Review Article

[Link]
pISSN 2093-3665 eISSN 2093-3673

Human cadaveric dissection: a historical account

from ancient Greece to the modern era
Sanjib Kumar Ghosh
Department of Anatomy, ESI-PGIMSR & ESIC Medical College, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Abstract: The review article attempts to focus on the practice of human cadaveric dissection during its inception in ancient
Greece in 3rd century BC, revival in medieval Italy at the beginning of 14th century and subsequent evolution in Europe and
the United States of America over the centuries. The article highlights on the gradual change in attitude of religious authorities
towards human dissection, the shift in the practice of human dissection being performed by barber surgeons to the anatomist
himself dissecting the human body and the enactment of prominent legislations which proved to be crucial milestones during
the course of the history of human cadaveric dissection. It particularly emphasizes on the different means of procuring human
bodies which changed over the centuries in accordance with the increasing demand due to the rise in popularity of human
dissection as a tool for teaching anatomy. Finally, it documents the rise of body donation programs as the source of human
cadavers for anatomical dissection from the second half of the 20th century. Presently innovative measures are being introduced
within the body donation programs by medical schools across the world to sensitize medical students such that they maintain
a respectful, compassionate and empathetic attitude towards the human cadaver while dissecting the same. Human dissection
is indispensable for a sound knowledge in anatomy which can ensure safe as well as efficient clinical practice and the human
dissection lab could possibly be the ideal place to cultivate humanistic qualities among future physicians in the 21st century.

Key words: Human dissection, De Liuzzi, Vesalius, Grave robbing, Anatomy Act, National socialist regime, Body donation,
Uniform Anatomical Gift Act

Received May 4, 2015; Revised July 24, 2015; Accepted August 19, 2015

Introduction to its disappearance in the Middle Ages and subsequent

revival in the early 14th century Italy. It traces the gradual
Human cadaveric dissection has been used as the core change in attitude of religious authorities towards human
teaching tool in anatomy for centuries [1]. This review article dissection from being the primary dissuader to playing
attempts to focus on the significant events in the history the role of mediator (when human dissection was strictly
of human cadaveric dissection. The article begins with the practiced within the boundaries of European universities)
inception of human dissection in ancient Greece during to accepting human dissection for teaching anatomy, which
the 3rd century BC, tries to underline the factors leading turned dissection sessions into public events. The article also
emphasizes on the shift from the practice of dissection being
performed by barber surgeons (prevalent from the time of
Mondino de Liuzzi) to the anatomist himself dissecting the
Corresponding author:
Sanjib Kumar Ghosh cadaver, a move triggered by Andreas Vesalius. Particularly
Department of Anatomy, ESI-PGIMSR & ESIC Medical College, Joka, the article focuses on the means of cadaver procurement
Kolkata 700104, West Bengal, India
Tel: +91-9007187207, Fax: +91-11-4157-1111, E-mail: drsanjib79@gmail.
which began with dissecting bodies of executed criminals
com (when human dissection was synonymous with capital
punishment), then anatomists had to depend on illegal means
Copyright © 2015. Anatomy & Cell Biology
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154 Anat Cell Biol 2015;48:153-169 Sanjib Kumar Ghosh

such as grave robbing, body snatching and even murder oblivion not only in Alexandria but from all of subsequent
for human bodies, which led to legalization of the use of ancient Greek science [7]. This could possibly be attributed
unclaimed bodies, most of whom were poor people stationed to the emergence of a new rival school of medical thought,
in workhouses, to curb unethical practices (when dissection probably founded by a renegade pupil of Herophilus, Filinos
was perceived as a penalty for poverty) and eventually relying of Cos. His followers were referred to as “empiricists” and
on the body donation programs as the primary source of they considered that human dissection had no scientific
human bodies for anatomical dissection in medical schools. utility in anatomy teaching and that desirable clinical results
Finally this review reflects on the relevance of human could be obtained by empirical collection of non-invasive,
dissection in the 21st century, when researchers are coming even random observations [6]. Moreover in the generations
up with findings affirming that human dissection contributes after Herophilus and Erasistratus, physicians in Alexandria
to the improvement of anatomic knowledge which could be turned increasingly to detailed clinical analyses of texts from
the key to safe medical practice [2, 3]. past and to the collection and criticism of precursor’s views
while abandoning human dissection [7]. The flickering light
Inception and Disappearance of Human of human dissection was completely snuffed out with the
Dissection burning of Alexandria in 389 AD [4]. Following widespread
introduction of Christianity in Europe during the Middle
The introduction of systemic human cadaveric dissection Ages, the development of rational thought and investigation
is a remarkable moment in the history of science. For was paralysed by the church authorities and physicians could
many centuries, physicians of ancient Greece gained consi­ only repeat the works of the eminent figures from past such
derable information about human body and health [4]. as Aristotle or Galen, without questioning their scientific
The development of Greek medicine culminated with the validity [9]. During this period, human dissection was
establishment of the school of Greek medicine in Alexandria considered to be blasphemous and so was prohibited [10]. For
during the 3rd century BC [5]. In Alexandria the practice hundreds of years, the European world valued the sanctity
of human cadaveric dissection was the dominant means of the church more than scientific quest and it was not until
of learning anatomy and it was here that Herophilus of early 14th century that human dissection was revived as a tool
Chalcedon and his younger contemporary Erasistratus of for teaching anatomy in Bologna, Italy after a hiatus of over
Ceos became the first ancient Greek physicians to perform 1,700 years [11].
systematic dissections of human cadavers in the first half
of 3rd century BC [6]. Before these two legendary Greek Revival of Human Dissection and Its Rise in
physicians, relatively superficial surgical incisions and exci­ Popularity
sions prompted by pathological conditions constituted the
limit of exploring human bodies. Available literature suggests In Medieval Europe, considerable advances in the field of
that religious moral and esthetic taboos as well as their psy­ science could only be achieved during the 12th century and
chological concomitants inhibited ancient physicians from early 13th century, with the setting up of universities in Paris
opening the human body for anatomical purposes [7]. The (1150), Bologna (1158), Oxford (1167), Montpellier (1181)
factors that could have encouraged Herophilus and Era­ and Padua (1222) [12]. From 12th century onwards, the
sistratus to overcome the deeply entrenched beliefs and church did not forbid human dissection in general; however,
cultural habits included royal patronage whereby bodies certain edicts were directed at specific practices [13]. One of
of executed criminals were handed over to them for their the significant proscriptions that Pope Alexander III enun­
scientific endeavour as the ambition of Greek rulers was to ciated at the Council of Tours in 1163 was the prohibition of
establish Alexandria as a glittering centre of literary and sci­ clerics to involve themselves in the studies of physical nature
entific learning. Moreover the environment in Alexandria and the canon (directive) was named as “Ecclesia abhorret a
which was mostly inhabited by cosmopolitan intelligentsia sanguine” meaning “The church abhors blood.” This was
committed to literary and scientific frontiermanship could misinterpreted as a ban which prevented clerics from prac­
have contributed to their success [8]. However, after the death tising surgery or studying anatomy [14]. The Holy Roman
of Herophilus and Erasistratus, human dissection went into emperor Frederick II (1194-1250) took significant measures

