Karnataka 2nd PUC | KCET | Degree College

Chapter 3
Matrices
Complete Notes with Diagrams, Proofs, Properties & Solved Examples

0. Chapter Overview — Topic Map

Fig 0 — Complete topic map for Chapter 3: Matrices

1. Introduction to Matrices
A matrix is a rectangular arrangement of numbers (or functions) in rows and columns, enclosed in
brackets. Matrices are used to represent and solve systems of linear equations, transformations in
geometry, networks, economics models, and much more.

Notation: A matrix A of order m × n has m rows and n columns.

A = [ aᵢⱼ ]ₘₓₙ
Here aᵢⱼ denotes the element in the iᵗʰ row and jᵗʰ column (i = 1…m, j = 1…n).

Example: A 2×3 matrix

A = | 1 2 3 |
| 4 5 6 |
Here: a₁₁=1, a₁₂=2, a₁₃=3, a₂₁=4, a₂₂=5, a₂₃=6. Order = 2×3.
 ★ Note: The order of a matrix is always written as rows × columns. A 3×2 matrix is NOT the same
as a 2×3 matrix.
KCET TIP: KCET frequently asks: 'Find the element aᵢⱼ given a formula'. Substitute i and j directly
into the formula.

2. Types of Matrices — with Visual Diagrams

Fig 2.0 — All 8 types of matrices visualised

Type Condition Example

Row Matrix Only 1 row (1×n) [1 2 3]
Column Matrix Only 1 col (m×1) [1 / 2 / 3] (col)
Square Matrix rows = cols (n×n) 2×2, 3×3, ...
Zero/Null Matrix All entries = 0 0 = [[0,0],[0,0]]
Identity Matrix
Diag=1, rest=0 I₂=[[1,0],[0,1]]
Iₙ
Diagonal Matrix Off-diag entries=0 diag(3,7,2)
Upper Triangular aᵢⱼ=0 for i>j zeroes below diag
Lower Triangular aᵢⱼ=0 for i<j zeroes above diag
Symmetric A = Aᵀ → aᵢⱼ=aⱼᵢ [[1,2],[2,3]]
Skew-Symmetric A = −Aᵀ, diag=0 [[0,3],[−3,0]]

★ Note: Diagonal elements of a skew-symmetric matrix are ALWAYS zero, since aᵢᵢ = −aᵢᵢ implies
2aᵢᵢ = 0, i.e., aᵢᵢ = 0.
3. Equality of Matrices
Two matrices A and B are equal (A = B) if and only if:
• They have the same order (same number of rows and columns), AND
• Every corresponding element is equal: aᵢⱼ = bᵢⱼ for all i, j

Example:
If [[x+y, 2], [5, z]] = [[6, 2], [5, 4]], find x, y, z.
→ x+y = 6, z = 4. Need one more equation (e.g. x−y given
elsewhere).

4. Operations on Matrices
4.1 Addition & Subtraction
If A = [aᵢⱼ]ₘₓₙ and B = [bᵢⱼ]ₘₓₙ (same order), then:
A + B = [aᵢⱼ + bᵢⱼ]ₘₓₙ
A − B = [aᵢⱼ − bᵢⱼ]ₘₓₙ

Fig 4.1 — Matrix Addition: add corresponding elements

Properties of Matrix Addition:

• Commutative: A + B = B + A
• Associative: (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
• Additive Identity: A + 0 = A (where 0 is the zero matrix)
• Additive Inverse: A + (−A) = 0

★ Note: Addition is defined ONLY when both matrices have the SAME order. You cannot add a
2×3 and a 3×2 matrix.

4.2 Scalar Multiplication

If k is a scalar and A = [aᵢⱼ], then:
 k·A = [k·aᵢⱼ]
Every element of A is multiplied by k.

Fig 4.2 — Scalar Multiplication: every entry multiplied by k=3

Properties:
• k(A + B) = kA + kB
• (k₁ + k₂)A = k₁A + k₂A
• (k₁k₂)A = k₁(k₂A)
• 1·A = A, 0·A = 0

4.3 Matrix Multiplication

If A is m×n and B is n×p, then AB is m×p.
(AB)ᵢⱼ = Σₖ aᵢₖ · bₖⱼ (sum over k = 1 to n)
i.e., the (i,j) entry of AB = dot product of iᵗʰ row of A with jᵗʰ column of B.

