2 = =I
√1 √1 − √12 √12 01
2 2

Thus, A is unitary.

– 21 –
• Application of Unitary Operator on a State
" # " #
01 1
Let σx = (the Pauli-X gate). Apply σx to the state |0⟩ = .
10 0

Method: " #" # " #

01 1 0
X |0⟩ = = = |1⟩
10 0 1

Thus, the Pauli-X gate flips |0⟩ → |1⟩.

• Show Time Evolution Operator is Unitary

Let Û (t) = e−iĤt/ℏ , where Ĥ is Hermitian. Show that Û (t) is unitary.

Method: Since Ĥ is Hermitian:

 †
Û † (t) = e−iĤt/ℏ = eiĤt/ℏ

Then:
Û † (t)Û (t) = eiĤt/ℏ e−iĤt/ℏ = Iˆ

Thus, Û (t) is unitary.

• Show that Rotation Operator Ûz (θ) = e−iθσ̂z /2 , where

" #
1 0
σ̂z = .
0 −1

is unitary.

Method: Since σ̂z is diagonal matrix:

" #
e−iθ/2 0
Ûz (θ) =
0 eiθ/2

Its adjoint: " #

eiθ/2 0
Ûz† (θ) =
0 e−iθ/2

Now: " #
10
Ûz† (θ)Ûz (θ) = =I
01

Thus, Ûz (θ) is unitary.

– 22 –
3.4 Commutation and Anticommutation Relation
Commutator: Suppose someone measure an observable, such as position, momentum or
energy. How does that measurement affect subsequent measurements of another observable?
To answer this question, one need to introduce the commutator of two Hermitian
operators and explore its physical interpretation. Further, the proof of a generalisation of
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, which sets a fundamental limit on the precision with
which observables can be determined simultaneously. In quantum mechanics, observables
are represented by operators acting on a Hilbert space. The commutator of two operators
tells us whether the order of applying them matters.
Let  and B̂ be two linear operators (such as position x̂, momentum p̂, or the Hamil-
tonian Ĥ). The commutator is defined as:

[Â, B̂] = ÂB̂ − B̂ Â

If [Â, B̂] = 0, then  and B̂ commute. Otherwise, they do not.

Basic Properties of Commutators

■ Antisymmetry:
[Â, B̂] = −[B̂, Â]

■ Jacobi Identity:

[Â, [B̂, Ĉ]] + [B̂, [Ĉ, Â]] + [Ĉ, [Â, B̂]] = 0

■ Distributivity:
[Â, B̂ + Ĉ] = [Â, B̂] + [Â, Ĉ]

■ Leibniz Rule:
[Â, B̂ Ĉ] = [Â, B̂]Ĉ + B̂[Â, Ĉ]

Physical Interpretation (Compatible and Incompatible)

Two observables represented by Hermitian operators  and B̂ are said to be compatible

if:
[Â, B̂] = 0
The commutator expresses whether two observables can be measured precisely at the same
time. If they do not commute, they are incompatible. The Commutators are deeply related
to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. If two operators do not commute, then their
corresponding physical quantities cannot be simultaneously measured with precision.
Let us examine the compatibility of common quantum observables:

• Position and Momentum:

[x̂, p̂] = iℏ
They do not commute ⇒ not compatible. This implies: ∆x ∆p ≥ ℏ
2

– 23 –
Figure 3. (a) Demonstration of particle-wave duality through the build-up of an interference
pattern in the double-slit experiment. (b) Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle illustrating momentum
and position distributions with the relation ∆P · ∆X ≥ ℏ.

• Momentum and Energy:

[p̂, Ĥ] = 0 only if V̂ (x) = constant

They are compatible only under certain conditions.

• Position and Energy:

[x̂, Ĥ] ̸= 0
They are never compatible.

The Generalised Uncertainty Principle

If two observables do not commute, their measurement outcomes cannot be simultane-
ously precise. This is expressed by the generalised uncertainty principle. For any square-
normalisable wavefunction,
1
∆A · ∆B ≥ ⟨[Â, B̂]⟩
2
Sketch of Proof: Assuming ⟨Â⟩ = ⟨B̂⟩ = 0, we define uncertainties:
q q
∆A = ⟨Â ⟩, ∆B = ⟨B̂ 2 ⟩
2

– 24 –
Then use the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality:

|⟨ÂB̂⟩|2 ≤ ⟨Â2 ⟩ · ⟨B̂ 2 ⟩

Let Ĉ = Â + iλB̂ for λ ∈ R, and consider ⟨Ĉ † Ĉ⟩ ≥ 0. The cross terms yield the
commutator and anti-commutator. This leads to:
1 
(∆A)2 (∆B)2 ≥ ⟨[Â, B̂]⟩2 + ⟨{Â, B̂}⟩2
4
Taking the imaginary part gives the standard uncertainty principle.

Take Home Message: Only in the classical limit can we simultaneously determine exact
values of non-compatible observables like position and momentum.