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History of human dissection Anat Cell Biol 2015;48:153-169 155

towards the progress of science which reflected his free think­ the church the primary dissuader of anatomical studies,
ing outlook. In 1231, he issued a decree which mandated that instead public condemnation became the primary obstacle.
a human body should be dissected at least once in every five However the mediating role of the church played a critical
years for anatomical studies and attendance was made com­ role in appeasing the people’s social and religious consciences.
pulsory for everyone who was to practice medicine or surgery Religious authorities gave permission as well as clearly
[15]. This initiative was a giant step towards revival of human delineated and articulated boundaries around the practice of
dissection in the domain of anatomical sciences and towards human dissection—this consequently eased the public’s
the later part of the thirteenth century, the realization that anxiety and the procedures were allowed to continue with
human anatomy could only be taught by the dissection of ever de­creasing protests [23]. From De Liuzzi’s time human
human body resulted in its legalisation in several European dissec­tions were conducted in the form of regular university
countries between 1283 and 1365 [16]. The new found en­ spon­sored anatomy teaching sessions comprising of four day
thusiasm in human dissection ceased for a short period from exhibitions held once or twice a year and were performed on
about 1299, when Pope Boniface VIII issued a Papal Bull bodies of executed criminals, both male and female, provided
entitled, “De sepolturis” which forbade manipulation of to the medical school of Bologna by the local public autho­
corpses and their reduction to bones. The Bull was aimed to rities [9]. These public dissections were strictly stan­dardized
stop the dismemberment of the cadavers and prohibit the as they required the presence of the Lector (lecturer), who
trade that had developed involving bones from soldiers killed read from an authoritative text (usually the Lector was De
in Holy wars. It was not meant to impede human dissection Liuzzi who referred to Galen’s text and later on other eminent
and although it stopped the practice of dissection in some of anatomists who referred to De Liuzzi’s text Anathomia Mon­
the European countries, did not have any significant impact dini), the Ostensor who pointed to the part of the body to be
on the anatomical activities in Italy [17]. By the end of 13th dissected and the Sector (surgeon/barber) who performed the
century, the University of Bologna emerged as the most dissection (Fig. 1). The whole exercise blindly followed the
popular institution in Europe for learning medicine, attracting written text without any attempt to look into the real anatomy
students from the whole of Italy and many other countries visible in the human cadaver which could be due to the fact
[18]. The status of Bologna was further bolstered when it was
granted a Bull by Pope Nicolas II in 1292, whereby all students
having graduated in medicine from the University were
permitted to teach all over the world [19]. All these events
ultimately culminated in the first officially sanctioned sys­
temic human dissection since Herophilus and Erasistratus,
being performed in full public display by Mondino de Liuzzi
(1275-1326) in 1315 in Bologna [11]. The dissection was
performed on an executed criminal, probably female and
marked its return in the educational setting to study and teach
anatomy [20]. The fact that an Italian university was the
platform for the revival of human dissection after a prolonged
hiatus in Europe, could be attributed to the efforts of emperor
Frederick II and Pope Nicolas II. Although there is a possi­
bility that human dissections may have been performed prior
to De Liuzzi, most authors suggests that all those cases actu­
ally involved autopsies and post-mortems and the first such
Fig. 1. A woodcut illustration from Fasciculus medicinae (1491)
recorded case in Italy of a human body being opened for in­ depicting human dissection in medieval Italy. The anatomist (Lector)
vestigating the cause of death dates back to 1286 [17, 21]. Du­ over viewing the dissection, which is being performed by a barber
ring the early 14th century, the religious restraints imposed surgeon (Sector) under directions from the Ostensor, who is pointing
to the part of the body to be dissected. Fasciculus medicinae was edited
on dissection and autopsy relaxed significantly though the by Johannes de Ketham, a German physician who practiced in medieval
practice of dissection remained limited [22]. No longer was Italy. Image in public domain.

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156 Anat Cell Biol 2015;48:153-169 Sanjib Kumar Ghosh

