Check Your Learning with Max

Module 1
Introduction to the course and how it is assessed. See your
Simple Syllabus on Canvas for details.
Introduction to psychology as a science (e.g., versus common
sense or intuition), and outline of the research process (from
planning, through implementing, to ‘dissemination’ of
findings).
Module 2:
Historical notorious psychology experiments and ethical
concerns that were raised by them (e.g., Milgram, Zimbardo).
Code of Human Research Ethics: Overarching principles (e.g.,
respect, integrity, responsibility, minimise harm) AND how
those are implemented in practice (e.g., assessment of risk,
consent, confidentiality, debriefing, use or not of deception and
giving advice)
Research Methods in Psychology
PSYC2020
Key Characteristics of Experiments
Part 1

David Barron
 What is an experiment?
You have read literature, found a gap, and made a research question

Based on your reading you make a prediction or hypothesis about the

answer to your question

How do you find out if your hypothesis is supported or not?

Conduct scientific psychology experiment

 Variables
A variable is anything that varies

Mood – varies
within a person
Height – varies as Quality of life –
e.g. sometimes
you grow older, varies as you go
happy, sometimes
varies between through life, varies
sad, varies
individuals between people
between
individuals

Attitudes towards
Time – time it
binge drinking –
takes to remember
varies between
a list of words or do
people, varies over
any particular task
your life
 Variables

Notice that all these examples can vary:

Within Between
yourself from different
one time to individuals in
another society
 Cause and Effect

If carried out properly

a true experiment can
help us show that one
variable causes an
effect to occur in
another variable
We do this by
‘manipulating’ one variable
(varying the levels of e.g.,
caffeine so that you have
low, medium and high
doses)….…and testing the
effect on another variable
(e.g., memory recall score)
 Variables in Psychology Experiments
Thus, we manipulate a variable of interest to investigate effects
of each manipulation

Independent variable (IV)

• manipulated (e.g., caffeine level)
• this creates different ‘levels’ of the IV
• these are the experimental ‘conditions’
Dependent variable (DV)
• outcome measure (e.g., memory recall
score)
 IVs and DVs

Manipulation of the IV
Change in DV (e.g.,
(e.g. change in reading produces
reading ability)
method)
 Max Asks…

For the following hypotheses name the IV and the DV.

Lack of sleep significantly affects
learning in 10-year-old boys.

• IV

• DV
The amount of time spent studying
influence test scores

• IV

• DV
Time of day has a significant
effect on alertness.

• IV

• DV
 Cause and Effect Again

When we do an In other words, when we

experiment we are carry out an experiment
looking for a causal link we are testing whether
between the our manipulation of the
independent variable independent variable
and the dependent will cause a change in
variable. the dependent variable.
 Levels of IVs

Confusion between an IV and different levels of an IV

Previous example of IV of low, medium and high
caffeine dosage and DV of memory recall score:
There are not 3 IVs!

There is 1 IV = caffeine dosage

There are 3 levels of the IV = low, medium and high dosage

This makes 3 experimental conditions under which to test

memory recall
 How to describe your IV

Give an overall label for what variable

was manipulated e.g., caffeine dosage

Describe Plus indicate EACH level of the

manipulation e.g., low,
IV medium, high

Caffeine dosage; low, medium

and high
 Examples of IVs, DVs, levels and conditions

Investigate the effects of room temperature on exam score

How many levels of IV

IV =
= you would need
several e.g., cold,
body temperature,
DV =
and hot
 Extraneous Variables

Importantly E.g., in room All other Otherwise they

though in temperature extraneous (rather than the
experiments all and exam score variables that IV) could cause
other factors only thing that could affect a change in DV
must be kept should differ results (e.g., = confounding
constant to between each noise levels, variables
ensure they do experimental lighting etc)
not influence condition is should remain
the two temperature constant
variables under
examination
 Extraneous Variables

Importantly though in experiments all All other extraneous variables that

other factors must be kept constant to could affect results (e.g., noise
ensure they do not influence the two levels, lighting etc) should remain
variables under examination constant. Otherwise, they (rather
E.g., in room temperature and exam than the IV) could cause a change in
score only thing that should differ
between each experimental condition DV = confounding variables
is temperature
 Experimental Confounds