Anticommutator: The anticommutator of two operators is defined as:

{Â, B̂} = ÂB̂ + B̂ Â

If {Â, B̂} = 0, the operators are said to anticommute.

Basic Properties of Anticommutators

■ Symmetry:
{Â, B̂} = {B̂, Â}

■ Distributivity:
{Â, B̂ + Ĉ} = {Â, B̂} + {Â, Ĉ}

■ Product Rule:
{Â, B̂ Ĉ} = {Â, B̂}Ĉ − B̂[Â, Ĉ]

Anticommutator: Physical Interpretation

Anticommutators arise in systems with fermions, obeying the Pauli exclusion principle.

{âi , â†j } = δij

This ensures antisymmetric wavefunctions for fermionic particles.

Key Differences

Feature Commutator Anticommutator

Definition [Â, B̂] = AB − BA {Â, B̂} = AB + BA
Used For Bosons, general QM observables Fermions, spin- 12 particles
Zero Value Means Operators commute Operators anticommute

– 25 –
4 Pauli Spin Matrices

In quantum mechanics, spin is an intrinsic form of angular momentum possessed by par-

ticles. For a spin- 12 particle (e.g., electron, proton), the spin state is described by a two-
dimensional complex Hilbert space. The Pauli spin matrices are a set of three 2 × 2
Hermitian matrices that represent spin operators in this space.
! ! !
01 0 −i 1 0
σx = , σy = , σz = .
10 i 0 0 −1

The spin operators are given by:

ℏ
Si = σi (i = x, y, z).
2
4.1 Key Algebraic Properties
■ Hermitian and Unitary
σi† = σi , σi† σi = I.

Thus, they represent observables and preserve norm.

■ Square to the Identity

σi2 = I.

■ Product Identity
σi σj = δij I + i ϵijk σk .

■ Commutation and Anticommutation

[σx , σy ] = 2i σz , [σy , σz ] = 2i σx , [σz , σx ] = 2i σy ,

{σx , σy } = 0, {σx , σy } =, {σx , σy } = 0.

■ Trace and Determinant

Tr(σi ) = 0, det(σi ) = −1.

■ Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

Each σi has eigenvalues +1 and −1. The eigenvectors correspond to spin-up and
spin-down along the respective axis.

σz |↑z ⟩ = + |↑z ⟩ , σz |↓z ⟩ = − |↓z ⟩ ,

where ! !
1 0
|↑z ⟩ = , |↓z ⟩ = .
0 1

– 26 –
 Similarly, ! !
1 1 1 1
|↑x ⟩ = √ , |↓x ⟩ = √ ,
2 1 2 −1
! !
1 1 1 1
|↑y ⟩ = √ , |↓y ⟩ = √ .
2 i 2 −i

■ Spin Magnitude The total spin operator:

ℏ2 2 3
S 2 = Sx2 + Sy2 + Sz2 = (σx + σy2 + σz2 ) = ℏ2 I.
4 4
Thus, s(s + 1)ℏ2 = 34 ℏ2 =⇒ s = 12 .

4.2 Commutator and Anticommutator of Pauli Matrices— Proof

• Direct matrix products for distinct pairs

Compute the products explicitly for the three cyclic pairs.
! ! ! !
01 0 −i i 0 1 0
σx σy = = =i = iσz .
10 i 0 0 −i 0 −1
! ! ! !
0 −i 1 0 0 i 01
σy σz = = =i = iσx .
i 0 0 −1 i 0 10
! ! ! !
1 0 01 0 1 0 −i
σz σx = = =i = iσy .
0 −1 10 −1 0 i 0

For the reverse (anti-cyclic) order, multiply in the opposite order or note that swap-
ping indices changes the sign:

σy σx = −iσz , σz σy = −iσx , σx σz = −iσy .

• Anticommutator
The anticommutator is defined as {A, B} = AB + BA.

Using the explicit products above. Example:

{σx , σy } = σx σy + σy σx = iσz + (−iσz ) = 0.

The same holds for the other distinct pairs as

{σy , σz } = σy σz + σz σy = iσx + (−iσx ) = 0.

– 27 –
 {σz , σx } = σz σx + σx σz = iσy + (−iσy ) = 0.
Combining both cases we get the compact result

{σi , σj } = 2δij I .

• Commutator
The commutator is [A, B] = AB − BA.
Using the explicit cyclic products:

[σx , σy ] = σx σy − σy σx = iσz − (−iσz ) = 2iσz .

Similarly,
[σy , σz ] = 2iσx , [σz , σx ] = 2iσy .

– 28 –
5 Quantum Bit (Qubit)

Representing the next generation in computing power, quantum computing uses special-
ized technology—including computer hardware and algorithms that take advantage of the
principles of quantum mechanics—to solve complex problems that classical computers or
supercomputers can’t solve (or can’t solve quickly enough). The classical computers are
also subject to material restrictions, such as overheating, putting hard limits on their abil-
ity to process information. There are some complex problems, such as the modeling of
individual atoms in a molecule, that we do not know how to solve with classical computers
at any scale. The laws of quantum mechanics dictate the order of the natural world. When
studying quantum computers, it is important to understand that quantum mechanics is not
like traditional physics.