that the anatomist (the Lector) did not have a close view of Antonio Pollainolo (1431/1432-1498) dissected many human
the dissected body [24]. However during this period uno­ bodies in order to investigate the muscles and under­stand the
fficial dissections were also carried out in private houses, human body in a modern way. Later on Leonardo da Vinci
which involved informal anatomy teaching between a lecturer (1452-1519), Michelangelo Buanorotti (1475 -1564), and
and his small group of students [12]. Procurement of cadavers Baccio Bandinelli (1493-1560) were known to have under­
for such private dissections was really difficult and may have taken detailed anatomical dissections at various points in
led to some malpractice as in 1319 four students of Master their career and set new standards in their portrayals of the
Alberto, who was a lecturer at the University of Bologna, were human figure [29]. Some artists also produced ‘écorchés,’
prosecuted for robbing a grave and bringing the corpse to the studies of the peeled away or ripped apart forms of muscles,
house where Alberto lectured [17]. Over the course of the to explore their potential for purely artistic expression. The
14th century human cadaveric dissection became increasingly majority of the artists however limited their investigations to
common, spreading rapidly to other northern Italian cities. the surface of the body—the appearances of its musculature,
During the middle of 14th century, Universities of Perugia, tendons and bones as observed through the skin. Italian
Padua and Florence made it mandatory to attend at least one renaissance artists started practising human cadaveric dissec­
dissection for candidates to receive the doctorate degree in tion by necessity as they attempted to produce a refined, more
medicine [25]. Such measures were also adopted by medical lifelike, sculptural portrayal of the human figure in their
schools across Italy. This led to shortage of cadavers available works [30]. On the academic front the size of the audience in­
for public dissection by the onset of 15th century as execu­ creased dramatically in formal university dissections, which
tions were few in number in Italian cities. Consequently the now began to assume a truly public character. Initially these
students attending the dissection in medical schools were larger audiences were accommodated in temporary structures
required to pay for and also attend the subsequent funeral of of seats and risers set up in the interiors of churches and later
the corpse after dissection to encourage local families to offer on during the 16th century in anatomical theatres [17]. The
their dead for anatomical studies. Nevertheless the problem of first permanent anatomical theatre designed for public ana­
supply did not appear critical as dissection as a medium of tomical dissections was built by Fabricius ab Aquapen­dente
teaching/ learning anatomy did not become overwhelmingly (1533-1619) in 1594 in the University of Padua. This was
popular during the 15th century [26]. In those days dissec­ followed by the anatomical theatre in the University of
tions functioned like an extension of anatomical illustration Bologna built in 1595 and reconstructed in 1636. The trend
and its goal was not to add to the existing body of knowledge spread in other European countries also and anatomical
concerning human anatomy but to help students and phy­ theatres were built in the University of Leiden (the Nether­
sicians remember the text in which the knowledge was en­ lands) in 1596 and in University of Paris in 1604 (Fig. 2) [31].
closed [27]. However the situation changed dramatically Meanwhile the ever growing popularity of human cadaveric
towards the end of 15th century with a remarkable flowering dissection which had its roots in the later part of 15th century,
of interest in anatomical studies particularly human dissec­ attained enormous proportion during the 16th century.
tion. The reasons for this new found enthusiasm in human Consequently the demand for dissectable bodies quickly
dissection were the revival of antique art in renaissance Italy escalated beyond the meagre but regular trickle supplied by
with its interest in naturalism, rise of humanist faith in the local gallows and families swayed by the prospect of a free
classical scholarship leading to rediscovery of Galen’s ana­ funeral [32]. Initially the physicians arranged bodies by in­
tomical treatise and a consequent rise of interest among phy­ creasingly recommending post-mortems to the patient’s fa­
sicians and scholars in Galen’s work and increased avail­ability mily even when the family itself was satisfied as to the cause
of printed and illustrated works of anatomy which enthused of death [17]. However this was not an option for the artists
among general people an interest in medicine and the secrets who relied on local hospitals (mostly charitable hospitals) for
of the natural world [28]. Accordingly the increa­sing popu­ the corpses of poor foreigners and bodies of those persons
larity of anatomy was not confined to physicians or medical who were without their families to worry about their funerary
students but also involved contemporary artists and even the rites [33]. Gradually even these sources proved inadequate to
general population. Italian renaissance artists started to per­ the task and the anatomists began to rely heavily on unofficial
form their own dissections and the great Florentine painter or extralegal sources of supply. Consequently, malpractices

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History of human dissection Anat Cell Biol 2015;48:153-169 157

between anatomists and administrators of criminal justice as

they began to influence the time and mode of execution of
criminals to suite their requirement of dissection [17]. By the
middle of the 16th century, there were clear signs of persistent
public concern regarding the anatomical practices in Italy.
Initially their reservations were based on traditional issues
like funerary ritual and family honour but eventually emerged
as a fear of being buried alive and coming under the ana­
tomist’s knife [34]. However, such concerns in the public
domain co-existed with the well documented popular enthu­
siasm for the spectacle of human cadaveric dissection [32].

Emergence of Human Dissection as Primary

Tool for Teaching/Learning Anatomy
Fig. 2. An anonymous engraving of an anatomical dissection session
being conducted in full public view in the anatomical theatre in Uni­ Human cadaveric dissection was practiced in Italy from
versity of Leiden (the Netherlands) which was built in 1596. The illu­ 13th century (mostly autopsies though), however in France
stration is based on a drawing by J.C. vant Woudt in 1609. Image in
public domain. it was officially conducted from middle of 14th century
[38]. The Papal Bull issued by Pope Boniface VIII in 1299
was possibly responsible for this delay [17]. Henri de Mon­
such as grave-robbing which existed even in 14th century but deville (1260 - 1320), the French anatomist executed the
were rare in those times became increasingly common during first unauthorized human dissection in the University of
the 16th century. The extent of the problem can be gauged by Montpellier in 1315. Prior to this event Mondeville had tau­
the reports of students attempting to remove corpses awaiting ght anatomy at Montpellier from a series of full length ana­
burial or assaulting funeral processions [34]. Even the great tomical illustrations [39]. Guy de Chauliac (1300-1368),
anatomist Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) in his anatomical the French surgeon after receiving his Master’s degree in
treatise De humani corporis fabrica, candidly admitted to have Medicine and Surgery from the University of Paris in 1325,
resorted to such malpractice in order to ensure an ade­quate went to the University of Bologna to study anatomy. Here he
supply of cadavers for the purpose of dissection [35]. In one attended dissection sessions of his teacher Nicolla Bertuccio
instance his Paduan students stole a female corpse from her (? - 1347) and took the style of teaching from dissected
tomb and flayed the whole skin from the cadaver lest it be cadavers prevalent in Bologna on his return to France. His
recognised by her relatives during public dissection [36]. Such know­ledge regarding cadaveric dissection was critical to
unethical anatomical practices led to unsavoury stories being the advancement of anatomical practices in France [40]. In
gradually collected around the names of famous anatomists 1340, human cadaveric dissections were made official in the
with regards to serious criminal offences like vivisection [27]. University of Montpellier and in 1407 the first sanctioned
Vesalius was accused to have performed dissection on a Spa­ dissection took place in the University of Paris [41]. By the
nish aristocrat when the heart was still beating. Gabriele be­ginning of 15th century, cadaveric dissection became a
Falloppio (1523-1562) faced an allegation that he had vivi­ regular event for teaching and learning anatomy in French
sected Spanish twin brothers with syphilis [37]. Although uni­versities [6]. In 14th century France, the study of anatomy
there is no strong evidence to support these particular allega­ was mostly limited to the use of criminal bodies [42], however
tions, nonetheless these were not completely preposterous due to increased demand for cadavers by the turn of 15th
either and actually reflected the dangerous and unseemly cen­tury, anatomical dissections on bodies meant for post-
haste with which 16th century anatomists approached fresh mortem autopsy became common in French universities [41].
cadavers for dissection. Whether or not the hunger for It may be mentioned here that during the middle of 14th
cadavers among the 16th century anatomists actually put the century, the Papacy had sanctioned post-mortem exami­
living at risk, it certainly exposed the unprecedented links nations of human bodies [43]. Although France in 16th