Fig 4.3 — Matrix Multiplication: row × column dot products

★ Note: Number of columns of A MUST equal number of rows of B for multiplication to be defined.

Properties of Matrix Multiplication:

• NOT Commutative: AB ≠ BA (in general)
 • Associative: (AB)C = A(BC)
• Distributive: A(B+C) = AB + AC
• Identity: AI = IA = A
• Zero matrix: A·0 = 0·A = 0
• Cancellation DOES NOT hold: AB = AC does NOT imply B = C

KCET TIP: AB ≠ BA is the most common trap in KCET. Always verify order before multiplying.

Worked Example: Multiply 2×2 matrices

A = [[1,2],[3,4]], B = [[2,0],[1,3]]
AB[0,0] = 1×2 + 2×1 = 4
AB[0,1] = 1×0 + 2×3 = 6
AB[1,0] = 3×2 + 4×1 = 10
AB[1,1] = 3×0 + 4×3 = 12
∴ AB = [[4,6],[10,12]]

5. Transpose of a Matrix
The transpose of A = [aᵢⱼ]ₘₓₙ is Aᵀ = [aⱼᵢ]ₙₓₘ. Rows of A become columns of Aᵀ.

Fig 5.0 — Transpose: rows of A become columns of Aᵀ

Properties of Transpose:
• (Aᵀ)ᵀ = A
• (A + B)ᵀ = Aᵀ + Bᵀ
• (kA)ᵀ = k·Aᵀ
• (AB)ᵀ = BᵀAᵀ ← ORDER REVERSES!
• (ABC)ᵀ = CᵀBᵀAᵀ

★ Note: (AB)ᵀ = BᵀAᵀ, NOT AᵀBᵀ. This reversal of order is a very common board exam and KCET
question.
6. Symmetric & Skew-Symmetric Matrices

Fig 6.0 — Symmetric (left) vs Skew-Symmetric (right): note red negative entries and zero diagonal

6.1 Symmetric Matrix

A square matrix A is symmetric if Aᵀ = A, i.e., aᵢⱼ = aⱼᵢ for all i, j.
Example: A = [[2, 3, 4],
[3, 5, 6],
[4, 6, 7]] → Aᵀ = A ✓

6.2 Skew-Symmetric Matrix

A square matrix A is skew-symmetric if Aᵀ = −A, i.e., aᵢⱼ = −a ⱼᵢ for all i, j.
Key consequence: diagonal elements are always zero (aᵢᵢ = −aᵢᵢ → aᵢᵢ = 0).
Example: A = [[ 0, 3, −4],
[−3, 0, 6],
[ 4,−6, 0]] → Aᵀ = −A ✓

6.3 Decomposition Theorem (Very Important!)

EVERY square matrix can be uniquely expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a skew-symmetric
matrix:
A = P + Q
where P = (A + Aᵀ)/2 [symmetric]
and Q = (A − Aᵀ)/2 [skew-symmetric]

★ Note: Proof: Pᵀ = ((A+Aᵀ)/2)ᵀ = (Aᵀ+A)/2 = P ✓ and Qᵀ = ((A−Aᵀ)/2)ᵀ = (Aᵀ−A)/2 = −Q ✓

Example: Express A = [[1,2],[3,4]] as sum of symmetric and skew-symmetric

 Aᵀ = [[1,3],[2,4]]
P = (A+Aᵀ)/2 = [[1, 2.5],[2.5, 4]] (symmetric)
Q = (A−Aᵀ)/2 = [[0, −0.5],[0.5, 0]] (skew-symmetric)
Check: P + Q = [[1,2],[3,4]] = A ✓

KCET TIP: This decomposition appears as a guaranteed 5-mark board question almost every year.

7. Elementary Row & Column Operations

These are used in finding the inverse of a matrix using row reduction (important for college).

Three Types of Elementary Row Operations (ERO):

• Rᵢ ↔ Rⱼ : Interchange row i and row j
• Rᵢ → k·Rᵢ : Multiply row i by a non-zero scalar k
• Rᵢ → Rᵢ + k·Rⱼ : Add k times row j to row i

Similarly, Elementary Column Operations (ECO): Cᵢ ↔ Cⱼ, Cᵢ → k·Cᵢ, Cᵢ → Cᵢ + k·C ⱼ

★ Note: In a single problem, use EITHER row operations OR column operations — do NOT mix
both on the same matrix.