5.1 Definition and Properties

Just as bits are the fundamental object of information in classical computing, qubits (quan-
tum bits) are the fundamental object of information in quantum computing. The term
“qubit” is attributed to American theoretical physicist Benjamin Schumacher.

While a bit, or binary digit, can have a value of either 0 or 1, a qubit can have a value
that is either 0, 1, or a quantum superposition of 0 and 1. At its core, a qubit (quan-
tum bit) encapsulates the essence of superposition, existing in a state that is both 0 and
1 simultaneously, until measured. This inherent duality enables quantum computers to
perform parallel computations, exponentially increasing their processing power compared
to classical counterparts.

A general qubit state can be written as:

|ψ⟩ = α|0⟩ + β|1⟩,

where " # " #

1 0
|0⟩ = , |1⟩ = ,
0 1

are the basis vectors in a two-dimensional complex vector space. Here, α and β are complex
probability amplitudes. The normalization condition is given by:

|α|2 + |β|2 = 1,

which ensures that the total probability is 1.

Theoretically, any two-level quantum system can be used to make a qubit. A quantum
system is described as two-level when certain system properties can be measured in binary
positions, such as up or down. Multilevel quantum systems can be used to create qubits, as
well, as long as two aspects of that system can be effectively isolated to produce a binary
measurement. Here are a few examples of physical qubit systems

– 29 –
 • Electron Spin Qubits: Basis states |0⟩ = | ↑⟩, |1⟩ = | ↓⟩. The electron’s intrinsic
spin has two measurable states along a chosen axis (usually z-axis). Superpositions
occur when the spin is oriented between these states.

• Photon Polarization Qubits: Basis states |0⟩ = |H⟩, |1⟩ = |V ⟩. Photons can be
polarized horizontally (H) or vertically (V). Any linear or circular polarization is a
superposition of these states.

Figure 4. Two Level Quantum System

Qubits may be pictured in 3D using the Bloch sphere representation. The Bloch sphere
gives a way of describing a single-qubit quantum state (which is a two-dimensional complex
vector) as a three-dimensional real-valued vector. This is important because it allows us
to visualise single-qubit states and thereby develop reasoning that can be invaluable in
understanding multi-qubit states.

Figure 5. Bit vs Qubit.

On the quantum level, qubit probability is measured as a wave function. The probability
amplitude of a qubit can be used to encode more than one bit of data and carry out
extremely complex calculations when combined with other qubits.

– 30 –
For a system of n qubits, the total number of possible computational basis states is 2n .
Each qubit individually can exist in the state |0⟩ or |1⟩, or in a superposition of the two.
When multiple qubits are combined, their basis states are formed by taking all possible
tensor products of the single-qubit basis states. This means that for n qubits, we have 2n
orthonormal basis states, each corresponding to a distinct binary string of length n, such
as |00 · · · 0⟩ or |11 · · · 1⟩. A general n-qubit quantum state can therefore be expressed as
n −1
2X
|ψ⟩ = ci |i⟩,
i=0

where |i⟩ represents one of the 2n basis states and ci are complex probability amplitudes
satisfying the normalization condition
n −1
2X
|ci |2 = 1.
i=0

Although a measurement yields only one of these basis states, before measurement the
system can exist in a superposition of all 2n possibilities simultaneously. This exponen-
tial growth of the state space with n is a key factor behind the potential computational
advantage of quantum systems — for example, with just 20 qubits, the Hilbert space has
220 = 1, 048, 576 distinct basis states.

5.2 Differences between Bits and Qubits

Feature Classical Bit Quantum Bit (Qubit)

Possible states 0 or 1 only |0⟩, |1⟩, or any superposition
α|0⟩ + β|1⟩
Mathematical represen- Single binary value Vector in a 2D complex
tation Hilbert space
Superposition Not possible Possible — can be in both |0⟩
and |1⟩ at once
Measurement Returns stored value directly Returns |0⟩ with probability
|α|2 and |1⟩ with probability
|β|2
Physical realization Voltage level, transistor state Electron spin, photon polar-
ization, superconducting cir-
cuits, etc.
Information capacity One definite value Infinite possible states be-
tween |0⟩ and |1⟩, but only one
bit of information upon mea-
surement

– 31 –
5.3 Challenges with Qubit

While powerful, qubits are also very temperamental. To function, qubits must be cooled to
a temperature only a fraction of a degree higher than absolute zero, which is colder than
outer space.
Quantum particles are said to have coherence when they are sufficiently controlled to
function as qubits. When a qubit loses this ability, it is described as decoherent. The
high-powered refrigeration required to create a state of coherence for functional qubits is a
major challenge for quantum computing.