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158 Anat Cell Biol 2015;48:153-169 Sanjib Kumar Ghosh

century was open minded about the use of human cadavers

for scientific inquiry, however during the early part of the
16th century, as human dissection was still not sanctioned
by the church (Pope Clement VII accepted the teaching of
anatomy by dissection in 1537) hence it was practised only
in the universities and the number of cadavers available were
very few [38, 43]. It was under these circumstances that An­
dreas Vesalius arrived at the University of Paris in 1533, after
completing his studies in the University of Louvain [44].
He stayed in Paris till 1536 and studied anatomy under Jean
Guiter d’Andernach (1487-1574) and Jacques Dubois (1478-
1555) before moving to Padua [45, 46]. His assertion was that
in order to learn anatomy, one has to dissect human cadavers
by himself. His efforts exposed the errors of Galen’s theories Fig. 3. Andreas Vesalius undertaking an anatomical lecture in Padua.
which were based on animal dissections and eventually led to A notable shift from the prevalent trend in medieval Italy as he is
the most significant change in anatomical studies in general: dissecting the human body himself. He is referring to Galen’s text
(prevalent textbook in anatomy in those days) which is open by the side
blind faith on ancient authoritative books were replaced by of the cadaver. Vesalius is surrounded by his students in Padua and the
learning anatomy from dissected human cadavers [47]. In that general public viewing the dissection from the gallery. Image in public
way Vesalius pioneered a paradigm shift from the concept domain.
prevalent till then that dissection being used as an extension
of illustrations in anatomy to the acceptance of cadaveric later on in Padua which have been mentioned before in this
dissection as the most significant tool from which students review. However his hunger for dissection during his stay
would learn anatomy. In those days, French anatomists like in Paris may have contributed to his exceptional dissection
Jacques Dubois were completely influenced by the Galenic skills which he displayed to the audience during only his
thoughts and Vesalius was very much disappointed at the second anatomical lecture in Padua, when he took the knife
fact that there was lack of any effort to rectify the mistakes away from the barber-surgeon and began to dissect the
of predecessors. The influence of Galen could be gauged by cadaver himself (Fig. 3) [50]. His emphasis on the need for
the fact that human cadavers were never seen in Dubois’s direct experience of dissection was instrumental in human
anatomical theatre and he taught anatomy from the carcases cadaveric dissection achieving the central role in medical
of dogs and other animals [45]. Vesalius was also not satisfied training and research in those days. During this period (early
with the traditional manner in which human dissections were Renaissance) human dissection emerged as a popular domain
carried out in those days, when the actual dissection was per­ for scholarly pursuits as physicians considered it an effective
formed by the barber surgeons and the lecturer/anatomist medium to communicate their discoveries of the natural
orated from a text as they thought it was below their dignity world in objective form [51]. Hence, human dissection proved
to perform dissections on human cadavers by themselves. to be critical in dissemination of scientific knowledge in the
Hence he endeavoured to dissect human bodies by himself field of medicine during this period of scientific revolution.
however opportunities were few and far between as he was Cadaveric dissection though was a messy business, requiring
still a student [44]. Nevertheless, his desire to gain knowledge great physical strength and ability to withstand the smell of
through dissection of cadavers was so strong that he would corpses as they decomposed. Due to natural decomposition,
raid the gallows of Paris for half decomposed bodies and a cadaver was suitable for dissection in the first 3-4 days
skeletons to dissect. Sometimes he even found the courage following death as after this the stench became too much for
to venture outside the walls of Paris, braving wild dogs and the dissector to bear. In warm or moist weather, the cadaver
the stench of decomposed bodies, in order to steal cadavers decomposed even faster, this is the reason that many medical
from the mound of Monfaucon, where the bodies of executed schools preferred to dissect in winter months [49]. From
criminals were hung until they disintegrated [48, 49]. Vesalius 1537, after Pope Clement VII accepted human dissection
continued with his unethical practice to procure cadavers for anatomical studies, popularity of dissection started to

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History of human dissection Anat Cell Biol 2015;48:153-169 159

was the first to popularize the study of practical anatomy

by human dissection in England [56]. During the 16th cen­
tury human dissections in England were performed on the
corpses of hanged criminals and hardly any of the bo­dies
required for dissection were voluntarily donated for this
purpose [57]. However by the onset of 17th century, de­
mand of human cadavers for conducting dissections rose
sharply as printed books in anatomy from Italy and France
(where significant advancement of anatomical knowledge
had been achieved by this time through human dissections)
became widely available [52]. It was from this period that
anatomical studies in England started to come up with ori­
ginal contributions as the great English Physician, William
Fig. 4. The anatomy lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, official city anatomist Harvey (1578-1657) who graduated from Padua under the
of the Amsterdam Guild of Surgeons, drawn by Rembrandt in 1632.
guidance of Fabricius and did his masters from Cambridge
Anatomical dissection sessions were social events in those days being
attended by students as well as the general public on payment of an pu­blished his anatomical treatise De moto cordis et sanguinis
entrance fee. All the spectators were properly dressed for a solemn social (on the motion of the heart and blood) in 1628 in which he
occasion. Image in public domain. documented his theory on circulation of blood which were
based on observations made in during the course of dissecting
spread beyond the boundaries of the universities among the several bodies including those of his own father and sister
general population leading to public dissection sessions being [58]. Meanwhile the eligible hangings performed at that time
attended by huge crowds and subsequent establishment of proved insufficient to meet the demand of human cadavers
anatomical theatres (Fig. 4) [17, 43]. and this led to royal charters which enabled prominent uni­
versities to procure bodies of hanged criminals even from
Crunch in Supply of Cadavers through Capital places far off from the actual boundaries of respective cities
Punishment and Passage of the Murder Act in [52]. Till the middle of the 18th century, the Royal College
1752 of Physicians and the Company of Barber Surgeons were
the only two groups permitted to carry out dissections and
Human cadaveric dissection was prohibited in England had an annual quota of ten cadavers between them [49]. In­
until 16th century which could be due to the overwhelming terestingly in 1745, rift appeared between the barber surgeons
influence of the Catholic Church on the monarchs as well and the licensed surgeons, with the later breaking away and
as the general population and until this period anatomical forming the Company of Surgeons (which was later granted
knowledge in England was largely based on manuscripts a Royal Charter in 1800 to become the Royal College of
from classical Greece and medieval Italy and dissection of Surgeons) which was empowered as the sole authority to
ani­mals [52, 53]. However during the early part of the 16th receive cadavers of executed criminals [59]. On receiving a
century, the Protestant Reformation started in England due cadaver, the authorities performed a ‘proper examination’
to a major disagreement between King Henry VIII and Pope consisting of little more than a cut over the sternum and then
Clement VII [54]. Under such circumstances, in 1565, a se­ the bodies were donated to different medical schools for
lected group of physicians and surgeons from the Royal ana­tomical studies [49]. During this period, due to pressure
college of Physicians and Company of Barber Surgeons from anatomists in the rapidly growing medical schools in
(founded in 1540) were given permission to dissect a very England, the Murder Act was passed in 1752 which legalized
limited number of human cadavers [55]. John Caius (1510- the dissection of the bodies of executed murderers to be
1573), an English physician who graduated from Cambridge dissected in various medical schools for anatomical research
and a student of Vesalius in Padua, was the President of and education [60]. The Murder Act served dual purpose;
the Royal College of Physicians from 1555-1560 and again it was aimed at preventing the horrid crime of murder as
between1562-1571. It is generally acknowledged that he it was associated with the apprehension of being dissected

