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Fundamental of Electronics Engineering Unit 2 (TRANSISTORS) BEC101/201

DEPARTMENT OF [Link]. FIRST YEAR

FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

BEC-101/201

UNIT – 2

(TRANSISTORS)
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Fundamental of Electronics Engineering Unit 2 (TRANSISTORS) BEC101/201

What do we study in Transistors?

This unit consists of the basics of transistors, Types of transistors about Bipolar Junction Transistors
(BJTs) and Field Effect Transistors (FETs). In Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs): Structure and
Operation: Study the NPN and PNP types, how they work, and their internal structure, Modes of
Operation: Active, Cut-off, and Saturation modes, Characteristics Curves: Understanding the output and
transfer characteristics of BJTs, Field Effect Transistors (FETs): Structure and Operation: Exploring
types like Junction FET (JFET) and Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor FET (MOSFET), and how they differ
from BJTs, Characteristics Curves: Analyzing the I-V characteristics of FETs, Transistor Amplifiers:
Basic Amplifier Configurations: Common Emitter, Common Collector, and Common Base for BJTs

Why do we need Transistors?

Transistors are fundamental to modern electronics because they serve as both switches and amplifiers,
which are crucial for the functioning of various electronic devices. As electronic switches, transistors
enable precise control over electrical currents, allowing them to turn circuits on and off, a function
essential for digital logic and computing. As amplifiers, they boost weak electrical signals to stronger
levels, making them indispensable in audio, radio, and communication systems. Their compact size and
ability to be integrated into small semiconductor chips have revolutionized electronics, allowing for the
development of miniature, reliable, and efficient devices. This versatility and reliability make transistors
central to everything from basic electronic circuits to complex integrated systems, underscoring their
importance in both everyday technology and advanced applications.

Where do we use Transistors?

Transistors are used in a wide range of applications across electronics, and understanding their roles is
crucial in a first-year electronics course. In everyday devices, transistors act as switches to control
digital signals in computers and smart-phones, enabling complex computations and operations. They are
also employed as amplifiers in audio equipment to enhance sound quality, in radio transmitters to boost
signals, and in televisions to process and display images. Additionally, transistors are integral to power
supplies, where they regulate voltage to ensure stable performance of electronic devices. Their use
extends to signal processing, oscillators, and modulation circuits, making them essential components in
virtually all modern electronic systems and gadgets.
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2.1. Transistor:-
Transistor is a device which transfers applied signal from one type of resistor to other type of resistor.
For example signals can be transferred from low resistor to high or high resistor to low.
Transistor = Transfer + resistor

2.1.1. Classification of Transistor:-

Fig.2.1. Classification of Transistor

*BJT: Bipolar Junction Transistor
FET: Field Effect Transistor
JFET: Junction Field Effect Transistor
MOSFET: Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor

2.2. Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT):-

2.2.1. Construction / Doping profile and Physical appearance of Transistor (BJT):

Bipolar Junction Transistor:-
Construction:
BJT consists of a layer of n type material sandwiched between two p type materials or one p type
material sandwiched between two n type materials.

Fig.2.2. NPN BJT and PNP BJT with symbols

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Where, J1 is Emitter Base Junction

J2 is Collector Base Junction

Emitter: It is the highest doping region in the transistor. It supplies (emits) carriers to the base. It
supplies electrons to the base in n-p-n and holes in p-n-p.

Base: The middle part of the transistor is called base. It is very thin and lightly doped. So most of the
carrier coming from the emitter passes to the collector.

Collector: Collector collects the carriers which are coming from base. Doping of the collector is
heavier than base but less than emitter.
Area profile: C > E > B
Doping profile: E > C > B

Ques 1: Describe the construction of n p n BJT? (AKTU 2020-21)

Ques 2: Thickness of the base is typically smaller than the emitter & collector. Why? (AKTU 2011-12)
Ques 3: Discuss the construction, doping profile and physical appearance of Emitter, Base and collector
of transistors. (AKTU 2013-14)

2.2.2. Different modes or working regions of BJT :-

BJT operates in three modes.

i) Active region: In active region emitter-base junction (JE-B) is forward biased and collector -base
junction (JC-B) is reverse biased. In this region the transistor works as an amplifier.