Figure 6. Qubit: Properties

6 Measurement of Single Qubit: Born Rule

A single qubit can exist in a superposition of both the |0⟩ and |1⟩ states simultaneously,
meaning it’s not definitively either 0 or 1 until measured. This superposition is described
by the complex coefficients α and β. The Born rule, in the context of a single qubit
measurement, dictates the probability of obtaining a specific outcome (either 0 or 1) when
measuring a qubit in a superposition state.

Statement: The Born rule states that if a quantum system is in a state |ψ⟩ and we
measure it in an orthonormal basis {|i⟩}, the probability of obtaining outcome |i⟩ is given
by:

P (i) = |⟨i|ψ⟩|2

– 32 –
Application to a Single Qubit
A general single-qubit state can be written as:

|ψ⟩ = α|0⟩ + β|1⟩, |α|2 + |β|2 = 1

where α and β are complex probability amplitudes.

The measurement probabilities in the computational basis {|0⟩, |1⟩} are:

P (0) = |⟨0|ψ⟩|2 = |α|2

P (1) = |⟨1|ψ⟩|2 = |β|2

Post-Measurement State
According to the projection postulate:
• If the result is 0, the state collapses to |0⟩

• If the result is 1, the state collapses to |1⟩

After measurement, the original superposition is irreversibly destroyed.

Example
Consider: √
3 1
|ψ⟩ = |0⟩ + |1⟩
2 2
The probabilities are:
√ 2
3 3
P (0) = = (75%)
2 4
2
1 1
P (1) = = (25%)
2 4

6.1 Measurement in Computational Basis (Z-basis)

The computational basis is the standard basis used in quantum computing:

{|0⟩ , |1⟩}

In matrix form: " # " #

1 0
|0⟩ = , |1⟩ =
0 1
If
|ψ⟩ = α |0⟩ + β |1⟩ ,
then measurement in the computational basis yields:

P (0) = |α|2 , P (1) = |β|2 .

This basis corresponds to the Z-axis of the Bloch sphere and is the native measurement
basis of most quantum hardware.

– 33 –
6.2 Measurement in X-basis
The X-basis is defined by the eigenstates of the Pauli-X operator:
|0⟩ + |1⟩ |0⟩ − |1⟩
|+⟩ = √ , |−⟩ = √ .
2 2
6.3 Measurement in Y-basis
The Y-basis is defined by the eigenstates of the Pauli-Y operator:
|0⟩ + i |1⟩ |0⟩ − i |1⟩
|+i⟩ = √ , |−i⟩ = √ .
2 2
It corresponds to measuring along the Y -axis of the Bloch sphere.

Basis States Bloch Sphere Axis Gates Before Measurement

Z (Computational) |0⟩ , |1⟩ Z-axis None
X |+⟩ , |−⟩ X-axis H
Y |+i⟩ , |−i⟩ Y-axis †
S ,H

Problem 1 – Computational (Z) Basis

A qubit is in the state: √
3 1
|ψ⟩ = |0⟩ + |1⟩
2 2
Find the probability of obtaining 0 and 1 when measured in the computational basis.

Solution:
√ 2
3 3
P (0) = =
2 4
2
1 1
P (1) = =
2 4
P (0) = 0.75, P (1) = 0.25

Problem 2 – Z basis with phase

A qubit is in the state:
1 eiπ/3
|ψ⟩ = √ |0⟩ + √ |1⟩
2 2
Find P (0) and P (1) when measured in the Z basis.

Solution: The phase factor does not affect probabilities:

1 1
P (0) = , P (1) =
2 2

– 34 –
Problem 3 – X Basis
A qubit is in the state:
|ψ⟩ = |0⟩
Find the probability of obtaining |+⟩ and |−⟩ when measured in the X basis.

Solution: We use:
|0⟩ + |1⟩ |0⟩ − |1⟩
|+⟩ = √ , |−⟩ = √
2 2
Overlap with |0⟩:
1 1
⟨+|0⟩ = √ , ⟨−|0⟩ = √
2 2
So:
1 1
P (+) = , P (−) =
2 2

Problem 4 – X basis with unequal amplitudes

A qubit is in the state: r
3 1
|ψ⟩ = |0⟩ + |1⟩
4 2
Find P (+) and P (−) when measured in the X basis.

Solution:
|0⟩ + |1⟩ |0⟩ − |1⟩
|+⟩ = √ , |−⟩ = √
2 2
√ 2
√ 3
+ 1
3/2 + 1/2 2 2
⟨+|ψ⟩ = √ , P (+) =
2 2
√ 2
√ 3
− 1
3/2 − 1/2 2 2
⟨−|ψ⟩ = √ , P (−) =
2 2

Problem 5 – Y Basis
A qubit is in the state:
|0⟩ + i|1⟩
|ψ⟩ = √ = | + i⟩
2
Find the probability of obtaining | + i⟩ and | − i⟩ when measured in the Y basis.

Solution: Since |ψ⟩ = | + i⟩, it is an eigenstate of the Y-basis measurement:

P (+i) = 1, P (−i) = 0

– 35 –
Problem 6 – Y basis with general state
A qubit is in the state: √ √
2 i 2
|ψ⟩ = |0⟩ + |1⟩
2 2
Find probabilities when measured in the Y basis.