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160 Anat Cell Biol 2015;48:153-169 Sanjib Kumar Ghosh

after hanging and it also ensured a legal supply of fresh as such [66]. Doctors in England and surgeons in particular
human cadavers for anatomical studies [61]. Moreover, to in their quest to enhance scientific expertise greatly
ensure adequate supply of human bodies, the government emphasized on anatomy and human dissection during
significantly increased the number of crimes punishable by medical training, resulting in a sharp increase in demand for
hanging [52]. However all these measures proved insufficient cadavers which was worsened by the fact that the methods of
due to considerable expansion in anatomical and medical preservation of human bodies were inadequate until late in
training activities in 18th century England and consequently the 19th century [61]. Such circumstances encouraged
a sizeable percentage of the required cadavers were procured unethical practices like grave robbing, body snatching and
illegally by exhuming them from graveyards during the night even murder for dissection which became alarmingly frequent
by men referred to as ‘resurrectionists’ and were sold to the in 19th century England [67]. With reference to grave
medical schools [1]. robbing, particularly at risk were the corpses of the poor
people due to their obvious inability to pay for secure coffins,
Prevalence of Illegal Practices and the Anatomy superior burial sites and well rewarded watchmen [66]. The
Act of 1832 general public were well aware about these ongoing misdeeds
and the perpetrators were disgracefully referred to as “body-
During the 17th and 18th centuries, when academic snatchers”; however, anatomists called them by the more
anatomical dissections were open to public in most cases, dignified term “resurrectionists” [68]. The growing unrest
legislators throughout Europe tried to capitalize on the among the people against the illegal trade involving human
general perception that undergoing dissection was a matter of cadavers could be assessed by the fact that often fights and at
great dishonour for an individual as the corpse was rendered times even riots broke out when the family members of the
unrecognizable and denied a conventional funeral [62]. Thus, dead tried to resist the delivery of corpses from funeral
more and more legislations were passed throughout the processions/graveyards to the anatomists [69]. Throughout
continent legalising the use of bodies of executed criminals the early part of 19th century, the acts of grave robbing and
for anatomical dissection, to the extent that anatomical body snatching continued to persist as lucrative trade
dissection became synonymous with capital punishment [63]. involving national transportation of cadavers and occasionally
Such legislations served the dual purpose of increasing the people were even murdered for the value of their corpse [67].
supply of human bodies for medical schools (thus reducing In 1828, two Irishmen living in Edinburgh, William Burke
unethical/illegal means of cadaver procurement to an extent) and William Hare murdered and sold the bodies of at least 16
and act as a deterrent for the criminals [64]. However, by the men and women to Robert Knox as dissection material for his
middle of the 18th century it became evident that the body anatomy classes. Burke and Hare crafted a method of murder,
supply solely from executions was not sufficient to meet the which became infamous as ‘Burking’ (smothering a victim
ever increasing needs of medical schools which were growing after intoxicating him/her with alcohol) and went completely
in numbers as anatomy flourished in Europe [65]. Accor­ undetected by the doctors to whom they sold their prey.
dingly many European countries passed legislations allowing Ironically Burke himself was awarded capital punishment and
the use of the unclaimed bodies of ‘paupers,’ inmates of his corpse was dissected [70]. This was not an isolated event
prisons as well as psychiatric and charitable hospitals for as further rings of murderers were later unearthed in London,
dissection in addition to the corpses of executed criminals each of whom sold the bodies of their victims to doctors for
[63]. As a result, by the end of 18th century, the availability of anatomical studies. John Bishop and Thomas Williams
unclaimed bodies reduced the deficiency of the human formed a notorious gang of grave robbers in London and
cadavers for anatomical dissection in Europe [65]. However, supplied bodies in prominent medical schools in London. In
the scenario was different in England as the use of unclaimed 1831, both were convicted for a murder using the same
bodies was not yet legalised by the beginning of the 19th method as Burke and Hare and came to be known as “London
century [61, 63]. By this time, anatomy as a discipline had Burkers.” They were hanged on 5 December 1831 and sub­
become a lynchpin of surgical training and an intimate sequently their bodies were handed over for anatomical
understanding of anatomy and skill in dissection were dissection [71]. In the same year, Elizabeth Ross was also
considered to be important components of medical education executed for murdering Catherine Walsh and selling her body

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History of human dissection Anat Cell Biol 2015;48:153-169 161