Fig. 2.3. NPN BJT and PNP BJT in active region

ii) Saturation region: In this region emitter-base junction (JE-B) and collector -base junction (JC-B) both
are forward biased. In this region the transistor works as a closed switch.

Fig. 2.4. NPN BJT and PNP BJT in saturation region

iii) Cut-off region: In this region emitter-base junction (JE-B) and collector -base junction (JC-B) both are
reverse biased. In this region the transistor works as an open switch.
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Fig. 2.5. NPN BJT and PNP BJT in cutoff region

Modes JEB JCB Application

Active Forward Reverse Amplifier
Saturation Forward Forward Closed Switch (ON)
Cutoff Reverse Reverse Open Switch (OFF)

Reverse Active Reverse Forward Performance degradation

Table 2.1. Different mode of operation in BJT

2.2.3. Operation of NPN transistors in active regions:-

To operate BJT in an active region JE-B (emitter base junction) must be forward biased and JC-B
(collector base junction) must be reverse biased.

Fig. 2.6. NPN BJT operation in active region

JEB is forward biased by the battery VEE by which the depletion region will decrease and a majority
carrier flow will occur from emitter to base giving current Imajority or IE.
IE = Imajority =IeE+IhB -------------------- (1)
So, Here, IeE is current due to electrons of the emitter region
IhB is current due to holes in the base region.
Since electrons are majority charge carriers in emitter so, IeE > > IhB
So equation becomes IE= IeE--------------------- (2)
In base region there is recombination between electrons and holes due to which base current is obtained.
As number of holes in base is very small, base current is very small.
JCB is reverse biased by VCC. So collector current is due to flow of minority charge carriers from both
sides of the junction. In base minority carriers are electrons left after recombination and in collector
minority carriers are holes. So,
IC=Iminority= Iec +ICO-------------- (3)
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But Iec = α IE
IC = α IE+ICO ---------- (4)
Here α is Transportation factor or current gain of BJT
Directions of all terminal currents are shown in figure and it is clear that,
IE = IC + IB ---------- (5)

Ques 1: Explain the operating principle of BJT. (AKTU 2023-24)

Ques 2: Explain the operation of NPN transistors in active regions.
OR
Explain various current components in an NPN transistor with the help of a suitable diagram. (AKTU
2020-21)

2.2.4. Operation of PNP transistors in active regions:-

To operate BJT in an active region JE-B (emitter base junction) must be forward biased and JC-B
(collector base junction) must be reverse biased.

Fig. 2.7. PNP BJT operation in active region

JEB is forward biased by the battery VEE by which the depletion region will decrease and a majority
carrier flow will occur from emitter to base giving current Imajority or IE.
IE = Imajority =IhE+IeB -----------(1)
So, Here, IhE is current due to holes of the emitter region
IeB is current due to electrons in the base region.
Since holes are majority charge carriers in emitter so, IhE > > IeB
So equation becomes IE= IhE ------------ (2)
In base region there is recombination between electrons and holes due to which base current is obtained.
As number of electrons in base is very small, base current is very small.
JCB is reverse biased by VCC. So collector current is due to flow of minority charge carriers from both
sides of the junction. In base minority carriers are holes left after recombination and in collector
minority carriers are electrons. So,
IC=Iminority= Ihc +ICO --------- (3)
But Ihc = α IE
IC = α IE+ICO ---------- (4)
Here α is Transportation factor or current gain of BJT
Directions of all terminal currents are shown in figure and it is clear that,
IE = IC + IB ---------- (5)
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2.2.5. BJT: Bipolar device:-

BJT is called bipolar device because its operation depends on both majority and minority carriers.
A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a current-controlled device because the current through two of
its terminals is controlled by a current at the third terminal. The base current controls the collector
current, and the emitter current is the sum of the base and collector currents.