Finding Inverse using Elementary Row Operations:

Write [A | I] and apply EROs to transform A into I. The right side becomes A ⁻¹.
[ A | I ] → EROs → [ I | A⁻¹ ]

Example: Find inverse of A = [[1,2],[3,4]]

[ 1 2 | 1 0 ]
[ 3 4 | 0 1 ]
R₂ → R₂ − 3R₁: [ 1 2 | 1 0 ]
[ 0 −2| −3 1 ]
R₂ → −½ R₂: [ 1 2 | 1 0 ]
[ 0 1 | 3/2 −1/2]
R₁ → R₁ − 2R₂: [ 1 0 | −2 1 ]
[ 0 1 | 3/2 −1/2]
∴ A⁻¹ = [[ −2, 1], [3/2, −1/2]]
8. Invertible (Non-Singular) Matrices
A square matrix A is invertible if there exists a matrix B such that:
AB = BA = I
B is called the inverse of A, written as A⁻¹.

Conditions for invertibility:

• A must be a SQUARE matrix
• det(A) ≠ 0 (non-singular) — covered fully in Chapter 4: Determinants

Properties of Inverse:
• (A⁻¹)⁻¹ = A
• (AB)⁻¹ = B⁻¹A⁻¹ ← order reverses!
• (Aᵀ)⁻¹ = (A⁻¹)ᵀ
• (kA)⁻¹ = (1/k)A⁻¹

★ Note: If A is symmetric and invertible, then A⁻¹ is also symmetric.

KCET TIP: The inverse of AB reverses order: (AB)⁻¹ = B⁻¹A⁻¹. A classic KCET 1-mark question.

9. Key Theorems & Results

Theorem 1: Every square matrix = Symmetric + Skew-Symmetric
(See Section 6.3 above — proof and example given)

Theorem 2: For symmetric A, Aⁿ is also symmetric

Proof: (Aⁿ)ᵀ = (Aᵀ)ⁿ = Aⁿ (since Aᵀ = A) ✓

Theorem 3: If A and B are symmetric, AB is symmetric iff AB = BA

Proof: (AB)ᵀ = BᵀAᵀ = BA. For AB to be symmetric, AB = (AB)ᵀ = BA.

Theorem 4: AAᵀ and AᵀA are always symmetric

Proof: (AAᵀ)ᵀ = (Aᵀ)ᵀAᵀ = AAᵀ ✓

Theorem 5: For any matrix A, A + Aᵀ is symmetric and A − Aᵀ is skew-symmetric

(A + Aᵀ)ᵀ = Aᵀ + A = A + Aᵀ → symmetric ✓
(A − Aᵀ)ᵀ = Aᵀ − A = −(A − Aᵀ) → skew-symmetric ✓
10. Solved Examples by Type
Type 1: Finding Elements Using a Formula
Q1. Construct a 2×3 matrix A where aᵢⱼ = 2i − j
a₁₁=2(1)−1=1, a₁₂=2(1)−2=0, a₁₃=2(1)−3=−1
a₂₁=2(2)−1=3, a₂₂=2(2)−2=2, a₂₃=2(2)−3=1
∴ A = [[1, 0, −1],
[3, 2, 1]]

Type 2: Matrix Algebra

Q2. If 2A + B = [[1,2],[3,4]] and A − B = [[2,1],[4,3]], find A and B.
Adding: 3A = [[3,3],[7,7]] → A = [[1, 1],[7/3, 7/3]]
B = A − [[2,1],[4,3]] = [[−1, 0],[7/3−4, 7/3−3]]

Q3. Verify that AB ≠ BA for A=[[1,2],[3,4]], B=[[0,1],[1,0]]

AB = [[0+2, 1+0],[0+4, 3+0]] = [[2,1],[4,3]]
BA = [[0+3, 0+4],[1+0, 2+0]] = [[3,4],[1,2]]
AB ≠ BA ✓ (Multiplication is NOT commutative)

Type 3: Transpose Problems

Q4. If A = [[1,3],[2,4]], verify (AB)ᵀ = BᵀAᵀ for B = [[1,0],[2,1]]
AB = [[7,3],[10,4]], (AB)ᵀ = [[7,10],[3,4]]
Aᵀ = [[1,2],[3,4]], Bᵀ = [[1,2],[0,1]]
BᵀAᵀ = [[1×1+2×3, 1×2+2×4],[0+3, 0+4]] = [[7,10],[3,4]] ✓

