5

INTEGRATION

5.1 The Indefinite Integral and Basic Integration Rules

Definition 5.1: Antiderivatives and the Indefinite Integral
A function F is called an antiderivative of a function f on an interval I if

F ′ (x) = f (x) for all x ∈ I.

d
Equivalently, dx F (x) = f (x).
If F is an antiderivative of f , then every function of the form

F (x) + C,

where C is an arbitrary constant, is also an antiderivative of f . Hence,

Z
f (x) dx = F (x) + C.

R
The expression f (x) dx is called the indefinite integral of f with respect to x, and C is called
the constant of integration.

Example 5.1.1. Find the most general antiderivative of each function.

(a) f (x) = sin x

(b) f (x) = xn , n≥0

Solution.
R
(a) sin x dx = − cos x + C.
n+1
(b) xn dx = xn+1 + C,
R
n ̸= −1.

142
5.1. THE INDEFINITE INTEGRAL AND BASIC INTEGRATION RULES 143

Basic Rules of Integration

Z
d
1. F (x) dx = F (x) + C,
dx
Z 
d
2. f (x) dx = f (x),
dx
Z Z Z
3. [f (x) ± g(x)] dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx,
Z Z
4. kf (x) dx = k f (x) dx, where k is constant.

Integrals of Basic Functions

R
1. dx = x + C R
9. sec2 x dx = tan x + C
x2
R
2. x dx = 2
+C R
10. csc2 x dx = − cot x + C
xn+1
R
3. xn dx = n+1
+ C, (n ̸= −1) R
11. sec x tan x dx = sec x + C
1
R
4. x
dx = ln |x| + C R
R 12. csc x cot x dx = − csc x + C
x x
5. e dx = e + C R
13. tan x dx = ln | sec x| + C
ax
R x
6. a dx = ln a
+ C, (a > 0, a ̸= 1), R
R 14. cot x dx = ln | sin x| + C
7. sin x dx = − cos x + C R f ′ (x)
R 15. f (x)
dx = ln |f (x)| + C
. 8. cos x dx = sin x + C

Exercise 5.1
Evaluate
Z Z
(a) (3x2 − 4x + 5) dx. (d) tan x dx.
Z
2
(ex + cos x) dx.
Z
(b)
(e) 3x2 dx.
Z 0
4
(c) Find x dx. (f) If F ′ (x) = 4x3 , find F (x).
5.2. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 144

5.2 Techniques of Integration

5.2.1 Integration by Substitution

Theorem 5.1: Substitution Rule
If F is an antiderivative of f , then
Z
f (g(x)) g ′ (x) dx = F (g(x)) + C.

Equivalently, if
u = g(x), du = g ′ (x) dx,

then Z
f (u) du = F (u) + C.

Example 5.2.1.

Z
(a) Evaluate 3x2 (x3 + 5)9 dx.

Let u = x3 + 5. Then du = 3x2 dx.

u10 (x3 + 5)10

Z Z
2 3 9
3x (x + 5) dx = u9 du = +C = + C.
10 10
Z
(b) Evaluate sin4 x cos x dx.

Let u = sin x. Then du = cos x dx.

u5 sin5 x
Z Z
4
sin x cos x dx = u4 du = +C = + C.
5 5
Z
(c) Evaluate cos2 x dx.

Using the identity

1 + cos 2x
cos2 x = ,
2
we obtain Z Z
2 1 x sin 2x
cos x dx = (1 + cos 2x) dx = + + C.
2 2 4
Z
(d) Evaluate sin2 x dx.

Using
1 − cos 2x
sin2 x = ,
2
5.2. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 145

we obtain Z
x sin 2x
sin2 x dx = − + C.
2 4

5.2.2 Integration by Parts

Theorem 5.2: Integration by Parts
Z Z
f (x)g (x) dx = f (x)g(x) − f ′ (x)g(x) dx.
′

If we let u = f (x), dv = g ′ (x) dx, then du = f ′ (x) dx, v = g(x), and

the formula becomes
Z Z
u dv = uv − v du.

Example 5.2.2.

Z
(a) Evaluate x sin x dx.

Let u = x, dv = sin x dx. Then du = dx, v = − cos x.