Solution: The Y-basis states are:

|0⟩ + i|1⟩ |0⟩ − i|1⟩
| + i⟩ = √ , | − i⟩ = √
2 2
Since:
|ψ⟩ = | + i⟩
We have:
P (+i) = 1, P (−i) = 0

Problem 7 – General State in X Basis

A qubit is in the state:
1 i
|ψ⟩ = √ |0⟩ + √ |1⟩
2 2
Find the probability of obtaining |+⟩ and |−⟩ in the X basis.

Solution: First, compute overlaps:

⟨0| + ⟨1| |0⟩ + i|1⟩ 1+i

⟨+|ψ⟩ = √ · √ =
2 2 2

Magnitude squared:
|1 + i|2 1+1 1
P (+) = = =
4 4 2
Similarly:
1
P (−) = 1 − P (+) =
2
P (+) = 0.5, P (−) = 0.5

Problem 8 – Rotated basis

A qubit is in the state:
π π
|ψ⟩ = cos |0⟩ + sin |1⟩
6 6
If the measurement basis is defined as:
π π π π
|b0 ⟩ = cos |0⟩ + sin |1⟩, |b1 ⟩ = sin |0⟩ − cos |1⟩
4 4 4 4

– 36 –
find P (b0 ) and P (b1 ).

Solution:
π π π π
⟨b0 |ψ⟩ = cos cos + sin sin
4 6 4 6
√ √ √ ! 2
2 3 2 1
P (b0 ) = · + ·
2 2 2 2

P (b1 ) = 1 − P (b0 )

7 Representation of Single Qubit on Bloch Sphere

The Bloch Sphere visualization, named after physicist Felix Bloch, is a geometrical repre-
sentation of a qubit’s state space. It is a unit sphere, which is a sphere with a radius of 1.
The vertical z-axis is labelled with |0⟩ at the top and |1⟩ at the bottom. The ends of two
perpendicular horizontal axes, the x and the y, are labelled |+⟩ and |−⟩, and |+i⟩ and |−i⟩,
respectively. The surface of the sphere represents the possible pure states of a qubit, while
the interior of the sphere represents its possible mixed states.
Mathematically, a qubit’s state can be described with two complex numbers. A complex
number has a real part and an imaginary part. From these two complex numbers, three
real numbers are calculated that determine a point on or in the Bloch sphere. A vector
originating at the center of the sphere and terminating at that point represents the state
of the qubit.
A Bloch sphere uses its three axes to represent a qubit’s state. The state vector
originates in the center of the sphere and terminates at a point with z, x, and y coordinates.

• The z-axis represents the probability of the qubit being measured as a 0 or a 1.

• The x-axis represents the real part of the state vector.

• The y-axis represents the imaginary part of the state vector.

7.1 Definition of Bloch Sphere

An arbitrary single-qubit state can be written as
 
θ θ
|ψ⟩ = eiγ cos |0⟩ + eiϕ sin |1⟩ ,
2 2

where θ, ϕ, γ are real numbers. The range 0 ≤ θ ≤ π and 0 ≤ ϕ < 2π parameterizes the
surface of a unit sphere.
Since the global phase eiγ has no observable effect, the state can be simplified to

θ θ
|ψ⟩ = cos |0⟩ + eiϕ sin |1⟩ .
2 2
This is the Bloch sphere representation.

– 37 –
 Figure 7. Bloch Sphere Representation for Single Qubit.

7.2 A Single Qubit on Bloch Sphere: Derivation

A normalized complex number z = x + iy with |z| = 1 satisfies

x2 + y 2 = 1,

which is the equation of a unit circle.

For this derivation, we will be Using the polar coordinates:

x = cos θ, y = sin θ, (7.1)

z=e . iθ
(7.2)

This leaves one degree of freedom for points on the circle. It has to be noted that a general
qubit state is written as
|ψ⟩ = α |0⟩ + β |1⟩ ,

where α, β ∈ C and normalization requires

|α|2 + |β|2 = 1. (7.3)

Expressing α and β in polar form:

α = rα eiϕα , β = rβ eiϕβ , (7.4)

– 38 –
with rα2 + rβ2 = 1.

Now, one can see that multiplication of e−iϕα removes the phase of α:

|ψ⟩ = rα |0⟩ + rβ eiϕ |1⟩ , ϕ = ϕβ − ϕα .

This reduces the number of real parameters to three.

Let us take

x = rβ cos ϕ,
y = rβ sin ϕ,
z = rα ,

with the constraint x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1. This describes a point on the unit sphere in R3 .

Taking
θ θ
rα = cos , rβ = sin ,
2 2
we recover the Bloch sphere representation for single qubit as:

θ θ
|ψ⟩ = cos |0⟩ + eiϕ sin |1⟩ .
2 2

Figure 8. Single Qubit on a Bloch Sphere.

