SOLUTIONS

Solutions – Comprehensive Notes (≈7000 Words)

Chapter 1: Introduction to Solutions

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. The composition and

properties of a solution are uniform throughout its volume. Solutions play a vital role in
chemistry, biology, medicine, industry, and daily life.

Examples:

 Salt dissolved in water

 Sugar dissolved in water

 Air (mixture of gases)

 Brass (alloy of copper and zinc)

A solution consists of:

Solvent

The component present in larger quantity.

Examples:

 Water in salt solution

 Nitrogen in air

Solute

The component present in smaller quantity.

Examples:

 Salt in salt solution

 Oxygen in air

Characteristics of Solutions

1. Homogeneous mixture.

2. Particle size less than 1 nm.

3. Solute particles cannot be seen with naked eyes.

 4. Stable in nature.

5. Solute does not settle down.

6. Cannot be separated by ordinary filtration.

7. Uniform composition throughout.

Types of Solutions

Solutions can exist in gaseous, liquid, or solid states.

Gaseous Solutions

Solute Solvent Example

Gas Gas Air

Liquid Gas Moist air

Solid Gas Iodine vapours in air

Liquid Solutions

Solute Solvent Example

Gas Liquid CO₂ in water

Liquid Liquid Ethanol in water

Solid Liquid NaCl in water

Solid Solutions

Solute Solvent Example

Gas Solid Hydrogen in palladium

Liquid Solid Dental amalgam

Solid Solid Brass

Concentration of Solutions

Concentration expresses the amount of solute dissolved in a given amount of solvent or

solution.
Different methods are used.

Mass Percentage (w/w)

Mass percentage is the mass of solute present in 100 g of solution.

Formula:

[
\text{Mass %}=\frac{\text{Mass of solute}}{\text{Mass of solution}}\times100
]

Example:

10 g NaCl in 90 g water

Mass of solution = 100 g

Mass percentage = 10%

Volume Percentage (v/v)

Volume percentage is the volume of solute in 100 mL of solution.

[
\text{Volume %}=
\frac{\text{Volume of solute}}
{\text{Volume of solution}}
\times100
]

Example:

20 mL alcohol in 100 mL solution

Volume percentage = 20%

Mass by Volume Percentage (w/v)

[
\text{Mass by Volume %}

\frac{\text{Mass of solute}}
{\text{Volume of solution}}
\times100
]
Example:

5 g glucose in 100 mL solution

= 5% (w/v)

Parts Per Million (ppm)

Used for very dilute solutions.

[
ppm=
\frac{\text{Amount of solute}}
{\text{Amount of solution}}
\times10^6
]

Applications:

 Water pollution

 Air pollution

 Trace impurities

Mole Fraction

Mole fraction is the ratio of moles of a component to total moles present.

For component A:

[
X_A=
\frac{n_A}
{n_A+n_B}
]

Properties:

 Unitless quantity

 Value lies between 0 and 1

Molarity (M)

Most commonly used concentration term.

Definition:

Number of moles of solute present in one litre of solution.

[
M=
\frac{n}{V}
]

Where:

 n = moles of solute

 V = volume in litres

Unit:

mol L⁻¹

Example:

1 mole NaOH dissolved in 1 L solution

Molarity = 1 M

Molality (m)

Definition:

Number of moles of solute present in 1 kg of solvent.

[
m=
\frac{\text{Moles of solute}}
{\text{Mass of solvent in kg}}
]

Unit:

mol kg⁻¹

Advantage:

Independent of temperature.

Normality (N)

Number of gram equivalents of solute per litre of solution.

[
N=
\frac{\text{Gram equivalents}}
{\text{Volume in litres}}
]

Although widely used in analytical chemistry, molarity is preferred in modern chemistry.

Solubility

Solubility is the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a given amount of solvent at
a particular temperature.

Example:

Sugar is highly soluble in water.

Chalk is sparingly soluble in water.

Saturated Solution

Contains maximum amount of solute that can dissolve at a given temperature.

No further solute dissolves.

Unsaturated Solution

Contains less solute than its maximum capacity.

More solute can dissolve.

Supersaturated Solution

Contains more dissolved solute than a saturated solution.

It is unstable.

Factors Affecting Solubility

1. Nature of Solute and Solvent

Rule:

"Like dissolves like."

Polar substances dissolve in polar solvents.

Examples:

 Salt in water

 Sugar in water

Non-polar substances dissolve in non-polar solvents.

Examples:

 Benzene in toluene

 Iodine in carbon tetrachloride

2. Temperature

Solids in Liquids

Generally:

Solubility increases with temperature.