Z Z
x sin x dx = −x cos x + cos x dx = −x cos x + sin x + C.

Z
(b) Evaluate ln x dx.

Let u = ln x, dv = dx. Then du = x1 dx, v = x.

Z Z Z
1
ln x dx = x ln x − x dx = x ln x − dx = x ln x − x + C.
x

Z
(c) Evaluate x2 ex dx.

Let u = x2 , dv = ex dx. Then du = 2x dx, v = ex .

Z Z
2 x 2 x
x e dx = x e − 2 xex dx.

R
Apply integration by parts again to xex dx:
Let u = x, dv = ex dx. Then du = dx, v = ex .
5.2. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 146

Z Z
x x
xe dx = xe − ex dx = xex − ex + C.

Substituting back,

Z
x2 ex dx = x2 ex − 2(xex − ex ) = x2 ex − 2xex + 2ex + C.

Z
(d) Evaluate x tan−1 x dx.
x2
Let u = tan−1 x, dv = x dx. Then du = 1
x2 +1
dx, v = 2
.

x2 x2
Z Z
−1 1
x tan x dx = tan−1 x − dx
2 2 x2 + 1
x2
Z  
1 1
= tan−1 x − 1− 2 dx
2 2 x +1
x2 1 x
= tan−1 x + tan−1 x − + C
2 2 2

Exercise 5.2
Evaluate
Z the following integrals: Z
(a) ex sin x dx (e) ex cos x dx
Z Z
3
(b) x cos x dx (f) x sin−1 x dx
Z Z
ln x
(c) √ dx (g) xex dx
x
Z Z
(d) x cos x dx (h) x2 e−x dx

5.2.3 Trigonometric Integrals

A. Reduction Formulas
For n ≥ 2:

n−1
Z Z
1
sin x dx = − sin n−1 x cos x +
n
sin n−2 x dx
n n

n−1
Z Z
1
n
cos x dx = cos n−1 x sin x + cos n−2 x dx
n n
5.2. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 147

n−2
Z Z
n 1
sec x dx = sec n−2 x tan x + sec n−2 x dx
n−1 n−1
Z Z
n1 n−1
tan x dx = tan x − tan n−2 x dx
n−1
Example 5.2.3. Evaluate a) sin3 x dx
R R R R
b) cos4 x dx c) sec3 x dx d) tan4 x dx

Solution:

(a)
Z Z
1 2
sin x dx = − sin2 x cos x +
3
sin x dx
3 3
1 2 2
= − sin x cos x − cos x + C
3 3

1+cos 2x
(b) Use cos2 x = 2

Z Z  2
4 1 + cos 2x
cos x dx = dx
2
1 + 2 cos 2x + cos2 2x
Z
= dx
4
3x sin 2x sin 4x
= + + +C
8 4 32

(c) Z
1
sec3 x dx = (sec x tan x + ln | sec x + tan x|) + C
2

(d)
Z Z
1
tan x dx = tan x − tan2 x dx
4 3
3
Z
1 3
sec2 x − 1 dx


= tan x −
3
1
= tan3 x − tan x + x + C
3

sinm x cosn x dx
R
B. Integrals of the form
When evaluating integrals involving powers of sine and cosine, the following guidelines are useful:

ˆ If one of the powers is odd, factor out one corresponding trigonometric function and use an
appropriate substitution.
5.2. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 148

ˆ If both powers are even, apply the half-angle identities:

1 − cos 2x 1 + cos 2x
sin2 x = , cos2 x = .
2 2

to reduce the powers in the integrand.

sin5 x cos8 x dx sin4 x cos2 x dx

R R R
Example 5.2.4. a) b) sin x cos3 x dx c)

Solution:

(a) Since power of sin x is odd: sin5 x = sin4 x sin x = (1 − cos2 x)2 sin x
Let u = cos x, du = − sin xdx:
Z Z
5 8
sin x cos x dx = − (1 − u2 )2 u8 du
Z
u8 − 2u10 + u14 du


=−
Z Z Z
= − u du + 2 u du − u14 du
8 10

1 2 1
= − u9 + u11 − u15 + C
9 11 15
1 9 2 1
= − cos x + cos11 x − cos15 x + C
9 11 15

(b) Let u = cos x, du = − sin xdx

u4 cos4 x
Z Z
3
sin x cos xdx = − u3 du = − +C =− +C
4 4

(c) Both powers even:

1 − cos 2x 1 + cos 2x
sin2 x = , cos2 x =
2 2

Z  2  
1 − cos 2x
Z
4 2 1 + cos 2x
sin x cos xdx = dx
2 2
..
.
Complete it !

