UNIT FIVE

POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIAL PROCESSES FROM THE

EARLY SIXTEENTH TO THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH
CENTURIES
• Major points in this chapter
 conflicts between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates
 foreign interventions
 the population movements of the Afar, the Somali, the Argoba and
the Oromo
 religious expansions
 interaction of peoples and the resultant integration across ethnic
and religious diversities.
 Societies and states in different parts of Ethiopia and the Horn that
passed through different historical processes.
 the Gondarine Period (1636-1769)
 Zemene Mesafint (1769-1855) including the Yejju rule (1786-1853).
 Conflict between the Christian Kingdom
and the Sultanate of Adal and After
• Causes of the conflict
 Economy
 To control trade and trade route
 maladministration and exploitation
 Demography that was the Afar and Somali people
began to move and settled with the interior areas. Its
main cause was searching of water and pasture
 Environment: environmental pressure
NB: religion was not the cause rather it served as
ideological justification
• The war between the Christian Kingdom and
the Sultanate of Adal that lasted from 1529 to
1543.
Ahmed Ibn Ibriham ( ‘’Ahmed Gragn’)
mobilized the pastoral communities of the
Afar, the Somali, the Harar, Harari and others
He convinced them( the afar, Somali, harar)
not to fight amongst themselves but to unite
and expand to the
He was able to gain acceptance as Imam and
consolidated his army to fight the Christian
Kingdom
• Meanwhile, Lebne-Dengel
 was enthroned when he was only eleven.
Assisted by the elderly Elleni
most of the Muslim Sultanates including Adal
were made tributaries to the Christian
Kingdom
 Fighting
Adal under the leadership of Imam Ahmed’s
army.
strong enough for military confrontation in
1520,
 he refused to pay tribute and campaign
against the Christian Kingdom in 1527
 Imam’s army fought fiercely and controlled the
territories including
Bali
 Dawaro
 Fatagar
Sidama
 Hadiya
Kambata and putting the Christian Kingdom at
risk.
• In 1528,
realizing the rising threat, Lebne-Dengel
mobilized a vast force from his domain and
encamped about fifty kilometers east of what
is now Addis Ababa.
• Battle of Shimbra Kure
Held in 1529, near present day Mojo.
the larger and well-equipped Christian army
was defeated
 Factors for the defeat of the Christian high
land kingdom were
 logistical problems
 the leadership of the army of Christian
Kingdom failed to adopt a common strategy to
defeat Adal’s force.
 On the other hands, Imam Ahmed's highly
motivated but small-sized army faced no such
logistical challenges
The Imam’s army had also an excellent
leadership characterized by better mobility
and flexible tactics with a unified command.
• After the victory,
 the Imam’s army made a large-scale control of
the territories of the Christian Kingdom including
 Shewa
Amhara
 Lasta
moved as far north as Mereb Melash.
• By 1535, Imam Ahmed’s empire
stretched from Zeila to Massawa on the coast
including the Ethiopian interior.
penetrated deep into the Christian Kingdom
 Imam Ahmed established a civil
administrative bureaucracy constituted from
his own men and newly recruited personnel
from the Christian territories.
• Bati Del Wanbara
She was the daughter of a Muslim military
commander of Adal known as Mahfuz.
She was the wife of the Imam
She was one the most illuminating figures
during the war,
encouraged her husband to avenge the death
of her father.
accompanied her husband throughout his
expeditions
marched even in a state of pregnancy during
which she was unable to use mules.
She delivered her two sons during the
campaigns of 1531 and 1533 in Ifat and
present day Tigray respectively.
• Lebne Dengel, to retreat finally dying in 1540
as a fugitive
• .His son and successor, Gelawdewos (r. 1540-
1559), continued to face the wars this time
with more intensity as Imam Ahmed had
received Turkish musketeers.
• In 1541.
based on earlier request made by Lebne-
Dengel in 1535, about four hundred
Portuguese soldiers, armed with matchlocks
arrived in the Christian court
The force was led by Christopher da Gama,
the youngest son of Vasco da Gama.