to surgeons [72]. In order to put an end to the ongoing mal­ for the poor and emphasized more on the ‘indoor relief ’ to
practice and acknowledging the evident panic among the the poor through workhouses. Moreover poor funding led to
general population, the British government passed the War­ worsening of the conditions within workhouses thus leading
burton Anatomy Act in 1832, which allowed for the unclaim­ to increase in the number of unclaimed bodies available in
ed bodies of the poor to be removed from workhouses and workhouses and those running the workhouses would sell
charitable hospitals and dissected at recognized medical corpses of their unclaimed inmates after death to recur the
schools by licensed anatomists. The term “unclaimed” refer­ expenses of poor relief in their premises [74]. The Anatomy
red to bodies that remained within the workhouse 48 hours Act and PLAA can be considered as an indicator of hardening
after death [73]. The anatomy Act of 1832 marked the onset attitudes of the society towards the poor as the much feared
of a paradigm shift in procurement of human cadavers for penalty of dissection for the worst of crimes such as murder
anatomical dissection, as in accordance with the human rights which was the norm prior to the Anatomy Act had now
and dignity, it excluded the use of corpses of executed cri­ become a penalty for poverty [61]. Overall majority of the
minals for cadaveric dissection and instead allowed for body population still viewed human dissection negatively and the
donations [61]. Hence the Anatomy Act of 1832 essentially social unrest was evident by the hostility of the general public
differed from legislations adopted by other European coun­ towards medical profession as such as demonstrated during
tries in the 18th century in terms of bringing curtains on the the Cholera outbreak in England in 1848-1849 [66]. Hence, it
practice of using bodies of executed criminals which had been may be opined that the Anatomy Act solved the problem of
prevalent for centuries. Moreover, it opened a new avenue for grave robbing but could do little to change the societal atti­
procurement of dead bodies for anatomical studies in the tude towards dissection.
form of voluntary body donation. The Anatomy Act was
pivotal in involving unclaimed bodies for anatomical dissec­ Dark Period in the History of Human Dissection
tion and was embraced in many parts of the world as coun­
tries belonging to the British Commonwealth soon followed Recent studies provide penetrating and discomforting
with similar legislations [63, 73]. The Act provided for cheap insights into the practices of anatomists in England and
legal cadavers to medical schools, thus reducing the price of associated Commonwealth countries post the introduction of
illegally obtained corpses, eventually making unethical Anatomy Act in 1832 [49, 61]. What emerges all too clearly
practices such as grave robbing neither profitable nor prac­ from these studies is that although the Anatomy Act man­
tically viable [66]. The Anatomy Act of 1832 was effective in dated that unclaimed bodies would play the central role
curtailing the practice of grave robbing; however, it led to in anatomical dissection, it was repeatedly manipulated or
considerable differences in the attitude to the practice of ignored after 1832 [75]. Although grave robbing was curtailed
dissection between the rich and the poor in the society. The however body snatching continued as bodies of the poor were
wealthy and elite were in favour of anatomical dissections as diverted from the grave to the dissection table involving a
they felt it was necessary for progress in scientific research. host of unfair/illegal means adopted by the funeral directors
Same was not the case with the economically deprived section and the owners of institutions housing the poor [76]. Such
of the society as it was their corpses which eventually got unethical means of procuring bodies for dissection continued
dissected either voluntarily when the body was sold by des­ through the 19th century and early part of the 20th century.
perately poor and grieving family members [74] or even Widespread use of unclaimed bodies during this period were
against their wishes when death occurred in the workhouse mostly driven by the belief that by undergoing dissection
or charitable hospital with the body being unclaimed [61]. these subjects are giving back something to the society which
The Act effectively made poverty the sole criterion for dissec­ looked after them during their lifetime [75]. In the early years
tion in England. The social divide with regards to perception of the 20th century, the poor houses/workhouses began to
towards anatomical dissection worsened further with the close down in a number of countries leading to decrease in
introduction of the Poor Law Amendment Act (PLAA) in the availability of unclaimed corpses [77]. Such a transition
1834, which aimed to reform the poverty relief system and led to widespread use of the unclaimed bodies of the mentally
curbed the cost of poor relief [66]. The PLAA abolished the incapacitated who died in psychiatric asylums [78]. Possibly
‘outdoor relief ’ (relief provided outside a workhouse) system this was more unethical than using the corpses of poor as

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162 Anat Cell Biol 2015;48:153-169 Sanjib Kumar Ghosh

authors have highlighted the fact that in being both poor and United States. In 1790, a federal law was passed which per­
mentally ill, these subjects whose corpses were now being mitted federal judges to add dissection to a death sentence
used by anatomists were doubly disadvantaged on account for murder. At times the threat of dissection was used to
of circumstances over which they had no control [75]. This discourage crimes such as duelling which was disruptive to
was followed by exploitation of the marginalised sections of the society [83]. However the demand for human cadavers
the society including the coloured people and impoverished was on the rise which was triggered by the beginning of the
immigrants [64, 68]. During this time slave owners used to first formal course in anatomy at University of Pennsylvania in
sell the bodies of deceased slaves to medical schools as these 1745 [84]. Such conditions encouraged the practice of robbing
slaves were considered to be property of the owners and they the graves of freshly buried person, which attained enormous
considered it right to dispose of this property without the proportions during the 18th and 19th centuries [83]. The
consent of the family [79]. A close look at these historical perpetrators ranged from professional thieves to tavern
episodes clearly points to the central place occupied by the owners to employees at the medical schools themselves. At
dependence of anatomy on unclaimed bodies during the 19th times, even medical students or doctors themselves indulged
and first half of 20th century for dissection related activities. in grave robbing [68]. Societal injustice was clearly evident as
The use of unclaimed bodies reached its moral nadir in the bodies dissected were mostly those of African-Americans,
Germany and its occupied territories during the National prisoners and poor [85]. In response to the public outcry,
Socialist regime between 1933-1945. The corpses of those New York passed legislation in 1789 to prevent the odious
executed, mostly political prisoners, were made available to practice of grave robbing [64]. However, the law did little to
Anatomical Institutes for scientific use [80, 81]. A legislation curtail the illegal practice as it offered no suggestion as to how
passed in 1942 denied relatives of executed Poles and Jews medical schools might legally obtain the requisite corpses [86].
the right to claim the bodies [75]. Subsequently large number Ultimately, Massachusetts became the first state to enact laws
of dead bodies was supplied from concentrations camps, in 1830 and 1833 that allowed unclaimed bodies of people
prisons and even psychiatric institutions for anatomical who died in public institutions, hospitals, asylums and prisons
dissections [63, 82]. Recent literature does suggest that to be used for anatomical dissection. The Massachusetts law
during this period, anatomists in Germany utilised the pro­ stipulated that the unclaimed bodies of soldiers would not
lific supply of human bodies, mostly victims of atrocities be dissected as they had already served the state during their
performed by the National Socialist regime, for both research lifetime [86]. Over the course of next few decades, many
and teaching [81]. It may not be an overstatement that the other states followed the example and introduced similar
imbalance between scientific aspirations of anatomists on legislations, which successfully curtailed the practicality of
one hand and ethical considerations on the other, which is grave robbing [83]. Nevertheless, these legislations reaffirmed
clearly evident throughout the history of human cadaveric the association between dissection and destitution as both
dissection, reached monstrous proportions during the Nati­ before and after these acts were introduced it was the poor
onal Socialist regime in Nazi Germany. Historical incidents sections of the society who were exploited the most [87]. The
like these should serve as a reminder for present day anato­ anatomy laws that were enacted during the middle of the
mists that disregard of moral values cannot be justified by 19th century lasted till the middle of the 20th century [83].
the quest for scientific glory. Rather being members of the During the early part of the 20th century, prejudice against
medical profession we should premiere the cause of ethical dissection remained high, and although few people defied
considerations in the scientific activities that we undertake. convention by bequeathing their bodies, body donation were
as such few and far between. Moreover, legislations like the
Human Dissection in the United States and Maine’s Anatomy Act of 1869, which rested the final de­
Enactment of Uniform Anatomical Gift Act in cision about disposition of the body of an individual with the
1968 relatives acted as a bottleneck towards anatomical schools
The history of human cadaveric dissection in the United acquiring the bodies of those who had wilfully donated their
States followed an almost identical course as the one in bodies prior to death [87]. The supply of human cadavers to
Europe. Until the 18th century the bodies of executed cri­ the medical schools was further worsened by United States
minals served the sole source of cadavers for anatomists in Welfare Legislation and better health care for the poor lead­