– 39 –
7.3 Properties of the Bloch Sphere
• Orthogonality of Opposite Points: Let |ψ⟩ be as above and |χ⟩ the opposite
point:
π−θ π−θ
|χ⟩ = cos |0⟩ + ei(ϕ+π) sin |1⟩ .
2 2
One finds
⟨χ|ψ⟩ = 0,
meaning opposite points correspond to orthogonal states.

• Rotations on the Bloch Sphere: The Pauli matrices generate rotations:

Rx (θ) = e−iθX/2 ,
Ry (θ) = e−iθY /2 ,
Rz (θ) = e−iθZ/2 .

For any unit vector n̂ = (nx , ny , nz ):

θ θ
Rn̂ (θ) = e−iθ(n̂·σ)/2 = cos I − i sin (n̂ · σ).
2 2

Take Home Message

• The Bloch sphere provides a clear geometric interpretation of qubit states and single-
qubit gates.

• Opposite points represent orthogonal states.

• Rotations in 3D space correspond to unitary operations in the 2D complex Hilbert

space.

8 Single Qubit Quantum Gate

Traditional computers use electrical signals that represent binary 1s and 0s, or bits. Logic
gates are the fundamental operations that allow these bits to change between 0 and 1, and a
range of examples exists such as ‘AND’, ‘OR’ and ‘NOT’. For example, a NOT gate changes
a bit from a 0 to a 1 (or vice versa). AND and OR gates are two-bit gates that take two
bits as inputs and output a single bit, depending on the inputs.
A surprising fact is that all possible processes, from simple addition on a calculator to
browsing Facebook, can be constructed from a small set of these gates called a ‘universal
gate set’. In other words, you should be able to run any possible algorithm using a universal
computer — an observation first made in 1936 by Alan Turing.
Quantum computers operate using qubits, not bits. Unlike traditional bits which can
only be 0 or 1, a qubit can exist in a ‘superposition’ of 0 and 1. This ability to exist in
multiple states at once gives quantum computers tremendous power. But a qubit is useless
unless you can use it to carry out a quantum calculation. And these quantum calculations
are achieved by performing a series of fundamental operations, known as quantum gates.

– 40 –
 Figure 9. NOT Gate
Figure 10. AND Gate

Figure 11. OR Gate

Quantum gates are the building blocks of quantum circuits, like classical logic gates
are for conventional digital circuits. Unlike many classical logic gates, quantum logic gates
are reversible. It is possible to perform classical computing using only reversible gates.
Quantum gates are unitary operators, and are described as unitary matrices relative to
some orthonormal basis. There are lots of types of quantum gates. There are single qubit
gates, which can flip a qubit from 0 to 1 as well as allowing superposition states to be
created.

8.1 Types of Single Qubit Gates

8.2 Identity Gate

The Identity gate, denoted as I, leaves the qubit unchanged. Its matrix form is:
" #
10
I=
01

■ Action on a Qubit: For a general qubit state

|ψ⟩ = α|0⟩ + β|1⟩,

applying I gives
" #" # " #
10 α α
I|ψ⟩ = = = |ψ⟩
01 β β

Thus, the state remains unchanged.

■ Bloch Sphere Representation: On the Bloch sphere, the Identity gate leaves any
point exactly where it is — no rotation or phase change occurs.

– 41 –
8.3 Pauli-X Gate
The Pauli-X gate, often referred to as the “X gate”, “quantum NOT gate”, and ”bit-flip gate”,
is one of the fundamental quantum logic gates used in quantum computing. Similar to the
classical NOT gate, or logical negation, the gate flips the state of a single qubit, changing
the quantum state |0⟩ to |1⟩ and |1⟩ to |0⟩. Due to its simplicity and crucial function in
quantum computations, the Pauli-X gate is integral to virtually all quantum circuits. It
flips the computational basis states:

X |0⟩ = |1⟩ , X |1⟩ = |0⟩ .

As a quantum gate, X is a 2 × 2 unitary matrix acting on a single qubit. The matrix form
is " #
01
X = , X † X = XX = I2 .
10

It is both unitary and Hermitian (X † = X).

" # " #
1 0
■ Action on Basis States: Let the computational basis be |0⟩ = , |1⟩ = .
0 1
Then
" #" # " # " #" # " #
01 1 0 01 0 1
X |0⟩ = = = |1⟩ , X |1⟩ = = = |0⟩ .
10 0 1 10 1 0

■ Action on a General Qubit: for a general state |ψ⟩ = α |0⟩+β |1⟩ with |α|2 +|β|2 =
1,
X |ψ⟩ = α X |0⟩ + β X |1⟩ = α |1⟩ + β |0⟩ .
Thus, the X gate swaps the amplitudes α and β.

■ Bloch Sphere Interpretation: Any pure qubit can be written as

θ θ
|ψ⟩ = cos |0⟩ + eiϕ sin |1⟩ .
2 2
On the Bloch sphere, the Pauli-X gate is a rotation by π about the x-axis:

X ≡ Rx (π) = e−i(π/2) X .