Empress Seble wengel received them
• Battle of Ofla
Held in August 1542
Seblewongel participated in the war against
Imam Ahmed
the Christian army was defeated in in today's
southern Tigray.
about two hundred Portuguese were killed
their leader Christopher da Gama was beheaded.
Ahmed became victories
• After the success, Imam Ahmed
confident about his army’s ability to repulse
any future attack by the force of the Christian
Kingdom that
 he sent his allies back home
let his army camp.
• On the part of the Christians, preparations
were made for final confrontation under the
leadership of Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-
59).

• The Queen mother, Seble-Wongel, advised the

reigning emperor how to prepare and march
for the battle
• Due to limited resources, the monarch employed hit
and run strategy, which severely affected Imam’s army.

• Imam Ahmed’s army could not use its previous

advantage of easy mobility because they did not know
where the attacks came from
• battle of Woyna-Dega
 Held February 25, 1543
Imam Ahmed was attacked and killed after a
fierce fighting
• Gelawdewos was able to restore many of the
pre-1520s territories and tributary regions.
• The king attempted to reconsolidate the state
through campaigns to different areas and
camping Chewa (regiment) in border areas.
•
• By the early 1550s, Gelawdewos had
established a strong Christian Kingdom.
• the growing challenge to the Christian state came
from
the retreating soldiers of the Sultanate of Adal,
 the Ottoman Turks, Jesuit interlude, and Oromo
advance into the center.
Adal under the leadership of Nur Ibn alWaazir
Mujahid was ready to wage war against the
Christian state for revenge.
In 1559, the forces of Emir Nur confronted
Gelawdewos and killed the king himself
• Emperor Minas (r.1559-1563) who succeeded
Gelawdewos
 defeated the Turks' force
 reclaimed territories in the coast including Dabarwa.
 However, in the early 1560s, Yishaq revolted and allied
with the Turks against him.
 Similarly, Sartsa-Dengle (r.1563-1598)
 had to defend his territory from the Turks while
fighting with the Agaw, Gumuz, Bete-Israel, Sidama,
Enarya and the Oromo.
• The emperor then marched to the north,
defeated Turkish forces, and restored the
territories
• The Muslim-Christian conflict Consequences
 the huge human and material cost.
both the Muslim Sultanate and Christian
Kingdom were weakened
paving the way for an easy infiltration and
success of the Oromo population movement.
• On the positive consequence
cultural interaction among the peoples of
Ethiopia.
Linguistic and religious interactions
accompanied by intermarriages among
peoples of the various cultural groups were
one of these manifestations in the long history
of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Foreign Intervention and Religious
Controversies
• In 1557, several Jesuit missionaries along with
their bishop, Andreas de Oviedo, came to
Ethiopia to expand Catholicism.
The Jesuits promoted
Catholic doctrine of two different and
• therefore separate, natures of Christ-divine and
human, which was contrary to Monophysite
theology of Ethiopian Orthodox Church.
• EOC taught that Christ, through union or
Tewahedo had a perfect human nature
inseparable from the divine.
• The leading members of the mission who played key role in efforts
to evangelize the country include
o Joao Bermudez,
o Andreas de Oviedo
o Pedro Paez
o Alfonso Mendez.
• The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with
Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-59), hoping that
the rest of the society would follow suit.
Gelawdewos listened and engaged in doctrinal
debates with the missionaries, but he was not
prepared to give in.
Instead, he defended the teachings of Orthodox
Christianity in a document entitled the
Confession of Faith.
• Minas and Sertse-Dengel, who succeeded
Gelawdewos one after the other, were too
busy fighting against the Oromo and the
Turkish forces to engage the Jesuits in their
courts.
• The Jesuits got relative success
with Emperor Za-Dengel (r. 1603-4), who was
said to have been sympathetic to Catholicism.