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History of human dissection Anat Cell Biol 2015;48:153-169 163

ing to a sharp decline in the availability of unclaimed bodies Tissue Act was introduced in 2004, which formulated a
between 1930 and 1960 [86]. During the early 1960s, a con­ hierarchy of qualifying relationships ranked with regard to
fusing conglomeration of anatomy acts, common laws and provision of consent, so that the primacy of wishes can be
state statutes made body donation a legally complicated determined [90]. Since the introduction of the Anatomy Act
matter. Finally the development of transplant surgery and in 1984, most of the medical schools in the UK rely heavily
con­sequent rise in demand for anatomical material led to the on donated human cadavers for anatomical activities [89].
National Conference of the Commissioners on Uniform State Body donation constitutes the chief source of human cadavers
Laws approve the Uniform Anatomical Gift Act (UAGA) in in the medical schools of most of the European countries
1968 [88]. UAGA was a turning point in terms of body dona­ and the European Federation for Experimental Morphology
tion as it established the human body as a property such that a (EFEM) has recommended certain measures in 2005, to
donor’s wish now superseded those of next of kin in court [83]. ensure good practice in the domain of body donation. It st­
Within the next four years majority of the states followed suit resses the need for informed consent, with donors being
and enacted laws that were similar to UAGA [75]. A second given clear information upon which to base their decision
act was signed in 1987, which served to clarify the donation and emphasize on the openness with donors and their rela­
process further. Together these two acts, often together re­ tives at every stage from the receipt of an initial enquiry
ferred to as the UAGA were instrumental in standardizing to the final disposal of the remains. Further, it encourages
and streamlining the process of body donation in the United medical schools/anatomy departments to hold services of
States [86]. thanksgiving or commemoration for those who have donated
their bodies. Finally, it suggests special lectures in ethics
The Rise of Body Donation Programs across related to the bequest of human remains should be offered
the Globe to all students studying anatomy to encourage development
of appropriate sensitivities in relation to the conduct and
During the later part of the 20th century, initiatives were respect that is expected while handling human remains for
undertaken in different parts of the world to promote body anatomical education and research [91]. Memorial services at
donation for the purpose of anatomical studies. UAGA’s su­ the end of anatomy courses began in UK in 1965 and in the
ccessful promotion of body donation led to stabilization United Sates in the 1970s to sensitize students towards their
of willed-body programs towards the end of 20th century cadavers [92]. In Nanjing, China, an annual public memorial
and eventually satisfied the demands of most of the medical ceremony for those who have donated their bodies to medical
schools across the United States [86]. The rise in body do­ education and research is held since 2002 and is attended
nation could be attributed to changes in social beliefs and by volunteer donors, deceased donors’ families, anatomy
practices as well as changing cultural landscapes in the Uni­ted teaching faculty and medical students [93]. Towards the end
States [61]. Moreover social awareness also played a crucial of the 20th century, transition of religious and social ethics in
role in enhancing body donation programs as medical pro­ the Korean Peninsula led to a significant rise in the number
fessionals frequently donated their bodies because they had of people donating their bodies to medical schools in South
learnt firsthand the value of cadavers. Further doctors in Korea. In order to boost the body donation programs, Korean
US have been actively involved in discussing body bequest medical schools have begun to hold funeral ceremonies to
with their patients thereby encouraging them to donate their honour body donors. These ceremonies are considered as a
bodies [86]. The UK government passed the Anatomy Act in mark of respect for the dead and useful to promote awareness
1984, which aimed to simplify the process of body donation about body donation programs [94]. Medical schools in
and accordingly the criterion for accepting a bequest of a Australia and New Zealand solely depend on body donation
body was that if a person either in writing or orally in the pre­ for anatomical teaching and research [95, 96]. Similarly,
sence of two or more witnesses expressed a request that his/ donation is the only means of obtaining cadavers for use
her body be used after death for anatomical studies. However in medical schools in Thailand, however traditional beliefs
there was a provision for the surviving spouse or any other result in an insufficient number of donated cadavers [97].
surviving relative of the deceased to object to the body being Human cadaveric dissection has a long history in Japan, and
used for anatomical dissection [89]. Subsequently the Human like their western counterparts, medical schools in Japan

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164 Anat Cell Biol 2015;48:153-169 Sanjib Kumar Ghosh