Type 4: Symmetric / Skew-Symmetric

Q5. Express A = [[2,4,6],[3,5,7],[1,2,3]] as P + Q (sym + skew-sym)
Aᵀ = [[2,3,1],[4,5,2],[6,7,3]]
P = (A+Aᵀ)/2 = [[2, 3.5, 3.5],[3.5, 5, 4.5],[3.5, 4.5, 3]]
Q = (A−Aᵀ)/2 = [[0, 0.5, 2.5],[−0.5, 0, 2.5],[−2.5, −2.5, 0]]
Verify: P+Q = A ✓, Pᵀ=P ✓, Qᵀ=−Q ✓

Type 5: College Level — Proving Matrix Identities

Q6. If A² − 5A + 6I = 0, find A⁻¹
A² − 5A + 6I = 0
 Multiply both sides by A⁻¹:
A − 5I + 6A⁻¹ = 0
6A⁻¹ = 5I − A
A⁻¹ = (5I − A)/6 = (1/6)(5I − A)

Q7. For A = [[cosθ, sinθ],[−sinθ, cosθ]], show A·Aᵀ = I

Aᵀ = [[cosθ, −sinθ],[sinθ, cosθ]]
A·Aᵀ = [[cos²θ+sin²θ, −cosθsinθ+sinθcosθ],
[−sinθcosθ+cosθsinθ, sin²θ+cos²θ]]
= [[1, 0],[0, 1]] = I ✓
★ Note: Such matrices are called Orthogonal Matrices — important in linear algebra at college
level.

11. Quick Reference — All Properties at a Glance

Property / Condition Result / Formula
Matrix Addition A+B = [aᵢⱼ+bᵢⱼ] (same order only)
Scalar Multiplication kA = [k·aᵢⱼ]
Matrix Multiply condition cols(A) = rows(B) for AB to exist
Commutativity of + A+B = B+A ✓
Commutativity of × AB ≠ BA (in general) ✗
Transpose of product (AB)ᵀ = BᵀAᵀ (order reverses!)
Inverse of product (AB)⁻¹ = B⁻¹A⁻¹ (order reverses!)
Symmetric condition Aᵀ = A
Skew-symmetric condition Aᵀ = −A, diagonal = 0
Decomposition A = (A+Aᵀ)/2 + (A−Aᵀ)/2
AAᵀ is always Symmetric
Identity: A·I = I·A = A for any square matrix
Invertible condition det(A) ≠ 0
(Aᵀ)⁻¹ = (A⁻¹)ᵀ
ERO to find A⁻¹ [A|I] → EROs → [I|A⁻¹]

12. KCET Quick Reference & Board Exam Guide

Most Frequently Tested Topics in KCET:
 • Constructing a matrix given a formula for aᵢⱼ
• Matrix multiplication (especially 2×2 and 2×3 × 3×2 types)
• Verifying/applying transpose properties — especially (AB)ᵀ = BᵀAᵀ
• Identifying type of matrix (symmetric, skew-symmetric, diagonal, etc.)
• Expressing a matrix as sum of symmetric and skew-symmetric
• Using matrix equations to find A⁻¹

Common Mistakes to Avoid:

• Assuming AB = BA (matrix multiplication is NOT commutative)
• Forgetting to reverse order in (AB)ᵀ = BᵀAᵀ and (AB)⁻¹ = B⁻¹A⁻¹
• Adding matrices of different orders
• Saying diagonal elements of skew-symmetric matrix can be non-zero
• Confusing order: rows × cols. A is m×n, B is n×p → AB is m×p

Standard 5-Mark Board Questions (Practice These):

1. Express A = [[1,5,−1],[2,3,4],[0,2,−3]] as sum of symmetric and
skew-symmetric.
2. Find A⁻¹ using elementary row operations for A = [[2,1],[5,3]].
3. If A = [[1,2,3],[3,−2,1],[4,2,1]], verify A(adj A) = |A|·I.
4. Solve system using matrices: x+2y+3z=6, 2x−y+z=2, 3x+2y−2z=3.
5. If A = [[0,−tan(α/2)],[tan(α/2),0]], prove (I+A)(I−A)⁻¹ = rotation
matrix.

2nd PUC Board | KCET | Degree College — Chapter 3: Matrices