R
C. Integrals of the form tanm x secn x dx
Strategy:
5.2. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 149

ˆ If n is even, factor out a sec2 x term and use the identity

tan2 x = sec2 x − 1,

followed by the substitution u = tan x.

ˆ If m is odd, factor out a sec x tan x term and use the identity

sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x,

followed by the substitution u = sec x.

R R R
Example 5.2.5. a) tan6 x sec4 xdx b) tan5 x sec3 xdx c) tan3 x sec3 xdx

Solution:
Z
a) tan6 x sec4 x dx
d
Since the power of sec x is even, save sec2 x dx and use: dx
(tan x) = sec2 x
Z Z
6 4
tan x sec x dx = tan6 x sec2 x · sec2 x dx

Let u = tan x, du = sec2 xdx. Then

Z Z
6 4
tan x sec x dx = u6 (1 + u2 ) du
Z
= (u6 + u8 ) du
u7 u9
= + +C
7 9
tan7 x tan9 x
= + +C
7 9
Z
b) tan5 x sec3 x dx
d
Since the power of tan x is odd, save sec x tan x dx and use: dx
(sec x) = sec x tan x
Z Z
5 3
tan x sec x dx = tan4 x sec2 x · (sec x tan x) dx
Z
= (sec2 x − 1)2 sec2 x · (sec x tan x) dx, tan2 x = sec2 x − 1
5.2. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 150

Let u = sec x, du = sec x tan xdx. Then the integral becomes:

Z Z
5 3
tan x sec x dx = (sec2 x − 1)2 sec2 x · (sec x tan x) dx
Z
= (u2 − 1)2 u2 du
Z
= (u6 − 2u4 + u2 ) du
u7 2u5 u3
= − + +C
7 5 3
sec7 x 2 sec5 x sec3 x
= − + +C
7 5 3
Z
c) tan3 x sec3 x dx

Again, tan x has odd power. Save sec x tan x dx:

Z Z
3 3
tan x sec x dx = tan2 x sec2 x · (sec x tan x) dx
Z
= (sec2 x − 1) sec2 x · (sec x tan x) dx, tan2 x = sec2 x − 1

Let u = sec x, du = sec x tan xdx. Then

Z Z
3 3
tan x sec x dx = (sec2 x − 1) sec2 x · (sec x tan x) dx
Z
= (u2 − 1)u2 du
Z
= (u4 − u2 ) du
u5 u3
= − +C
5 3
sec5 x sec3 x
= − +C
5 3
R
D. Integrals of the form sin(ax) cos(bx) dx
Product-to-Sum Identities:

1
sin x sin y = [cos(x − y) − cos(x + y)]
2

1
cos x cos y = [cos(x − y) + cos(x + y)]
2

1
sin ax cos bx = [sin(a − b)x + sin(a + b)x]
2
5.2. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 151

R
Example 5.2.6. Evaluate sin(5x) cos(3x) dx

1
sin(5x) cos(3x) = [sin 2x + sin 8x]
2
Z Z Z
1 1
sin(5x) cos(3x) dx = sin 2x dx + sin 8x dx
2 2

1 1
= − cos 2x − cos 8x + C
4 16
Exercise 5.3
Evaluate
R
(a) sin 5x cos 3x dx R
R (c) cos 4x cos(−3x) dx
(b) sin 5x sin 2x dx

5.2.4 Trigonometric Substitutions

To evaluate integrals containing radicals of the form

√ √ √
a2 − x 2 , a2 + x 2 , x2 − a 2 (a > 0),

we use trigonometric substitutions to eliminate the radical.

