MODULE-4:

EMBEDDEDSYSTEMS, ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

SCHEMES.
An embedded system is an electronic/electro-mechanical system designed to perform a
specific function and is a combination of both hardware and firmware (software).

General Computing Systems and Embedded Systems

Criteria General Purpose Computing Embedded System

System

Contents A system which is a combination of A system which is a combination of

a generic hardware and a General special purpose hardware and
Purpose Operating System for embedded OS for executing a
executing a variety of applications. specific set of applications.

OS It consists a General Purpose It may or may not contain an

Operating Operating System for functioning.
System (GPOS) .

Alterations Applications are alterable The firmware of the embedded

(programmable) by the user. system is pre programmed and it is
non alterable by the end user.

Key factor Performance is the key deciding Application specific requirements (

factor in the selection of the performance, power requirements,
system. Faster is better. memory usage, etc.) are key deciding
factors.

Power More Less

Consumption

Response Not critical Critical for some applications

Time

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Classification Based on Generation

1. First Generation(1G) : 8-bit µp and 4-bit µc

2. Second Generation(2G) : 16-bit µp and 8-bit µc

3. Third Generation(3G) : 32-bit µp and 16-bit µc

4. Fourth Generation(4G) : 64-bit µp and 32-bit µc

Classification Based on Complexity and Performance

1. Small-scale

• Little hardware and software

• A small-scale embedded system may or may not contain an operating system

for its functioning.

• Built around low performance and low cost 8 or 16 bit µp/µc.

• Ex: An electronic toy

2. Medium-scale

• Slightly complex in hardware and firmware requirement

• Built around medium performance and low cost 16 or 32 bit µp/µc

• They usually contain an embedded operating system for functioning

• Ex: Industrial Machines

3. Large-scale / Sophisticated Embedded System

• Highly complex hardware & firmware

• Built around 32 or 64 bit RISC µp/µc or PLDs or SoC or multi-core processors

• They may contain multiple processors/controllers and co-units/hardware

accelerators for offloading the processing requirements from the main
processor of the system.

• Ex: Mission Critical Application

Classification Based on Deterministic Behaviour

• Applicable for Real Time systems.

• The application/task execution behaviour can be either deterministic or non-

deterministic.

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 • Based on the execution behaviour, real time embedded systems are classified into
Hard Real Time and Soft Real Time systems.

• Soft Real Time – Time deadline is not strictly followed.

• Hard Real Time – Time deadline is strictly followed.

Classification Based on Triggering

• Embedded systems which are ‘Reactive’ in nature (like process control systems in
industrial control applications) can be classified based on the trigger.

• Reactive systems can be either event-triggered or time-triggered

Major Application Areas of Embedded Systems

1. Household appliances – Washing Machine, Refrigerator

2. Consumer electronics – Cameras, camcorders

3. Home automation and security systems – Air conditioners

4. Automotive industry – Anti-lock breaking system (ABS)

5. Telecom – Cellular phones

6. Computer peripherals – Printers, Scanners

7. Computer networking systems – Network Routers

8. Healthcare – ECH, EEG machines

9. Banking & Retail – Automatic teller machines

10. Card Readers – Barcode

Purpose of Embedded Systems

• Each embedded system is designed to serve the purpose of any one or a combination
of the following tasks:

1. Data Collection/Storage/Representation

2. Data Communication

3. Data (Signal) Processing

4. Monitoring

5. Control

6. Application Specific User Interface

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THE TYPICAL EMBEDDED SYSTEM

An embedded system is a combination of 3 things, Hardware Software Mechanical

Components and it is supposed to do one specific task only. A typical embedded system
contains a single chip controller which acts as the master brain of the system.

Embedded systems are basically designed to regulate a physical variable (such

Microwave Oven) or to manipulate the state of some devices by sending some signals to the
actuators or devices connected to the output port system (such as temperature in Air
Conditioner), in response to the input signal provided by the end users or sensors which are
connected to the input ports. Hence the embedded systems can be viewed as a reactive system.

The control is achieved by processing the information coming from the sensors and
user interfaces and controlling some actuators that regulate the physical [Link],
push button, switches, etc. are Examples of common user interface input devices and LEDs,
LCDs, Piezoelectric buzzers, etc examples for common user interface output devices for a
typical embedded system.
Some embedded systems do not require any manual intervention for their operation.
They automatically sense the input parameters from real world through sensors which are
connected at input port. The sensor information is passed to the processor after signal
conditioning and digitization. The core of the system performs some predefined operations on
input data with the help of embedded firmware in the system and sends some actuating signals
to the actuator connect connected to the output port of the system.
The memory of the system is responsible for holding the code (control algorithm and
other important configuration details). There are two types of memories are used in any
embedded system. Fixed memory (ROM) is used for storing code or program.