Geometrically, it flips the north and south poles (|0⟩ ↔ |1⟩) and maps ϕ 7→ −ϕ at
θ = π/2.

Here are a few simple examples

• Example 1 (Basis flip) X |0⟩ = |1⟩, X |1⟩ = |0⟩.

√
• Example 2 (Superposition) For |+⟩ = (|0⟩ + |1⟩)/ 2,
X |0⟩ + X |1⟩ |1⟩ + |0⟩
X |+⟩ = √ = √ = |+⟩ .
2 2

– 42 –
 • Example 3 (Measurement probabilities) Start with |ψ⟩ = α |0⟩ + β |1⟩. After X, the
state is α |1⟩ + β |0⟩. Measuring in the computational basis yields

P (0) = |β|2 , P (1) = |α|2 ,

i.e. the outcome probabilities are swapped.

The Pauli-X gate is a fundamental single-qubit operation that (i) flips |0⟩ and |1⟩, (ii) swaps
amplitudes in a superposition, (iii) corresponds to a π-rotation about the Bloch x-axis, and
(iv) is unitary, Hermitian, and its own inverse. It is ubiquitous in quantum algorithms and
appears as the target operation in controlled-NOT gates.

8.4 Pauli-Y Gate

The Pauli-Y gate is one of the three Pauli operators {X, Y, Z} used to describe quantum
operations and spin observables. It is often called the bit-and-phase-flip gate because it:

• Flips |0⟩ ↔ |1⟩ like the X gate,

• Introduces a relative phase factor of ±i during the flip.

It corresponds to a rotation of π radians about the Y -axis on the Bloch sphere.

The Y gate in Matrix Representation is given by:
" #
0 −i
Y =
i 0

■ Action on Basis States: Let

" # " #
1 0
|0⟩ = , |1⟩ =
0 1

Then: " #" # " #

0 −i 1 0
Y |0⟩ = = = i |1⟩
i 0 0 i
" #" # " #
0 −i 0 −i
Y |1⟩ = = = −i |0⟩
i 0 1 0
Thus:
Y Y
|0⟩ −
→ i |1⟩ , |1⟩ −
→ −i |0⟩

■ Action on a General Qubit: For a general qubit

|ψ⟩ = α |0⟩ + β |1⟩

we have:
Y |ψ⟩ = α(i |1⟩) + β(−i |0⟩) = −iβ |0⟩ + iα |1⟩
The Y gate flips amplitudes like X, but introduces relative phase factors.

– 43 –
 ■ Bloch Sphere Interpretation: The Pauli-Y gate represents a rotation by π about
the Y -axis:
Y = Ry (π) = e−i(π/2)Y

– |0⟩ (north pole) moves to i |1⟩ (south pole).

– Phase shifts of ±π/2 are introduced.
– Points on the XZ-plane are mirrored through the X-axis.

8.5 Pauli-Z Gate

The Pauli-Z gate is one of the three Pauli operators {X, Y, Z} used to describe funda-
mental single-qubit operations. It is also called the phase-flip gate because it:
• Leaves |0⟩ unchanged,

• Changes the sign (phase by π) of |1⟩.

It corresponds to a rotation of π radians about the Z-axis on the Bloch sphere. The matrix
representation of Z gate is given by:
" #
1 0
Z=
0 −1
It satisfies:
• Unitary: Z † Z = I

• Hermitian: Z = Z †

• Traceless: Tr(Z) = 0

■ Action on Basis States: Let

" # " #
1 0
|0⟩ = , |1⟩ =
0 1
Then: " #" # " #
1 0 1 1
Z |0⟩ = = = |0⟩
0 −1 0 0
" #" # " #
1 0 0 0
Z |1⟩ = = = − |1⟩
0 −1 1 −1
Thus:
Z Z
|0⟩ −
→ |0⟩ , |1⟩ −
→ − |1⟩

■ Action on a General Qubit: For a general qubit

|ψ⟩ = α |0⟩ + β |1⟩
we have:
Z |ψ⟩ = α |0⟩ − β |1⟩
The Z gate flips the phase of the |1⟩ component, leaving the |0⟩ component unchanged.

– 44 –
 ■ Bloch Sphere Interpretation: The Pauli-Z gate represents a rotation by π about
the Z-axis:
Z = Rz (π) = e−i(π/2)Z

– |0⟩ and |1⟩ remain on the Z-axis but |1⟩ gains a −1 phase.
– States in the XY-plane are mirrored through the X-axis.
– It is a pure phase-flip with no change in computational basis probability ampli-
tudes.