Basic substitutions

Expression Substitution Restriction Identity Used

a2 − x 2 x = a sin θ − π2 ≤ θ ≤ π
2
1 − sin2 θ = cos2 θ

a2 + x 2 x = a tan θ − π2 < θ < π

2
1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ

π
x2 − a 2 x = a sec θ 0≤θ< 2
sec2 θ − 1 = tan2 θ

Example 5.2.7. Evaluate

Z √
9 − x2
dx
x2
Solution:
√
Let x = 3 sin θ, − π2 ≤ θ ≤ π2 . Then dx = 3 cos θ dθ, 9 − x2 = 3 cos θ.
Substituting:
5.2. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 152

cos2 θ
Z Z Z
3 cos θ
· 3 cos θ dθ = dθ = cot2 θ dθ.
9 sin2 θ sin2 θ
Using cot2 θ = csc2 θ − 1,
Z Z
2
cot θ dθ = (csc2 θ − 1) dθ = − cot θ − θ + C.
√
9−x2
θ = sin−1 x


Back-substitute: cot θ = x
, 3
.
Therefore,
Z √ √
9 − x2 9 − x2 −1 x
 
dx = − − sin +C
x2 x 3

Example 5.2.8. Evaluate Z

x
√ dx
x2+4
Although trigonometric substitution is possible, a direct substitution is simpler.
Let u = x2 + 4, du = 2x dx.
Then
Z
x 1
Z
du √ √
√ dx = √ = u + C = x2 + 4 + C.
2
x +4 2 u
Example 5.2.9. Evaluate Z
x
√ dx
3 − 2x − x2
First complete the square: 3 − 2x − x2 = 4 − (x + 1)2 .
Let u = x + 1, du = dx, x = u − 1.
Then

u−1
Z Z
x
√ dx = √ du.
3 − 2x − x2 4 − u2
√
Now substitute u = 2 sin θ, du = 2 cos θ dθ, 4 − u2 = 2 cos θ.
R
The integral becomes (2 sin θ − 1) dθ = −2 cos θ − θ + C.
√
2 −1 u
Back-substitute: cos θ = 4−u


2
, θ = sin 2
.
Hence,

√
Z  
x x+1
√ dx = − 3 − 2x − x2 − sin−1 +C
3 − 2x − x2 2
Example 5.2.10. Evaluate Z
1
√ dx
(x + 3) x2 + 6x + 13
First complete the square: x2 + 6x + 13 = (x + 3)2 + 4. Let u = x + 3, du = dx.
5.2. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 153

Then
Z Z
1 1
√ dx = √ du.
(x + 3) x2 + 6x + 13 u u2 + 4
√
Now substitute u = 2 tan θ, du = 2 sec2 θ dθ, u2 + 4 = 2 sec θ.
The integral becomes
Z Z
1 1
√ dx = √ du
(x + 3) x2 + 6x + 13 u u2 + 4
Z Z
1 sec θ 1
= dθ = csc θ dθ
2 tan θ 2
Z
1 csc θ (csc θ + cot θ)
= dθ, let y = csc θ + cot θ,
2 csc θ + cot θ
dy = − csc θ cot θ − csc2 θ dθ


Z
1 1 1
=− dy = − ln |y| + c
2 y 2
√
1 x2 + 6x + 13 2
= − ln | csc θ + cot θ| + c, csc θ = , cot θ =
2 x+3 x+3
√
1 x2 + 6x + 13 + 2
= − ln +c
2 x+3
1 x+3
= ln √ +c
2 2
x + 6x + 13 + 2

Exercise 5.4
Evaluate
1
R
1
R
(a) x2 √16−x2 dx
(c) √
x2 +4x−12
dx
1
R
√1
R
(b) dx (d) 3 dx
x2 1+x2 (9x2 −1) 2

5.2.5 Integrating Rational Functions by Partial Fractions

Integration by partial fractions is a method used to evaluate integrals of rational functions:
Z
P (x)
dx
Q(x)

where P (x) and Q(x) are polynomials and deg P (x) < deg Q(x).
If deg P (x) ≥ deg Q(x), perform polynomial division first.
The method consists of:

ˆ Factorizing the denominator Q(x)

5.2. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 154

ˆ Expressing the rational function as a sum of simpler fractions

ˆ Determining unknown constants

ˆ Integrating term by term

1. Different Linear Factors in the Denominator

P (x) A1 A2 An
If Q(x)
= a1 x+b1
+ a2 x+b2
+ ··· + an x+bn
, then
Z
P (x)
dx = A1 ln |a1 x + b1 | + A2 ln |a2 x + b2 | + · · · + An ln |an x + bn | + C.
Q(x)

Example 5.2.11. Evaluate

5x − 10
Z
dx.
x2 − 3x − 4
Solution:
Factor the denominator:
x2 − 3x − 4 = (x − 4)(x + 1).