• Famous example from 1970’s of Pepsi versus Coke

• People in street did not know which drink was in which
cup, but were asked to drink from a glass marked ‘Q’
(Coke) and glass marked ‘M’ (Pepsi) then say which they
prefer
 Experimental Confounds

• The type of drink was not the only variable that differed
• people’s choices were influenced by letters on the cup (=
confound) not just taste
• Coke retaliated to eliminate confound of letter on cup
 Control Group

A control group do not receive the

‘treatment’ thought to produce the change
in the DV

Provides a baseline comparison measure

against which we can compare the
performance of the experimental condition

In the caffeine example you would add a

condition with no caffeine

4 experimental conditions; low dose,

medium dose, high dose, and no dose
(control condition)
 Placebo Group
Control groups receive In the caffeine example,
nothing participants may be given
a drink and told it is
caffeinated when it is inert
Placebo groups receive
something, but it is an
inert form of a ‘treatment’

Participants think
they have received a
treatment condition
but they have been 5 experimental conditions;
given a placebo low, medium, high dose,
no dose, placebo dose
 Measuring Variables
Some variables can objectively be
seen without argument, such as
height and weight

In psychology research though we

often aim to measure inner states
that we cannot see objectively, but
instead infer from behaviour
For example, intelligence is an inner
state that we cannot measure using a
ruler or set of weighing scales!

Intelligence is a hypothetical construct

 Hypothetical Constructs
Psychologists treat They are assumed to
psychological concepts exist as factors that
(e.g., intelligence, explain observable
happiness, motivation, behaviour
etc) as hypothetical
constructs

E.g., we cannot directly observe

anxiety, but we can observe behaviours
that are assumed to indicate a state of
anxiety, such as sweating, shaking, etc.
Operationalising Hypothetical Constructs

In order to
operationalise
hypothetical
constructs we
must first come up Converting a
with some kind of hypothetical
definition for construct into a
them. variable with a
measurable scale is
called
operationalising
the variable.
 Operational Definitions
An operational definition of a variable gives us “the set of activities
required to measure X”

An operational definition gives us a method for measuring some

part of a hypothetical construct. It rarely covers the whole of
what is usually understood by that construct.
 Construct Validity

The extent to which our measure

actually coincides with the construct
is referred to as construct validity

Construct
Validity

Measures need to be defined very Construct validity = does your

specifically to achieve construct operationalised variable measure
validity what it says it does?
 Validity and Reliability

• Does the measurement tool measure what it says it

does?
Validity:

• Is your measurement tool consistent? i.e., does it

produce the same readings more than once under
the same circumstances?
• Reliability is necessary but not sufficient for validity
Reliability (a measure can be reliable but not valid)
 Validity and Reliability

Each time you see a hypothetical

construct being measured (class,
news, internet, magazine quizzes etc)

Question it’s validity - does it really measure what it says it does?

Question it’s reliability – does it measure the same thing time and
again?

There are numerous ways to assess validity and reliability – we

will revisit later on
Operational Definitions - Examples
Measuring how superstitious you are

Measure heart rate when participants

are shown a pair of new shoes on a
table or a picture of just one magpie?

Count the number of people who

went out of their way to avoid
walking under a ladder placed in a
busy street?

Questionnaire asking people whether

they agree or disagree with certain
superstitious statements?
Operational Definitions - Examples

Health related quality of life

• Count the number of days per year each participant

had missed work or social activities due to ill
health?

• Count the number of times in last week participant

felt happy?
Operational Definitions - Examples

Social anxiety

Person keeps a
diary of
Measure how
Observation of everything
much person
the number of they’ve done in
sweats when
conversations a the last month –
having to give a
person initiates add up number of
speech or go to a
at a party? social situations
job interview?
they voluntarily
got involved in?
Characteristics of Experiments:
Summary
Hypotheses
Variables: IVs (and levels of IVs) and DVs
Manipulating IV to tests effects on DV (cause and effect)
‘Manipulate’ = vary the ‘levels’ of your IV (produces
experimental ‘conditions’)
Extraneous variables
Confounding variables
Control group and placebo group
Operationalising hypothetical constructs/variables
Validity and reliability
 Activities to complete after this
class

Complete the assigned reading

for week 3: Chapter 4/5 in Cozby
and Bates OR Chapter 2,4, 13 of
Coolican
Discussion Boards (optional)
Office hours on level 5 and café
inquisitive in Highlands Coffee

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