Ques 1: Explain why BJT is a Bipolar Device? (AKTU 2015-16)

Ques 2: How can a transistor be defined as a Current operated Device? (AKTU 2013-14)
Ques 3: Why BJT is a Current controlled Device? (AKTU 2023-24)

2.2.6. Transistor Configuration or Connection:-

Transistor has three terminals emitter, base and collector. But we require four terminals to connect the
transistor in a circuit as an amplifier. Two for input and two for output.
This is achieved by making one terminal of transistor common to input and output.
So, transistor has three configurations based on the common terminal.
1. Common base configuration (CB)
2. Common emitter configuration (CE)
3. Common collector configuration (CC)

[Link]. Common base configuration (CB) -NPN :-

In common base input is applied between emitter and base. Output is taken out from collector and base.
So base is common between input and output.

Fig. 2.8. Common Base NPN BJT in active region

1. DC Current gain:- It is the ratio of output current (IC) to the input current (IE).

α=
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Since IE > IC so value of α is less than 1. Value of α ranges from 0.90 to 0.99. So, no current gain is
available in CB configuration.

2. Expression for Output Current:-

IC = IC (Maj)+ ICO--------------- (1)

For CB ; ICO =ICBO (Reverse leakage current between collector to base current
when emitter is open )
IC =IC(Maj)+ ICBO -------------------------------------(2)

But =
IC(Maj) = IE (3)

IC = IE +ICBO

3. Input V-I Characteristics of CB Configuration:-

It is graph between input current (IE) and input voltage (VEB) at constant output voltage (VCB). This
graph is drawn for active region of BJT.

Fig. 2.9. Common Base NPN BJT in active region

 By keeping constant VCB, when forward bias at emitter base junction is increased then graph
between IB and VEB is similar to forward characteristics of P-N junction diode.
 As VCB increases IE increases slightly due to early effect.

Fig. 2.10. Input V-I Characteristics of CB

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4. Output V-I Characteristics of CB Configuration:-

It is graph between output current (IC) and output voltage (VCB ) at constant input current (IE). This
graph is drawn for all three operating regions of BJT.
 Active Region: For given α and IE, IC is dependent only on ICBO which is slightly dependent on
VCB. So graph of active region is almost constant.
IC= α IE+ICBO
 Saturation Region: When the transistor is switched from active to saturation region, a large
change in collector current for very small value of forward bias voltage at collector to base
junction is obtained in negative direction.
 Cut-Off Region: When both the junctions are reverse biased, a very small collector current is
obtained which is close to horizontal axis.
IC= α IE+ICBO
For cut off region IE=0
Then IC= ICBO

Fig. 2.11. Output V-I Characteristics of CB

Ques 1: Explain the working of N-P-N Common Base circuit with its circuit diagram. Draw the input
and output characteristics of common base (CB) configuration. (AKTU 2022-23)
OR
Draw the I/P and O/P characteristics of Common Base Configuration? (AKTU 2015-16)
OR
Draw the circuit of the NPN transistor in common base configuration and discuss its working. Draw
input-output characteristics.( AKTU 2011-12)
OR
Draw and explain common base N P N transistors with the input and output characteristics graph. Also
write an expression for output current. (AKTU 2021-22)

[Link]. Common base configuration (CB) -PNP:-

In common base input is applied between emitter and base. Output is taken out from collector and base.
So base is common between input and output.
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Fig. 2.12. Common Base PNP BJT in active region

1. DC Current gain:-
It is the ratio of output current (IC) to the input current (IE).

α=

Since IE > IC so value of α is less than 1. Value of α ranges from 0.90 to 0.99. So, no current gain is
available in CB configuration.