Yet Za-Dengel’s reign was too short for the
Jesuits to effect the desired result.
Za-Dengel was overthrown by Yaqob (r. 1598-
1603; 1604-7), who met a similar fate in the
hands of Susenyos (r. 1607-32).
• Susenyos (r. 1607-32).
sought for an alliance, which he got through
the diplomatic advisory of Pedro Paez.
In 1612, Susenyos converted to Catholicism
and announced it to be state religion later in
1622.
in 1617-8 several anti Catholic voices mounted
following the changes in liturgy and religious
practices
• Even worse, with the monarch’s consent, another
Spanish Jesuit, Afonso Mendez
ordered reconsecration of Orthodox priests and
deacons and rebaptism of the mass.
he called for the suspension of Old Testament
customs such as male circumcision and the
observance of the Sabbath.
prohibition of preaching in Ge’ez, fasting on
Wednesdays and Fridays, reverence for Ethiopian
saints and the Ark of Covenant (Tabot).
he ordered eating pork
He ordered Latin Mass and Gregorian
calendar to be adopted.
• The consequence of the reforms of Susenyos
(r. 1607-32).
led to revolts led by the ecclesiastics and the
nobility.
Even loyal followers of the emperor including
his own son Fasiledas (r. 1632-67) were
opposed to the changes initiated by the
Jesuits
After 1625, controversies, rebellions,
repressions mounted
the state came to the verge of falling apart.
 In a battle in June 1632, large number of
peasants lost their lives in one day.
Finally, the emperor abdicated the throne in
favor of Fasiledas, who reversed the Catholic
transformation.
• Fasiledas
restored the position of Orthodox Church as the
state religion
expelled the Jesuits
punished local converts including Susenyos’
brother and the most fervent supporter of
Catholicism, Se'ela Kristos.
Emperor Fasiledas introduced a “closed-door”
policy, which isolated the country from all
Europeans for about a century and a half.
he initiated and adopted a policy of close
diplomatic relations with the Islamic world
formed an alliance with the neighboring
Muslim states to ensure that no European
crossed into the Christian Kingdom.
 in 1647, he concluded an agreement with the
Ottoman Pasha at Suakin and Massawa
o to the effect that the latter should block any
European from entering in to his territory.
By doing so,Fasiledas was able to restore
peace and order.
Ethiopia’s diplomatic break from Europe
remained effective until the beginning of the
nineteenth century with the exception of
secret visits by a French Doctor Charles
Jacques Poncet and the Scottish traveler
James Bruce in 1700 and 1769, respectively.
• Yet, the Jesuit intervention
triggered doctrinal divisions and controversy
within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church that was
divided into disputant sects and reached its peak
during the Zemene Mesafint.
• Tewahedo teaches
Hulet Lidet (two births) of Christ: first in eternity
as a Divine Being the eternal birth and second,
born again from St. Mary into the world as a
perfect man and perfect divinity united in one
nature, thus Tewahedo (United).
It was dominant in Tigray and Lasta.
• Qibat (Unction)
 was also developed from Hulet Lidet doctrine
 accepted the eternal birth as the first birth of Christ, but
claimed that at the moment of his incarnation, when he
was born into the world, Holy Ghost anointed him.
 This sect was dominant in Gojjam.
• Sost Lidet/Three Births (Ya Tsega Lij/Son through Grace)
taught that
 Christ was first born in eternity as divine being, was born
again in the womb of St. Mary and anointed by Holy Ghost.
 This sect was dominant in Gonder and Shawa
 Population Movements
• The movements of people played important
roles in shaping
the history of Ethiopia and the Horn.
Peoples integration across ethnic and
religious lines
religious, ethnic and linguistic interactions and
intermingling of peoples
• Factors for population movements can be summed up
as
 natural and social.
o search of resources and better living environment
o drought and demographic factors.
o military conflicts
Population Movements of the Argoba,
Afar, and Somali
• The Argoba:
the Argoba were major agents of Islamic
expansion, trade and Muslim state formation
in the Horn.