Assume
5x − 10 A B
= + .
(x − 4)(x + 1) x−4 x+1
Then
5x − 10 = A(x + 1) + B(x − 4).

Expanding and Equating coefficients 

gives
A + B = 5
5x − 10 = (A + B)x + (A − 4B) =⇒ .
A − 4B = −10 =⇒ B = 3, A = 2
Thus Z  
5x − 10
Z
2 3
dx = + dx = 2 ln |x − 4| + 3 ln |x + 1| + C.
x2 − 3x − 4 x−4 x+1

2. Repeated Linear Factors

For a factor (ax + b)m ,

A1 A2 Am
+ 2
+ ··· + .
ax + b (ax + b) (ax + b)m
Example 5.2.12. Evaluate Z
6x + 7
dx.
(x − 1)(x + 2)2
Solution:
Assume
6x + 7 A B C
2
= + + .
(x − 1)(x + 2) x − 1 x + 2 (x + 2)2
5.2. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 155

Multiply through:

6x + 7 = A(x + 2)2 + B(x − 1)(x + 2) + C(x − 1).

Expanding and comparing coefficients gives A = 1, B = 5, C = 3.

Hence
Z Z  
6x + 7 1 5 3
dx = + + dx
(x − 1)(x + 2)2 x − 1 x + 2 (x + 2)2
3
= ln |x − 1| + 5 ln |x + 2| − + C.
x+2

3. Improper Rational Functions

If deg(numerator) ≥ deg(denominator), divide first.

Example 5.2.13. Evaluate

2x3 − 4x2 − x − 3
Z
dx.
x2 − 2x − 3
Solution:
Divide:

2x3 − 4x2 − x − 3 5x − 3
= 2x + .
x2 − 2x − 3 x2 − 2x − 3
Factor denominator: x2 − 2x − 3 = (x − 3)(x + 1).
Decompose:

5x − 3 A B
= + , A = 3, B = 2.
(x − 3)(x + 1) x−3 x+1
Thus

2x3 − 4x2 − x − 3
Z Z Z Z
dx dx
dx = 2x dx + 3 +2
x2 − 2x − 3 x−3 x+1
= x2 + 3 ln |x − 3| + 2 ln |x + 1| + C

4. Irreducible Quadratic Factors

For (ax2 + bx + c)n :

A1 x + B 1 A2 x + B 2
+ + ···
ax + bx + c (ax2 + bx + c)2
2

Example 5.2.14. Evaluate

−2x + 4
Z
dx.
(x2 + 1)(x − 1)2
5.2. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 156

Solution: Assume

−2x + 4 Ax + B C D
= 2 + + .
(x2 + 1)(x − 1) 2 x +1 x − 1 (x − 1)2

Solving gives: A = 0, B = 2, C = −2, D = 2.

Thus
Z  
−2x + 4 2 2 2
= − + dx
(x + 1)(x − 1)2
2 x2 + 1 x − 1 (x − 1)2
2
=2 tan−1 x − 2 ln |x − 1| − +C
x−1

Example 5.2.15. Evaluate

(a) x2x+4 3x4 +3x3 −5x2 +x−1
R R
3 −2x2 dx (b) dx
x2 +x−2

Solution (a)
Factor denominator: x3 − 2x2 = x2 (x − 2).
Decompose:

2x + 4 A B C
= + 2+ .
x2 (x
− 2) x x x−2
Solving:
A = −1, B = −2, C = 1.