Example:

Sugar in water.

Gases in Liquids

Solubility decreases with increase in temperature.

Example:

Cold drinks lose CO₂ when heated.

3. Pressure

Pressure significantly affects gases.

Increase in pressure:

→ Increases gas solubility.

Henry's Law

Statement
At constant temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the
partial pressure of the gas above the liquid.

Mathematically:

p = k_H x

Where:

 p = partial pressure

 x = mole fraction of gas

 kH = Henry's law constant

Applications of Henry's Law

1. Carbonated Beverages

Soft drinks are bottled under high pressure.

More CO₂ dissolves.

2. Scuba Diving

Deep-sea divers experience high pressure.

Nitrogen dissolves in blood.

Rapid ascent causes:

 Nitrogen bubbles

 Decompression sickness

3. High Altitude Effects

Low atmospheric pressure reduces oxygen availability.

Causes:

 Breathlessness

 Anoxia

Vapour Pressure
The pressure exerted by vapours in equilibrium with liquid.

Every liquid possesses vapour pressure.

Higher temperature:

→ Higher vapour pressure.

Raoult's Law

A fundamental law governing ideal solutions.

Statement

The partial vapour pressure of each component equals the product of its mole fraction and
pure vapour pressure.

For component A:

p_A = x_A p_A^{\circ}

For component B:

p_B = x_B p_B^{\circ}

Total pressure:

P = p_A + p_B

Ideal Solutions

Solutions obeying Raoult's law at all concentrations.

Conditions:

1. Similar intermolecular forces.

2. No heat change during mixing.

3. No volume change during mixing.

Characteristics of Ideal Solutions

[
\Delta H_{mix}=0
]
[
\Delta V_{mix}=0
]

Examples:

 Benzene + Toluene

 n-Hexane + n-Heptane

Non-Ideal Solutions

Solutions that do not obey Raoult's law.

Positive Deviation

Observed when:

A–B interactions are weaker than A–A and B–B.

Results:

 Higher vapour pressure

 Lower boiling point

Examples:

 Ethanol + Cyclohexane

 Acetone + Carbon disulfide

Negative Deviation

Observed when:

A–B interactions are stronger.

Results:

 Lower vapour pressure

 Higher boiling point

Examples:

 Acetone + Chloroform

 Nitric acid + Water

Azeotropes

Mixtures that boil at constant temperature and composition.

They behave like pure substances.

Minimum Boiling Azeotrope

Formed by positive deviation.

Example:

Ethanol + Water (approximately 95.6% ethanol)

Maximum Boiling Azeotrope

Formed by negative deviation.

Example:

Nitric acid + Water

Colligative Properties

Properties that depend only on the number of solute particles.

Not dependent on chemical nature.

There are four colligative properties:

1. Relative lowering of vapour pressure

2. Elevation of boiling point

3. Depression of freezing point

4. Osmotic pressure

Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure

Adding a non-volatile solute lowers vapour pressure.

According to Raoult's law:

\frac{p^{\circ}-p}{p^{\circ}}=x_B
Where:

xB = mole fraction of solute

Boiling Point

Boiling occurs when vapour pressure equals atmospheric pressure.

Normal boiling point:

Temperature at which vapour pressure equals 1 atm.

Elevation of Boiling Point

Adding a non-volatile solute raises boiling point.

Relationship:

\Delta T_b = K_b m

Where:

 ΔTb = elevation

 Kb = ebullioscopic constant

 m = molality

Boiling Point Constant

Kb depends on solvent.

Example:

Water:

Kb = 0.512 K kg mol⁻¹

Applications of Boiling Point Elevation

 Antifreeze solutions

 Industrial processes

 Molecular mass determination

Freezing Point

Temperature at which liquid and solid coexist in equilibrium.

Depression of Freezing Point

Addition of solute lowers freezing point.

Relationship:

\Delta T_f = K_f m

Where:

 ΔTf = depression

 Kf = cryoscopic constant

Examples

Salt added to ice lowers freezing point.

Used in:

 Snow removal

 Ice cream preparation

Molecular Mass Determination

Using freezing point depression:

M_2=\frac{1000K_fw_2}{\Delta T_fw_1}

Osmosis

Movement of solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane from dilute solution

to concentrated solution.

Semipermeable Membrane

Allows solvent molecules only.

Examples:
  Cell membrane

 Parchment membrane

Osmotic Pressure

Pressure required to stop osmosis.

Given by:

\pi = CRT

Where:

 π = osmotic pressure

 C = concentration

 R = gas constant

 T = temperature

Importance of Osmosis

Plants

Water absorption by roots.