 The sultanate of Ifat, in which the Argoba
were dominant, became the center of Muslim
resistance.
On the eve of the wars of Imam Ahmed al
Ghazi, the Argoba joined the Afar and the
Somali against the Christian Kingdom.
• The area inhabited by the Argoba was also a
target of the expanding Christian Kingdom and
was the major center of conflict.
• This was because the major caravan trade
routes passed through Argoba territory.
• The Afar:
before the sixteenth century, due to drought, the
Afar moved towards the east until they reached
the middle Awash.
Trade routes linking the ports in the Horn passed
through the Afar's territory.
 As a result, the region was the centre of
competition between the Christian Kingdom and
the Muslim sultanates to control the trade routes.
• the conflict inevitably pressurized the Afar to
move into different directions to avoid the risk
of the conflicts.
• Their pastoral economy helped the Afar to
survive the destructive effects of the wars of
the sixteenth century..
• The Somali:
 their territory lay in the region traversed by major
trade routes during medieval period.
 Prior to the sixteenth century wars between the
Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates, there
was environmental pressure on Somali inhabited areas.
 The population movement of the Somali was a strong
force behind the military strength of the Imam.
 However, the population movement of the Somali did
not last for long as they returned to their home base
following the defeat of Imam Ahmed in 1543.
 Gadaa System and Oromo Population
Movement (1522-1618)
• The Gadaa system
• was an institution through which the Oromo
socially organized themselves
 administered their affairs,
defended their territories
 maintained law and order,
managed their economies.
• The Gadaa system organized the Oromo
society into age-grades and generation sets
delineating members' social, political, and
economic responsibilities.
• In the system, ten age grades and five classes
operated in parallel
Gadaa-grade Age Roles
Dabale birth-8 years socialization
Game 9-16
military training,
Folle 17-24
agriculture etc
Qondala 25-32 military service
candidates for
Raba-Dori 33-40
political power
leaders of Gadaa
Luba 41-48
government
senior advisors,
Yuba 49 to 80 educators and ritual
• The gadaa/luba assumed power for eight years.
• The head of the government was known as
 Abba-Gadaa literally “father of the period” who was
assisted by several elected representatives.
• These included
1. Abba Bokku (father of scepter),
2. Abba Chaffe (head of the assembly)
3. Abba-Dula (war leader), Abba Sera (father of law)
4. Abba Alanga (judge)
5. Abba Sa'a (father of treasury) and other councilors.
• In the Gadaa system, the senior Qallu (Abba
Muda)
played indispensable roles in power transfer
legitimizing the ruling gadaa class.
• In the Gada there was Sinqe institution,
Women maintained their rights by this
institution
helped them to form sisterhood and solidarity.
Women from childhood to old age i.e.
1. guduru (pre-pubescent),
2. qarre (adolescent, ready for marriage)
3. kalale (wives of Luba and Yuba)
4. cifire (wives of Gadamojji/above 80 years)
were believed to have sacred power.
• They involved in occasions like power transfer,
conflict resolution, thanks-giving and others.
• The kalale were also privileged to support and
advise the ruling class
• The Gadaa system functioned by the cyclical
power transfer from one Gadaa class to the
next every eight years.
• With some minor differences in nomenclature
in different parts of Oromo territories, the five
Gadaa classes (generation sets) are listed
below:
 The Five Gadaa Classes
Fathers Sons

Melba Harmufa

Mudena Robale

Kilole Birmajii

Bifole Mul’ata

Michille Dulo
 The Oromo Population Movement
(1522-1618)
• factors caused the Oromo population
movement of
• natural and manmade
• In the early decade of the sixteenth century,
when the population movement began, the
Oromo were already organized under Borana
and Barentu confederacies.
• The Oromo forces took northern direction and
passed through a corridor between Mount
Walabu and Lake Abbaya.