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Figure-4.1: Elements of an Embedded System

COMPARISION BETWEEN MICROCONTROLLER AND

MICROPROCESSOR

Microcontroller Microprocessor

1 The microcontroller is the heart of an The microprocessor is the heart of a

embedded system. Computer system.

2 The microcontroller has an external It is just a processor. Memory and

processor along with internal memory and I/O components have to be
i/O components connected externally

3 Since memory and I/O have to be

Since memory and I/0 are present
connected externally, the circuit
internally, the circuit is small.
becomes large.

4 Can be used in compact systems and hence Cannot be used in compact systems
it is an efficient technique and hence inefficient

single clk cycle to execute

5 Microprocessors are based on the 2 clk cycles
Controllers are based on Harvard
Von Neumann architecture where
architecture where program memory and
programs and data are stored in the
Data memory are separate
same memory module

6 Used mainly in washing machines, MP3

Mainly used in personal computers
players

Comparision between RISC and ISC

RISC(Reduced Instruction Set CISC(Complex Instruction Set

[Link].
Computer) Computer

It stands for Reduced Instruction Set It stands for Complex Instruction Set
1.
Computer. Computer.

It is a microprocessor architecture that

This offers hundreds of instructions of
2. uses small instruction set of uniform
different sizes to the users.
length.

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 This architecture has a set of special
These simple instructions are executed in
3. purpose circuits which help execute the
one clock cycle.
instructions at a high speed.

These chips are relatively simple to

4. These chips are complex to design.
design.

5. They are inexpensive. They are relatively expensive.

Examples of RISC chips include SPARC, Examples of CISC include Intel

6.
POWER PC. architecture, AMD.

7. It has less number of instructions. It has more number of instructions.

It has fixed-length encodings for It has variable-length encodings of

8.
instructions. instructions.

The instructions interact with memory

9. Simple addressing formats are supported.
using complex addressing modes.

It has a large number of instructions. It

10. It doesn't support arrays.
supports arrays.

11. It doesn't use condition codes. Condition codes are used.

Registers are used for procedure The stack is used for procedure
12.
arguments and return addresses. arguments and return addresses.

ANALOG COMMUNICATION
➢ Any Message/Baseband/Original signal of low frequency is modulated with high
frequency sinusoidal carrier; the resulting signal will always be band pass in nature.
➢ The transmission of information-bearing signal from transmitter to receiver separated
by some distance via a communication channel.
➢ The communication channel may be either wired or wireless. The wired channel may
be a telephone line or coaxial cable or Optical Fiber Cable and wireless is by a
microwave link or through a satellite depending upon application of interest.
➢ This chapter introduces the definition of modulation, need of modulation, types of
modulation- AM, PM and FM, various types of AM, spectrum of AM, bandwidth
requirements, generation and detection of AM & DSB-SC and power relations.
Representation of Modulation techniques in Time and Frequency domain.
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Modulation: Modulation is defined as varying the characteristics of a sinusoidal carrier wave
(i.e. amplitude, frequency, and phase) in accordance with the modulating wave or message
signal.

Demodulation: It is the reverse process of modulation, in which the carrier signal is

eliminated to get back the original message signal. This can be achieved by either coherent or
non-coherent detection.

Need for modulation:

Modulation is needed in a communication system to achieve the following basic needs,

➢ Allows Multiplexing
➢ Reduce height of Antenna
➢ Reduce Distortion
➢ Achieve long distance Transmission
➢ Narrow Banding of signal
➢ Effective power radiated by an antenna
➢ To remove interference or avoid mixing of signals

Block diagram of communication system

Figure-4.2: Basic block diagram of communication system

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1. Information or message source
• The communication systems have been developed for communicating useful
information from one place to other
• The information can be in the form of sound signal like speech or music or it can be in
the form of pictures.
2. Input Transducer
• The information in the form of sound, picture or data signals cannot the transmitted as
it is.
• First it has to be converted into a suitable electrical signal.
• The input transducers commonly used in the communication systems are microphones,
TV etc.
3. Transmitter
• The function of the transmitter block is to convert the electrical equivalent of the
information to a suitable form
• It increases the power level of the signal. The power level should be increased in order
to cover a large range. The transmitter consists of the electronics circuits such as
amplifier, mixer, oscillator, and power amplifier.
4. Communication channel or medium
• The communication channel is the medium used for the transmission of electric
signals from one place to the another place.
• The communication medium can be conducting wires, cables, optical fibres or free
space. Depending upon the type of the communication medium, two types of the
communication system will exist
a. Wire communication or line communication
b. Wireless communication or radio communication
5. Noise or distortion

• Noise is an unwanted electrical signal which gets added to the transmitted signal when
it is travelling towards receiver.
• Due to noise, the quality of the transmitted information will degrade. One added the
noise cannot be separated out from the information
• Hence noise is ab big problem in the communication systems.