Hence
Z
2x + 4 2
3 2
dx = − ln |x| + + ln |x − 2| + C.
x − 2x x
(b)
Factor denominator: x2 + x − 2 = (x + 2)(x − 1).
Divide first:

3x4 + 3x3 − 5x2 + x − 1 4x − 7

2
= 3x2 − 3 + .
x +x−2 (x + 2)(x − 1)
Decompose:

4x − 7 3 1
= + .
(x + 2)(x − 1) x−1 x+2
Thus

3x4 + 3x3 − 5x2 + x − 1

Z Z  
3 1
dx = 3x2 − 3 + + dx
x2 + x − 2 x−1 x+2
= x3 − 3x + 3 ln |x − 1| + ln |x + 2| + C
5.3. DEFINITE INTEGRALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES 157

Exercise 5.5
Evaluate
R x2 +x−16 2x2 −9x−9
R
(a) (x+1)(x−3) 2 dx (c) x3 −4x
dx
x3 +3x2 +x+9 2x5 −x2 −1
R R
(b) (x2 +1)(x2 +3)
dx (d) x3 −4x
dx

5.3 Definite Integrals and Their Properties

Definition 5.2
If a function f is continuous on a bounded interval [a, b], then the integral
Z b
f (x) dx
a

is called the definite integral of f (x) from a to b.

The numbers a and b are called the lower and upper limits of integration, respectively.

5.3.1 Basic Properties of the Definite Integral

Suppose all the following integrals exist. Then:
Rb Ra
1. If a > b, then a
f (x) dx = − b
f (x) dx.
Ra
2. If a = b, then f (x) dx = 0.
a
Rb
3. For any constant c, a c dx = c(b − a).
Rb Rb Rb
4. a
[f (x) + g(x)] dx = a
f (x) dx + a
g(x) dx.
Rb Rb
5. For any constant c, a cf (x) dx = c a f (x) dx.
Rb Rb Rb
6. a
[f (x) − g(x)] dx = a f (x) dx − a g(x) dx.

7. If c is between a and b, then

Z b Z c Z b
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx.
a a c

Example 5.3.1. Using Properties of integral, evaluate

(a)
Z π/2
(x + 3 cos x) dx.
0

Solution:
5.3. DEFINITE INTEGRALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES 158

Using linearity:

π/2 π/2 π/2

x2 π2
Z Z 
π/2
x dx + 3 cos x dx = + 3[sin x]0 = + 3.
0 0 2 0 8
(b) Z 5
|x| dx.
−4

Solution:

x, x ≥ 0,
|x| =
−x, x < 0.

Split at 0:

5 0 5 0 5
x2 x2
Z Z Z  
25 41
|x| dx = (−x) dx + x dx = − + =8+ = .
−4 −4 0 2 −4 2 0 2 2

5.3.2 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Part 1

Theorem 5.3
If f is continuous on [a, b], and
Z x
g(x) = f (t) dt,
a

then g is continuous on [a, b], differentiable on (a, b), and

g ′ (x) = f (x).
R g(x)
In general, G(x) = a
f (t) dt and F (x) is antiderivative of f , then
!
Z g(x)
d d
G′ (x) = f (t) dt = [F (g(x)) − F (a)] = f (g(x))g ′ (x)
dx a dx
5.3. DEFINITE INTEGRALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES 159

Part 2

Theorem 5.4
If f is continuous on [a, b] and F ′ (x) = f (x), then
Z b
f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a).
a

Example 5.3.2. Use the Fundamental Theorem:

(a) If
Z x4
g(x) = sec t dt,
1
′
find g (x).
Solution:
By Part 1 and the Chain Rule,

g ′ (x) = sec(x4 ) · 4x3 .

(b) If
Z x4
1
g(x) = dt,
1 t

1 4
g ′ (x) = 4
· 4x3 = .
x x
(c) If
Z x2
g(x) = t sin(t3 ) dt,
1

g ′ (x) = (x2 ) sin(x6 ) · 2x = 2x3 sin(x6 ).

(d) Z 1
x3 dx.
−2

Solution:
An antiderivative is

x4
F (x) = .
4
Thus,
Z 1
1 16 15
x3 dx = F (1) − F (−2) = − =− .
−2 4 4 4
5.3. DEFINITE INTEGRALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES 160

5.3.3 Geometric Interpretation of the Integral

1. Indefinite Integral If
F ′ (x) = f (x),

then Z
f (x) dx = F (x) + C.

Geometrically, the indefinite integral represents a family of curves whose slope at each point x
is equal to f (x). Thus, integrating a function means finding a curve whose derivative (slope)
matches the given function.