• When they reached half way between Lakes
Abbaya and Hawassa, they took westward and
penetrated across the Bilatte River to the
southwest.
• Then they headed northwards to the lakes
region of the Rift Valley.
• From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought twelve Butta wars
• Accordingly, the first Gadaa i.e
 Melba (1522-1530) fought and defeated Christian regiment
Batra Amora led by Fasil and occupied Bali while Mudena
(1530-8) reached the edge of Awash River.
 The Kilole (1538- 46) controlled Dawaro after defeating
Christian regiment Adal Mabraq
 Bifole (1546- 54) advanced to Waj and Erer.
 The Michille (1554-62) scored victory over Hamalmal's
force at Dago, Jan Amora forces as well as Adal led by Emir
Nur Mujahiddin at Mount Hazalo.
 The Harmufa (1562-70) fought Minas (r.1559-63) at Qacina
and Wayyata; occupied Angot, Ganzyi, Sayint etc
• In 1574, Sartsa Dingil’s (r.1563-97) cavalry led
by Azzaj Halibo defeated Robale gadaa (1570-
78) at Woyna Daga, but Robale recovered by
defeating Zara’a Yohannis’ force.
The Birmaji (1578-86) controlled Ar'ine in Waj,
crossed Jama to Wolaqa and overwhelmed
the Daragoti regiment.
The Mul’ata (1586-94) seized Damot, Bizamo,
Gafat, Dambiya and Tigray
In the early seventeenth century, the Dulo
(1594-1602), Melba (1603-10), and Mudena
(1610-18)
expanded to West and Northern parts of the
Horn of Africa
while others like the Warday moved to Kenya
and Bur Haqaba and Majertin in Somalia.
Success of the movement
wars between the Christian Kingdom and
Muslim Sultanates
 the organization of the Oromo under the
Gadaa system
• In the course of their movement into various
regions, different Oromo branches established
Gadaa centers. Accordingly,
Oda Nabee of Tulama,
Oda Roba of Sikko-Mando (Arsi),
 Oda Bultum of Itu-Humabenna,
Oda Bisil of Mecha and Oda Bulluq of Jawwi
Mecha became major Gadaa centers.
• Other places, which became Gadaa centers,
were
Gayo of Sabbo-Gona
 Me'e Bokko of Guji,
Oda Dogi of Ilu
 Oda Hulle of Jimma
Oda Garado of Waloo, etc.
• Gadaa leaders such as Dawe Gobbo of Borana,
Anna Sorra of Guji, Makko-Bili of Mecha,
Babbo Koyye of Jimma and others established
Gadaa centers and laid down cardinal laws in
their respective areas
• However, various Oromo groups kept their
relations through the office of
Abba Muda (the father of anointment) seated
at Madda Walabu and formed alliances during
times of difficulty.
 they obeyed similar ada (culture) and sera
(law) through sending their delegates to
Madda-Walabu,
• In due course, Gadaa devised effective
resource allocation formula including land.
• Land holding system to regulate resource and
their interaction among different clans is
known as the qabiyye system.
• The system established rights of precedence
(seniority) in possession of land.
• Accordingly, place names were given the
names of pioneers as markers of qabiyye rig
 Interaction and Integration across
Ethnic and Religious Diversities
• The integration of peoples across ethnic and
religious diversities in Ethiopia and the Horn.
diffused Christian tradition from north to the
south
Imam Ahmed and the population movements
of the Argoba, the Afa rand the Somali caused
the expansion of Islam into the central parts
of Ethiopia.
• The Oromo integrated non-Oromo through
two adoption mechanisms: Guddifacha and
Moggasa.
 Guddifacha refers to the adoption of a child
by a foster parent. In this system, the child
enjoyed equal rights and privileges with a
biological child. Likewise
 Moggasa was a system of adopting non-
Oromos commonly known as Oromsu.
• Moggasa was the practice of incorporation of
individuals or groups to a clan through oath of
allegiance with all the rights and obligations that
such membership entailed.