6. Receiver
• The reception is exactly the opposite process of transmission. The received signal is
amplified and demodulated and converted in a suitable form
• The receiver consists of the electronic circuits like mixer, oscillator, detector and
amplifier.
7. Output Transducer
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 • It consists of the electrical signal at the output of the receiver back to the original form
i.e. sound or TV pictures.
• The typical example of the output transducers are loud speakers, picture tubes etc.

Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude modulation is defined as the process in which the amplitude of the carrier
signal is varied in accordance with the modulating signal or message signal. The time domain
waveforms is shown in figure-2
Consider a sinusoidal carrier signal C (t) is defined as

C (t) = Ac Cos (2π fc t ) = Ac Cos (wc t) -------------------------------- (1)

The modulating signal m(t) is

m( t ) = A m C o s ( 2 π f m t) --------------------------------------- ( 2 )

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure-2: (a) Modulating Signal m(t), (b) Carrier Signal c(t), (c) Modulated Signal S(t)

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The Amplitude-modulated (AM) wave S(t) can be described as function of time, is given by

S ( t ) = V a m Cos (2πfct)
Where V a m = A c + m( t )
S ( t ) = [ A c + m( t ) ] Cos (2πfct) ------------------------------------- (3)
S ( t ) = A c [ 1 + m( t ) / A c ] Cos (2πfct)
Ka = 1 / A c
Where ‘Ka’ amplitude sensitivity of modulator and is constant
S ( t ) = A c [ 1 + K a m( t ) ] Cos (2πfct) ----------------------------- (4)
Substitute equation (2) in (3) (4)
=Ac cos 2πfct + Ac Ka Amcos 2π fmt cos 2πfct
Using formula, cosA cosB = 1 [cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) + cos(𝐴 − 𝐵)], the above equation is given by
2

= Ac cos 2πfct + μAc /2 cos [2π (fc + fm)t] + μAc /2 cos [2π (fc - fm)t] ------- (5)
Upper Lower
sideband Sideband
Carrier
signal
S(f)
LSB USB

fc
fc - fm Bandwidth(BW) fc + fm f(Hz)

The spectrum of AM modulated signal from equation (5)

BW = [(fc + fm) – (fc – fm)]

BW = fc + fm – fc + fm = 2 fm
The power required for AM modulated signal
Power of any signal is equal to the mean square value of the signalCarrier power
P= V2/R
Pc = Acrms2/ R = (Ac/√2)2 /R = Ac2/2 R,
Where resistance is normalized i.e R=1. Pc = Ac2/2--------------------------- (6)
𝜇𝐴𝑐 2
( )
Upper Side Band power PUSB = 2√2
, when R is normalized then Ac2 μ2/8, ------- (7)
𝑅

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 𝜇𝐴𝑐 2
( )
Lower Side Band power PLSB = 2√2
, when R is normalized then Ac2 μ2/8 ….(8)
𝑅

Total power PT = Pc + PLSB + PUSB

Total power PT = Ac2/2 + A c2 μ2/8 + A c2 μ2/8
PT = Ac2/2 + Ac2 μ2/4 = A c2/2 [1 + μ2/2] ---------------------- (9)
PT = Pc [1+μ 2/2] (10)

Figure-4: Amplitude modulated waveform

Modulation index (μ) is defined as the ratio of amplitude of message signal to the amplitude
of carrier signal. i.e.,
μ = Am/Ac = Ka Am
The modulation index can also be expressed in terms of A max and Amin as shown in figure-4
Amax = Ac + Am = Ac (1+ Am/Ac) = Ac (1+ μ) --------------------------- (11)
Amin = Ac - Am = Ac (1 - Am/Ac) = Ac (1- μ)----------------------------(12)
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 1+𝜇
= (13)
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 1−𝜇

Solving equation (13), μ is given by

Amax −Amin
μ= Amax+Amin
(14)

P1:A modulating signal m(t)=10cos(2π×103t) is amplitude modulated with a carrier

signal c(t)=50cos(2π×105t). Find the modulation index, the carrier power, and the power
required for transmitting AM wave.
Solution