2. Definite Integral and Area Let f be continuous on [a, b]. The definite integral
Z b
f (x) dx
a

represents the signed area between the graph of y = f (x), the x-axis, and the vertical lines
x = a and x = b.

ˆ If f (x) ≥ 0 on [a, b], the integral equals the area under the curve.

ˆ If f (x) ≤ 0 on [a, b], the integral equals the negative of the area.

ˆ If f changes sign, the integral represents area above the axis minus area below the axis.

3. Area as a Limit of Riemann Sums Partition [a, b] into n subintervals of width ∆x.
Choose sample points x∗i in each subinterval. The definite integral is defined as the limit
Z b n
X
f (x) dx = lim f (x∗i ) ∆x.
a n→∞
i=1

This shows that integration measures the accumulation of infinitely many infinitesimal rectangular
areas.

4. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus If F is an antiderivative of f on [a, b], then

Z b
f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a).
a

This theorem establishes the connection between:

ˆ Differentiation (rate of change), and

5.4. IMPROPER INTEGRALS 161

ˆ Integration (accumulation or area).

5. Physical Interpretation In applications:

ˆ If v(t) is velocity, then

Z b
v(t) dt
a

represents displacement.

ˆ If f (x) is density, then

Z b
f (x) dx
a

gives total mass.

ˆ If r(t) is rate of growth, then the integral gives total accumulation.

Thus, integration measures total accumulation of a quantity whose rate of change is known

5.4 Improper Integrals

A definite integral is called proper if:

1. The interval of integration is bounded and closed.

2. The integrand f (x) is continuous on the entire interval.

A definite integral is called improper if:

ˆ The interval of integration is unbounded, or

ˆ The integrand is unbounded on the interval, or

ˆ Both conditions occur.

For example: (−∞, a), (a, ∞), (−∞, ∞) are unbounded intervals.
1
The function f (x) = x−2 is not continuous on [−1, 4] because it is undefined at x = 2.
Hence
Z 4
1
dx
−1 x−2
is an improper integral.
5.4. IMPROPER INTEGRALS 162

5.4.1 Improper Integrals over Infinite Intervals

Definition 5.3
If f (x) is continuous on [a, ∞), then
Z ∞ Z t
f (x) dx = lim f (x) dx
a t→∞ a

provided the limit exists.

If the limit exists, the integral converges; otherwise, it diverges.
Similarly,
Z a Z a
f (x) dx = lim f (x) dx
−∞ t→−∞ t

For integrals over the entire real line:

Z ∞ Z a Z ∞
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx
−∞ −∞ a

provided both integrals converge.

5.4.2 Improper Integrals with Unbounded Integrands

Definition 5.4
If f is continuous on [a, b) but not continuous at b, then
Z b Z t
f (x) dx = lim− f (x) dx.
a t→b a

If f is continuous on (a, b] but not at a, then

Z b Z b
f (x) dx = lim+ f (x) dx.
a t→a t

If f is discontinuous at an interior point c, then

Z b Z t Z b
f (x) dx = lim− f (x) dx + lim+ f (x) dx.
a t→c a t→c t

Example 5.4.1. Determine whether the improper integral converges or diverges:

R0 1
(a) −∞ √3−x dx
Solution:
Z 0 Z 0
1 1
√ dx = lim √ dx.
−∞ 3−x t→−∞ t 3−x
5.4. IMPROPER INTEGRALS 163

Let u = 3 − x, so du = −dx.

√
Z
1
√ dx = −2 3 − x.
3−x
Thus,

 √ 0  √ √ 
lim −2 3 − x t = lim −2 3 + 2 3 − t = ∞.
t→−∞ t→−∞
√
As t → −∞, 3 − t → ∞.
Therefore the integral diverges.

R3 1
(b) 0 √3−x dx
Solution:
Z 3 Z t
1 1
√ dx = lim− √ dx
0 3−x t→3 0 3−x
 √ t  √ √ 
= lim− −2 3 − x 0 = lim− −2 3 − t + 2 3
t→3 t→3
 √ √  √
= lim− −2 3 − t + 2 3 , As t → 3, 3 − t → 0
t→3
√
=2 3
Z 3
1 √
√ dx =2 3
0 3−x

Hence, the integral converges.