• Moggasa was undertaken by the Abba Gadaa on
behalf of the clan.
• The adopted groups gained both protection and
material benefits.
• The process significantly contributed to the social
cohesions, national integration, and the revival of
long-distance trade.
• The interactions also resulted
 in an exchange of socio-cultural values and institutions.
 A number of peoples in the neighborhood of the Oromo
adopted Gadaa system and Oromo language.
 Likewise, the Oromo adopted and adapted cultures and
traditions of the people with whom they came into contact.
 The case in point is the adoption of monarchical systems
and the integration of the Oromo to the Christian and
Muslim cultures.
 It is important to mention the rise of nobles in the northern
Oromo in politics particularly during the Gondar period,
Zemene-Mesafint and the making of modern Ethiopia.
Peoples and States in Eastern, Central,
Southern and Western Regions
• Peoples and States in the East
Somali
Afar
Argogba
The emirates of Harar
 The Somali
• The Somali people inhabited vast territory in the Horn.
• For long, the Somali practiced
 pastoral economy
 moved between places for centuries possibly in search of sufficient
pasture.
 Ibn Said (1214-86), an Arab geographer, noted that Merca town
located in the southern Somali coast near Shabele River was a
capital that brought large number of Somalis together during the
thirteenth century.
 The songs celebrating King Yeshaq's (r. 1413-30) military success
depicts that the Somali lived close to the Christian Kingdom.
 Somali contingents also played important role in the victories of the
Sultanate of Adal against the Christian kingdom.
1. Historically, a council known as
 shir governed the society.
The decision making process was highly
democratic in which
all-adult male were allowed equal access and
participation.
• These councils at sub-clan, clan and inter-clan
level provided a governing structure that
acted as an enforcement of law and justice.
• The council governed wide-ranging affairs
including resource allocation, marriage, trade
and crime.
2. the guurti (a council of elders) was the highest
political council mandated with resolving
conflict and crisis
 Peoples and States in Central and
South Central Parts
• The Kingdom of Shewa
• Gurage
• Kambata
• Hadiya
 Peoples and States in the South
• Sidama
• Gedeo
• Konso
 Peoples and States in Southwestern
Part
• Wolayta
• Kafa
• Yem
• Gamo
• Dawuro
• Ari
 Peoples and States in the West
• Berta and Gumuz
• Anywa
• Nuer
• Majang
• The Kunama
 The Gondarine Period and Zemene-
Mesafint
• The Gondarine Period
A. Political Developments
 The period of Gondar began from the reign of Emperor
Sartsa-Dengle when the political center of Ethiopian
emperors shifted to Gondar area.
 Emperor Sartsa-Dengle established royal camp at
Enfranz in 1571.
 Emperor Susenyos also tried to establish his capital
near Gondar in such places as Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz
and Azazo.
 Gondar was founded in 1636 when Fasiledas
established his political seat there.
• Gondar achieved its glory during the reigns of its first three
successive emperors:
1. Fasiledas(r.1632–67)
2. Yohannes I (r.1667-82)
3. Iyasu I (r.1682- 1706).
 Among the major reforms during these periods were
A. restoration of Orthodox Church as state religion,
B. establishment of a royal prison at Amba Wahni to solve
problems stemming from power rivalry.
C. Emperor Yohannes I and his council established a
separate quarter for Muslims at Addis Alem.
D. Iyasu I, reformed land tenure system, introduced a system
of land measurement in Begemder, taxes, and customs,
and revised the Fetha Negest (the civil code).
• From 1728 to 1768, Etege Mentewab together
with her brother Ras-Bitwaded Walda Le’ul
(1732-1767) dominated the Gondarine court
politics.
• Walda Le’ul was influential during the reigns
of Iyasu II (1730-55) and Iyoas (1755-69).
• Following his death in 1767, Etege Mentewab
was challenged by Wubit Amito, her daughter-
in-law from Wollo.