Human Body

Fluid balance in cells.

Medicine

Intravenous solutions.

Types of Solutions Based on Osmosis

Isotonic Solutions

Equal osmotic pressure.

No net osmosis.

Example:

Normal saline and blood plasma.

Hypertonic Solution

Higher osmotic pressure.

Cell shrinks.

Hypotonic Solution

Lower osmotic pressure.

Cell swells.

Reverse Osmosis

When pressure greater than osmotic pressure is applied.

Direction of solvent flow reverses.

Applications:

 Water purification

 Desalination

Abnormal Molecular Masses

Sometimes observed molecular masses differ from actual values.

Reason:

Association or dissociation.

Van't Hoff Factor (i)

Introduced by Van't Hoff.

[
i=
\frac{\text{Observed colligative property}}
{\text{Calculated colligative property}}
]

or

[
i=
\frac{\text{Normal molecular mass}}
{\text{Observed molecular mass}}
]

Dissociation

Example:

KCl

[
KCl \rightarrow K^+ + Cl^-
]

One particle becomes two.

Hence:

i>1

Association

Example:

Acetic acid in benzene

Molecules associate.

Number of particles decreases.

Hence:

i<1

Modified Colligative Equations

For boiling point:

\Delta T_b=iK_bm

For freezing point:

\Delta T_f=iK_fm

For osmotic pressure:

\pi=iCRT
Ideal vs Non-Ideal Solutions

Property Ideal Non-Ideal

Raoult's law Obeyed Not obeyed

Heat change Zero Non-zero

Volume change Zero Non-zero

Intermolecular forces Similar Different

Important Numerical Formulae

Mole Fraction

[
X_A=\frac{n_A}{n_A+n_B}
]

Molarity

[
M=\frac{n}{V}
]

Molality

[
m=\frac{n}{kg}
]

Henry's Law

[
p=k_Hx
]

Raoult's Law

[
p=xp^\circ
]

Boiling Point Elevation

[
\Delta T_b=K_bm
]

Freezing Point Depression

[
\Delta T_f=K_fm
]

Osmotic Pressure

[
\pi=CRT
]

Van't Hoff Factor

[
i=\frac{\text{Observed}}{\text{Calculated}}
]

Everyday Applications of Solutions

Medicine

 IV drips

 Blood plasma

 Saline solutions

Food Industry

 Soft drinks

 Syrups

 Preservatives

Agriculture

 Fertilizers

 Pesticide sprays

Environmental Science

 Water treatment

 Pollution monitoring
Industry

 Electroplating

 Paints

 Dyes

 Pharmaceuticals

Frequently Asked Examination Questions

Define Solution

A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.

What is Solubility?

Maximum amount of solute dissolved in a given amount of solvent at a particular

temperature.

State Henry's Law

At constant temperature, solubility of a gas is directly proportional to its partial pressure

above the solution.

State Raoult's Law

Partial vapour pressure equals mole fraction multiplied by vapour pressure of pure
component.

Define Osmotic Pressure

Pressure required to stop osmosis.

What are Colligative Properties?

Properties depending only on the number of solute particles.

Quick Revision Notes

1. Solution = Solute + Solvent.

2. Solutions are homogeneous mixtures.

3. Molarity depends on temperature.

4. Molality is temperature independent.

5. Henry's law applies to gases dissolved in liquids.

 6. Raoult's law explains vapour pressure lowering.

7. Ideal solutions obey Raoult's law completely.

8. Positive deviation gives higher vapour pressure.

9. Negative deviation gives lower vapour pressure.

10. Azeotropes boil at constant composition.

11. Colligative properties depend on particle number.

12. Boiling point increases on adding non-volatile solute.

13. Freezing point decreases on adding solute.

14. Osmotic pressure is very useful for molecular mass determination.

15. Reverse osmosis is used in RO water purifiers.

16. Van't Hoff factor explains association and dissociation.

17. Electrolytes show dissociation and often have i > 1.

18. Associated molecules show i < 1.

19. Blood plasma and saline are isotonic.

20. Solutions are fundamental to chemistry, biology, medicine, and industry.

Conclusion

The chapter Solutions forms the basis of physical chemistry by explaining how substances
mix and interact at the molecular level. It covers concentration terms, solubility, Henry's law,
vapour pressure, Raoult's law, ideal and non-ideal solutions, azeotropes, and colligative
properties. Understanding these concepts helps explain numerous natural and industrial
processes, from the functioning of living cells and blood circulation to water purification,
medicine preparation, food preservation, and chemical manufacturing. Mastery of this
chapter is essential for solving numerical problems and understanding advanced topics in
chemistry.