R2 1
(c) 0 (x−1)2
dx

Solution: The integrand has a vertical asymptote at x = 1 (inside the interval).

Z 2 Z 1 Z 2
1 1 1
dx = dx + dx
0 (x − 1)2 0 (x − 1)2 1 (x − 1)2

Evaluate each:
Z 1 Z t  t  
1 −2 1 1 1
dx = lim− (x − 1) dx = lim− − = lim− − + = ∞.
0 (x − 1)2 t→1 0 t→1 x−1 0 t→1 t − 1 −1

As t → 1− , t − 1 → 0− , so − t−1
1
→ +∞.
Thus diverges.

R2
(d) 0
√1 dx
|x−1|
5.5. APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRALS: AREA BETWEEN CURVES 164

Solution: Split at x = 1:
Z 2 Z 1 Z 2
1 1 1
p dx = √ dx + √ dx
0 |x − 1| 0 1−x 1 x−1

First part: Let u = 1 − x, du = −dx.

1 t  √ √
Z Z
1 t
√ dx = lim− (1 − x)−1/2 dx = lim− −2 1 − x 0 = lim− (−2 1 − t + 2) = 2
0 1−x t→1 0 t→1 t→1

Second part: Let u = x − 1, du = dx.

2 2  √ √
Z Z
1 2
√ dx = lim+ (x − 1)−1/2 dx = lim+ 2 x − 1 t = lim+ (2 − 2 t − 1) = 2
1 x−1 t→1 t t→1 t→1

R2
0
√1 dx = 2 + 2 = 4
|x−1|
Thus, the improper integral converges

5.5 Applications of Integrals: Area Between Curves

Definition 5.5
If f and g are continuous on [a, b] and

f (x) ≥ g(x) for all x ∈ [a, b],

then the area between the curves is

Z b
A= [f (x) − g(x)] dx.
a

Procedure 5.1: Steps to Find Area Between Curves

Step 1: Sketch both curves.
Step 2: Find points of intersection.
Step 3: Determine which function is upper and lower.
R
Step 4: Compute (ytop − ybottom ) dx.

Example 5.5.1. Find the area bounded by

y = x2 and y = 2x − x2 .
5.5. APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRALS: AREA BETWEEN CURVES 165

Figure 5.1: Plane region bounded by y = f (x)andy = g(x)

Figure 5.2: Geometrical illustration of the above procedure

Solution:
Find intersection points:

x2 = 2x − x2

2x2 − 2x = 0
5.5. APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRALS: AREA BETWEEN CURVES 166

2x(x − 1) = 0

x = 0, x = 1.

Since 2x − x2 ≥ x2 on [0, 1],

Z 1 Z 1
2 2
A= [(2x − x ) − x ] dx = (2x − 2x2 ) dx.
0 0

1
x2 x3
  
1 1 1
=2 − =2 − = .
2 3 0 2 3 3

y = x2

y = 2x − x2

Figure 5.3: Region bounded by y = x2 and y = 2x − x2 .

Example 5.5.2. Find the area bounded by

π
y = sin x, y = cos x, x = 0, x= .
2
Solution:
Intersection point:

π
sin x = cos x ⇒ x = .
4
On 0 ≤ x ≤ π4 : cos x ≥ sin x and
On π4 ≤ x ≤ π2 : sin x ≥ cos x
Area:
R π/4 R π/2
A = 0 (cos x − sin x) dx + π/4 (sin x − cos x) dx.

π/4 π/2
= [sin x + cos x]0 + [− cos x − sin x]π/4 .
5.5. APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRALS: AREA BETWEEN CURVES 167

   
1 1 1 1
= √ + √ − 1 + −0 − 1 + √ + √ .
2 2 2 2
√
= 2 2 − 2.

y
y = sin x
1
 √ 
π 2
,
4 2

0.5

y = cos x

x
π π
4 2

Figure 5.4: Region bounded by y = sin x and y = cos x on [0, π2 ].

Exercise 5.6
Find the area of the region enclosed by:
(a) y = x2 and y = −x + 2 (b) x = y 2 and y = x − 6