• To counter the growing power of the Wollo
Oromo in the royal court, Mentewab sought
the alliance of Ras Mika'el Sehul of Tigray who
was politically astute and militarily powerful.
• Mika'el Sehul succeeded in stabilizing the
situation but refused to return to Tigray
although demanded by Iyoas.
• This was followed by the killing of Iyoas and
his replacement by an old man Yohannes II by
Ras Mika'el.
• Soon Ras Mika'el killed Yohannes II and put
his son TaklaHaymanot II (1769-77) on power.
• This marked the onset of the period of
Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855).
 Achievement

• Architecture:
 Gondar served as a permanent capital, for about one
hundred fifty years
 The architectural styles of Fasiledas castle usually have
two strides and almost square, circular domed corner
towers.
 Not only castles, but the building of bridges are said to
be predate the reign of Fasiledas.
 Emperor Sartsa-Dengel is said to have built a very fine
bridge near his palace at Guzara, and Emperor
Susenyos likewise erected a bridge over Blue Nile at
Alata.
• Painting:
religious paintings on manuscripts and on
wood, ornaments, weapons and other
accessories.
• Queen Mentwab were known for their
beautiful paintings, cross and art works
• Literature:
The Imperial and provincial scriptoria
produced a great number of manuscripts.
the Gospels, the Miracles of Mary, the Lives of
Ethiopian Saints and the Litanies produced.
 Gondar is also known for its traditional
medicine, music and poetry.
• Trade and Urbanization:
 Gondar was a commercial center that connected
long distance trade routes of the southern region
with Massawa and Metemma in the Ethio-Sudan
border.
 Gold and salt were used as medium of exchange.
 Daily markets were commonly held in the city.
 the city became residences of foreign
communities like Indians, Greeks and Armenians.
The city had an estimated 60,000-70,000
population.
 it served as religious center of Christians,
Muslims and Bete-Israel.
it served as the center of Ethiopian Orthodox
Church until the middle of the nineteenth
century.
Many of the Orthodox churches which served
as education centers, known for their
excellence in teaching aqwaqwam, liturgical
chanting were centered at Gondar.
• Zemene-Mesafint refers to
 the period when actual political power was in the
hands of different regional lords.
 The period lasted from the time Ras Michael
Sehul "assassinated" king Iyoas in 1769 to 1855,
when Kasa Hailu was crowned as Tewodros II.
 Ras Mika’el who was a king-maker in the period
attempted to dominate the other regional lords.
 These measures made him highly unpopular
because of which coalitions of lords of Gojjam,
Amhara, Lasta and Wollo fought and defeated
him at the battle of Sarba-Kussa in 1771.
• The main political regions that Zemene-Mesafint
lords ruled were Tigray, Semen, Dembiya,
Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam and
Shewa.
• When compared to each other the “Yejju
dynasty” was the leading power during the
Zemen-Mesafint with the center at Debre-tabor.
• Ali Gwangul (Ali I or Ali Talaq) was considered as
the founder of “Yejju dynasty” in 1786.
• Yejju rule reached its zenith under Gugsa Marso
(r.1803-1825) who made incessant struggle
against Ras Walde-Silassie of Enderta and
Dejjazmatch Sabagadis Woldu of Agame.
• In 1826, Gugsa's successor, Yimam (r.1825-8),
defeated Hayle-Mariam Gebre of Simen.
• Maru of Dambiya was also killed at the battle of
Koso-Ber in 1827.
• The period of Zemene Mesafint was brought to
an end by Kasa Hailu of Qwara through a series of
battles that lasted from 1840s to 1855.
Major features of Zemene-Mesafint include:
• absence of effective central government;
• the growing power and influence of the
regional warlords;
• the domination of Yejju lords over other lords
in northern Ethiopia;
• rivalry and competition among regional lords
to assume the position of king-maker
• establishment of fragile coalitions to advance
political interests;
• Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to play
its traditional role of unifying the state due to
doctrinal disputes;
• Revival of foreign contacts that ended the
“closed-door” policy.