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Given, the equation of modulating signal as
m(t)=10cos(2π×103t) = Amcos(2πfmt)
Am=10volts, fm=103 Hz = 1 KHz
c(t)=50cos(2π×105t) = Ac cos(2πfct)
Ac=50volts, fc=105 Hz = 100 KHz
We know the formula for modulation index as
μ=Am/Ac = 10 / 50=0.2
Therefore, the value of modulation index is 0.2 and percentage of modulation is 20%.
The formula for Carrier power, Pc is
Pc=Ac2 / 2R, Assume R=1Ω
Pc=(50)2 / 2(1)=1250 W
Therefore, the Carrier power, Pc is 1250 watts.
We know the formula for power required for transmitting AM wave is
Pt=Pc(1+μ2 / 2) = 1250 (1+(0.2)2 / 2)=1275 W
Therefore, the power required for transmitting AM wave is 1275 watts.
P2: The equation of amplitude modulated wave is given by s(t)=20[1+0.8cos(2π×103t)]
cos(4π×105t). Find the carrier power, the total sideband power, and the band width of
AM wave.
Solution
Given, the equation of Amplitude modulated wave is
s(t)=20[1+0.8cos(2π×103t)] cos (4π×105t)
We know the equation of Amplitude modulated wave is
s(t)=Ac[1 + μ cos (2πfmt)] cos (2πfct)
Ac=20 volts, μ = 0.8, fm=103Hz =1KHz and fc=2×105Hz = 200KHz
Pc = Ac2 / 2R, Assume R=1Ω
Pc = (20)2 / 2(1) = 200 W
We know the formula for total side band power is
PSB=Pc μ2 / 2 = 200×(0.8)2 / 2 = 64 W
BW=2fm = 2 (1K) = 2 KHz
P3: An AM broadcast radio transmitter radiates 10 kw of power, if the % of modulation
index is 60%. Calculate how much carrier power required?
Solution

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 Pt = Pc (1 + μ2 / 2)
Pc = Pt / (1 + μ2 / 2) = 103 / [1 + (0.6)2 / 2] = 8.47 kw
P4: A carrier wave is represented by the expression Vc (t) = 10 sin wt. Draw the waveform of
an AM wave for μ = 0.5
Solution
μ = Vm / Vc, but Vc = 10 volts and μ = 0.5
Vm = μ Vc = 0.5 x 10 = 5 volts

Vmax = Amax = Vm + Vc = 5 + 10 = 15 volts

Vmin = Amin = Vc -Vm = 10 - 5 = 5 volts
P5: Prove that, the maximum average power transmitted by an antenna using amplitude
modulation is 1.5 times the carrier power for maximum modulation.
Solution
Pt = Pc (1 + μ2 / 2), for maximum modulation μ = 1
Pt = Pc (1 + 1/ 2), = 1.5 Pc
Frequency Modulation
In angle modulation, either phase or frequency of the carrier wave is varied according to the
message signal and amplitude of the carrier wave maintained constant. The modulated signal
is given by,
S(t) = Ac cos [θ(t)] ................................................................................... (7)
The angular argument of carrier θ(t) is varied in accordance with message signal m(t). If θ(t)
increases monotonically with time from t to t+∆t, the average frequency in Hertz is given by,
(𝑡+∆𝑡)− 𝜃(𝑡) .....................................................................................................................
f∆t (t) = (8)
2𝜋 ∆𝑡

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 The instantaneous frequency of the angle modulated wave S(t) is,
fi (t) = lim f∆t(t)
∆𝑡=0

= lim [
(𝑡+∆𝑡)−𝜃(𝑡)
]= 1 𝑑𝜃(𝑡) ............................................................. (10)
∆𝑡=0 2𝜋 ∆
𝑡 2𝜋 𝑑𝑡

Where θ(t) = 2πfct + ɸc

There are number of ways to vary θ(t) in accordance with the message signal, however only
two commonly used methods, which are Phase Modulation(PM) and Frequency
Modulation(FM). The generation of PM and FM is shown in figure-7.
➢ Phase Modulation (PM): It is form of angle modulation in which the angular argument θ(t) is
varied linearly with the message signal m(t) and is given by,
θ(t) = 2πfct + kp m(t) .............................................................(11)
Where kp is phase sensitivity of the modulator expressed in rad / volts. Therefore the phase

Modulating Phase
Integrator FM wave
wave Modulator
(a)

Ac cos2πfct

Modulating Frequency
Differentiator PM wave
wave Modulator
(b)

Ac cos2πfct

Figure – 7: (a) FM generation using PM, (b) PM generation using FM

modulated signal S(t) from equation (7) is given by,

S(t) = Ac cos [2πfct + kp m(t)] ................................................ (12)
➢ Frequency Modulation (FM): The FM is also a form of angle modulation in which the
instantaneous frequency fi (t) is varied linearly with the message signal m(t) is given by,
fi (t) = fc + kf m(t) ....................................................................... (13)
Where kf is a frequency sensitivity of modulator expressed in hertz / volts
Integrating equation (13) with respect to time and multiplying the result by 2π, then θ(t) is
given by
𝑡
θ(t) = 2πfct + 2πk f ∫0 𝑚(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 .................................................... (14)

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Finally FM modulated signal S(t) is given by
𝑡
S(t) = Ac cos[2πfct + 2πk f ∫0 𝑚(𝑡)𝑑𝑡] ....................................... (15)
The generation of PM and FM is shown in figure-7 and its waveforms shown in figure-8
respectively.

Figure-8: waveforms

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