8.6 Hadamard Gate

The Hadamard gate (H) is a single-qubit quantum gate that creates superposition states
from the computational basis states. It is often described as a rotation and reflection
operation that:
|0⟩+|1⟩
• Maps |0⟩ to √
2

|0⟩−|1⟩
• Maps |1⟩ to √
2

It is one of the most important gates in quantum computing, widely used in algorithms
such as Grover’s search and Shor’s algorithm.
Hadamard gate in the form of matrix given by:
" #
1 1 1
H=√
2 1 −1

It satisfies:

• Unitary: H † H = I

• Hermitian: H = H †

• Involution: H 2 = I

■ Action on Basis States: Let

" # " #
1 0
|0⟩ = , |1⟩ =
0 1

Then: " #" # " #

1 1 1 1 1 1 |0⟩ + |1⟩
H |0⟩ = √ =√ = √
2 1 −1 0 2 1 2
" #" # " #
1 1 1 0 1 1 |0⟩ − |1⟩
H |1⟩ = √ =√ = √
2 1 −1 1 2 −1 2

– 45 –
 ■ Action on a General Qubit: For a general qubit

|ψ⟩ = α |0⟩ + β |1⟩

we have:
α+β α−β
H |ψ⟩ = √ |0⟩ + √ |1⟩
2 2
Thus, the Hadamard gate mixes the amplitudes of |0⟩ and |1⟩, effectively performing
a π rotation around the axis halfway between X and Z on the Bloch sphere.

■ Bloch Sphere Interpretation: The Hadamard gate corresponds to a rotation by

π about the axis lying in the XZ-plane at a 45◦ angle between the X and Z axes.

– |0⟩ (north pole) is rotated to the |+⟩ state on the X-axis.

– |1⟩ (south pole) is rotated to the |−⟩ state on the −X-axis.
– It creates equal superposition states when acting on computational basis states.

8.7 Phase Gate (S Gate)

The Phase Gate, denoted as S, is a single-qubit quantum gate that applies a π2 phase
shift to the |1⟩ component of the qubit, leaving the |0⟩ component unchanged. It is also
known as the π/2 phase gate. The S gate is represented by the following unitary matrix:
" #
10
S=
0 i
√
where i = −1 is the imaginary [Link] S gate has the following key properties

• Unitary: S † S = I

• Not Hermitian: S ̸= S †

• Relation to Pauli-Z: S 2 = Z

• Rotation Form: S = Rz π2

■ Action on Basis States: Let us take single qubits

" # " #
1 0
|0⟩ = , |1⟩ =
0 1

Then: " #" # " #

10 1 1
S |0⟩ = = = |0⟩
0 i 0 0
" #" # " #
10 0 0
S |1⟩ = = = i |1⟩
0 i 1 i
Thus, the S gate multiplies the amplitude of |1⟩ by i (a π/2 phase shift).

– 46 –
■ Action on a General Qubit: For

|ψ⟩ = α |0⟩ + β |1⟩

we have
S |ψ⟩ = α |0⟩ + iβ |1⟩
Hence, the probability amplitudes remain unchanged in magnitude, but the |1⟩ term
acquires a relative phase of π2 .

■ Bloch Sphere Interpretation: On the Bloch sphere, the S gate corresponds to a

rotation by π2 (90 degrees) about the Z-axis.

– States on the equator (superpositions with equal magnitude) are rotated in the
XY -plane.
– Computational basis states |0⟩ and |1⟩ remain at the poles, unchanged in posi-
tion.

Figure 12. Symbols of Single Qubit Gates.

– 47 –
9 Interdisciplinary Applications of Quantum Computing

• Medicine and Drug Discovery

Quantum computers can simulate molecules and chemical reactions at the quantum
level, which classical computers cannot do efficiently. This makes it possible to de-
sign new drugs faster, discover treatments for complex diseases, and even personalize
medicine for individuals. As future engineers and scientists, you could be part of
breakthroughs that save millions of lives.

• Cybersecurity

The digital world relies on encryption to keep data safe, but powerful quantum com-
puters could break many of today’s codes. At the same time, quantum technology
also provides new, ultra-secure ways of communication through quantum cryptog-
raphy. This means you could contribute to making the internet safer and protecting
everything from personal chats to national defense systems.

• Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning

AI already powers tools like chatbots, image recognition, and smart assistants. With
quantum computing, AI could process data at much higher speeds, recognize patterns
more efficiently, and solve problems that are impossible today. For students excited
about AI and data science, combining it with quantum technology opens the door to
building the “super-smart” technologies of tomorrow.

• Finance and Economics

Banks and financial institutions face extremely complex problems like portfolio op-
timization, risk management, and fraud detection. Quantum algorithms can handle
these challenges much faster than classical methods. This means more secure trans-
actions, smarter investment decisions, and better economic planning. Students in-
terested in finance, business, or data science will find this a powerful area to apply
quantum skills.

• Climate Science & Materials Engineering

One of the greatest challenges of your generation is building a sustainable future.

Quantum computers can help design better batteries for electric vehicles, discover ef-
ficient materials for solar panels, and create systems for capturing carbon dioxide. By
connecting physics, chemistry, and environmental science, you can directly contribute
to solving global problems like climate change.

These five applications show that quantum computing is not just physics or computer science—
it is a bridge across disciplines that creates real-world impact.

– 48 –
“Nature isn’t classical, dammit; and if you want to make a sim-
ulation of nature, you’d better make it quantum mechanical.”

— Richard Feynman, 1981

– 49 –