in the mid Edo era (late 17th to early 19th century) relied professionals.
on bodies of executed criminals for anatomical studies
followed by a shift towards unclaimed bodies after the Meiji The Relevance of Human Dissection in the 21st
Restoration in 1868 [98]. It was difficult to acquire bodies Century
through donation programs due to unique social culture
and understanding surrounding the family of the deceased. Human cadaveric dissection has been the primary me­
However from mid 1970s the scenario started to change and dium of teaching gross anatomy to medical students for
the enactment of the Body Donation Law in 1983 ensured centuries [1]. However, in recent times, teaching anatomy by
sufficient number of donated bodies for anatomical studies at dissection no longer commands the same number of class
the medical schools throughout Japan. The law ensured the hours as it once did as more and more educational material
cultural acceptance of the concept of body donation as it was is being inducted into medical school curricula over the past
verified by the government, facilitated the true wishes of the few decades [107]. Moreover, medical programs in some
deceased and not that of the family members and resolved countries have replaced cadaver dissection with virtual dissec­
possible disputes between family members [99]. In India, tion in cyberspace and some others are seriously considering
although there is an increasing demand of human cadavers such measures, possibly due to economical factors as well as
used in medical education, however there is an insufficient ethical concerns [108, 109]. Nevertheless, recent literature
supply of donated cadavers available for dissection. This could suggests that the dissected cadaver remains the most powerful
be attributed to lack of awareness along with firm religious means of delivering fundamental regional, relational and
beliefs and customs, apprehensions concerning handling topographical anatomical knowledge to medical students,
of donated bodies and lack of mindset to accept dissection which is indispensable to ensure safe and efficient clinical
of one’s own body [100]. The fact that there is no uniform practice [110, 111]. Researchers have documented that de­
national body donation law till date has not helped either. creased use of dissection as teaching tool is one of the fac­
In most of the states in India, anatomical activities are still tors that can have a negative influence on the anatomical
regulated by the Anatomy Act of 1949 and its subsequent knowledge of medical students [112]. Evidence suggests that
amendments [101]. However the very recently introduced learning anatomy by active exploration through cadaveric
Odisha Anatomy (Amendment) Bill (2012), which has been dissection actually contributes to improvement of anatomic
adopted by many other states in the country, has made body knowledge [3]. Medical students have opined that cadaveric
donation hassle free [102]. Voluntary donors now have to dissection deepens their understanding of anatomical struc­
sign simple forms to pledge their bodies for use in medical tures, provides them with a three dimensional perspective
education. Further relatives of a dead person can also donate of structures and helps them to recall what they learnt. It
the body for anatomy teaching without any problem. Body is noteworthy that the innovative modes of learning ana­
bequest programs have been in slow in African countries like tomy such as the interactive multimedia resources have
Nigeria and Republic of South Africa, resulting in limited not replaced student’s perception about the importance of
number of cadavers available for anatomical dissection and cadaveric dissection [113]. In some medical schools, ne­
this could be attributed to the political climate and ocioe­ wer radiological imaging techniques which permit in vivo
conomic status of the population [103, 104]. Traditional visualization of anatomy structures have supplanted tradi­
spiritual beliefs, psychological factors and prevailing social tional cadaver dissection in teaching human anatomy.
norms adversely affect body donation programs even in However, it has been observed that despite its important
some European countries like Turkey and Greece [105, strengths, radiology cannot simply substitute cadaveric
106]. The success of body donation programs has not been dissection, which provides students with deep insights into
uniform across the world. This is an area where the society meaning of human embodiment and mortality and represents
as such can collectively contribute towards advancement of a profound rite of passage into the medical profession [114].
medical education. Persistent efforts needs to be undertaken The current trend of a steady decline in the number of con­
to sensitize the medical community as well as the general tact hours in relation to human dissection and consequent
population to promote voluntary donation of dead bodies, suboptimal anatomy knowledge is an area of concern not
which is critical to the human anatomy training for health only for undergraduates but also at the post graduate level

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History of human dissection Anat Cell Biol 2015;48:153-169 165

for specialities where surgical anatomy is essential [115]. In gain perspective and reflect upon their emotions [110]. Also
present times, when medicine is becoming more practical, the students can possibly use the dissection lab experience
technical, and specialized, physicians should be aware of the peda­gogically to better prepare themselves for the stress of
details related to the anatomy of the region they deal with as the medical world, especially issues surrounding death and
this will provide them with an intimate knowledge of their dying [109]. Human cadaveric dissection has survived the
science [116]. Reports of patient misadventure due to ina­ test of time and till date the importance of student- cadaver
dequate anatomical knowledge have prompted researchers encounter remains paramount in medical education. The
to come up with the idea of barrier assessment (halts further dissection room provides multifaceted education experiences
progress until satisfactorily completed) while teaching while accomplishing the traditional objectives within the
dissection based anatomy [107]. Authors have opined that allotted time. In other words, in the dissection lab, medical
long term consequence of this shortage of anatomical know­ students can learn to do their scheduled work without neglec­
ledge could have serious implications on patient safety and ting their emotions or developing an attitude of detached
have suggested that medical schools should shift to dissection concern. Accordingly anatomists have presented arguments
as the core method for teaching gross anatomy [2]. Apart in favour of continuation of the use of cadaver material in
from imparting essential anatomical knowledge, the human anatomical sciences education which would be beneficial to
dissection room can serve as an ideal ground for cultivating future physicians and pivotal in strengthening a close and
humanistic values among medical students. Medical training symbiotic association between anatomists and surgeons [107,
essentially begins with the cadaveric dissection and nearly all 120].
clinicians remember the details of their first interaction with
the human cadaver [110]. Hence, the dissection lab premises Conclusion
provide the educator with an immediate opportunity to teach
and encourage humanistic qualities of respect, empathy and The rise of ancient Greek medicine paved the way for the
compassion among first semester medical students [117]. inception of human cadaveric dissection as a tool for teaching
Moreover the students can be guided to use the experience of anatomy in 3rd century BC. Unfortunately the practice of
handling a human cadaver as a potential launching pad for human dissection was prohibited in Europe during the Middle
them to mature into effective as well as empathetic clinicians Ages due to religious and popular beliefs. However from its
[118]. Further, sensitizing the students to develop an emo­ revival at the beginning of 14th century, human dissection
tional attachment with the cadaver can help him/her to un­ has been an integral part of anatomy teaching in medical
derstand the psychosocial factors contributing to a patient’s schools. During the 14th century, religious authorities gave
illness [119]. Attention to concepts of humanistic care is a permission for human dissection only within the university
challenge in present day medical education curriculum when premises and these were conducted once/twice annually on
physicians and medical care as such are becoming mechanized corpses of executed criminals. However by the beginning of
by the day with increasing focus on procedures and technical 15th century, cadaveric dissection became a regular event
aspects. The rise of the body donation programs has been in European universities and the supply of criminal bodies
instrumental in fostering social responsibilities among medi­ proved insufficient. Taking advantage of the Papal sanction
cal students. In some parts of the world, students get the of post-mortem examination to investigate the cause of
opportunity to interact with the families of the deceased death, anatomists started performing dissection on bodies
persons whom they are dissecting [118]. The University of meant for post-mortem autopsy. From the later part of the
Oklahoma College of Medicine have introduced the unique 15th century, human dissection became extremely popular
concept of “Donor Luncheon,” whereby medical students as the wave of European Renaissance started to influence
meet the families of the donor prior to dissection in the ana­ the domain of anatomical sciences and from the middle of
tomy course and findings suggest that such an opportunity 16th century, after Papal approval of human dissection for
enables the students to maintain humanistic attitudes at the anatomical studies, formal university dissection sessions
beginning of their medical career [117]. Interaction with the assumed a full blown public character being attended by large
donor family/ possible donor and subsequent identification audiences, eventually leading to establishment of permanent
of the donor in the dissection room allows the student to anatomical theatres across Europe. Conventional sources of

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166 Anat Cell Biol 2015;48:153-169 Sanjib Kumar Ghosh

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