2. Expression for Output Current:-

IC = IC (Maj)+ ICO ------------------------------ (1)

For CB ; ICO =ICBO ( Reverse leakage current between collector to base current
when emitter is open )
IC =IC(Maj)+ ICBO (2)

But =
IC(Maj) = IE (3)

IC = IE +ICBO

3. Input V-I Characteristics of CB Configuration:-

Fig. 2.13. Common Base PNP BJT in active region

It is graph between input current (IE) and input voltage (VEB) at constant output voltage (VCB). This
graph is drawn for active region of BJT.
 By keeping constant VCB, when forward bias at emitter base junction is increased then graph
between IB and VEB is similar to forward characteristics of P-N junction diode.
 As VCB increases IE increases slightly due to early effect.
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Fig. 2.14. Input V-I Characteristics of CB

4. Output V-I Characteristics of CB Configuration:-

It is graph between output current (IC )and output voltage (VCB )at constant input current (IE). This
graph is drawn for all three operating regions of BJT.
 Active Region: For given α and IE, IC is dependent only on ICBO which is slightly dependent on
VCB. So graph of active region is almost constant.
IC= α IE+ICBO
 Saturation Region: When the transistor is switched from active to saturation region, a large
change in collector current for very small value of forward bias voltage at collector to base
junction is obtained in negative direction.
 Cut-Off Region: When both the junctions are reverse biased, a very small collector current is
obtained which is close to horizontal axis.
IC= α IE+ICBO
For cut off region IE=0
Then IC= ICBO

Fig. 2.15. Output V-I Characteristics of CB

Ques 1: Explain the working of P-N-P Common Base circuit with its circuit diagram. Draw the input
and output characteristics of common base (CB) configuration. (AKTU 2021-22, 2023-24)
OR
Discuss and explain the working of P-N-P Common Base circuit with its circuit diagram. Draw the
input and output characteristics of common base (CB) configuration. (AKTU 2023-24)

[Link]. Common emitter configuration (CE)-NPN :-

In this configuration input is applied between base and emitter while output is taken out from collector
and emitter. So, emitter of transistor is common to both input and output.
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Fig. 2.16. Common Emitter NPN BJT in active region

1. DC Current gain:- It is the ratio of output current (IC) to the input current (IB).

Since value of IB << IC. So β >>1. Therefore, current gain is available in CE configuration.
Value of β varies from 20 to 500.

2. Expression for Output Current:-

IC = IE +ICBO ----------------------------------------- (1)
IC = (IC + IB) + ICBO ---------------------------------- (2)
[ IE=IC+IB]
IC = IC + IB + ICBO
IC (1- ) = IB + ICBO
IC = IB + ----------------------- (3)

But =

+1 = +1
= +1 (4)
Using equation 2 and 3 we get,

IC = IB + ( ICBO - -------------- (5)

IC = IB + ICEO ---------------------------- (6)

Where ICEO: Leakage current between collector to emitter current when base is open and ICEO is given
ICEO = ( ICBO------------------------------ (7)

3. Input V-I Characteristics of CE Configuration:-

It is graph between input current (IB) and input voltage (VBE) at constant output voltage (VCE). This
graph is drawn for active region of BJT.
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Fig. 2.17. Common Emitter NPN BJT in active region

 By keeping constant VCE, when forward bias at emitter base junction is increased then graph
between IE and VBE is similar to forward characteristics of P-N junction diode.
 If this graph is again drawn for some higher value of VCE a similar graph is obtained with
increased knee voltage. This is due to reduction in IB on increasing reverse bias at collector base
junction because of early effect.

Fig. 2.18. Input V-I Characteristics of CE

4. Output V-I Characteristics of CE Configuration:-

It is graph between output current (IC ) and output voltage (VCE ) at constant input current ( IB ). This
graph is drawn for all three operating regions of BJT.
To draw the graph in active region equation of output current,
IC = IB + ( ICBO
 Active Region: For given β and IB, IC is dependent on (β +1)ICB0 which is more dependent on
VCE than in case of CB configuration. So, graph of active region has some slope showing change
in IC on changing VCE.
IC = IB + ( ICBO
 Saturation region: When the transistor is switched from active to saturation region, a large
change in collector current for very small change in collector voltage is obtained in negative
direction.
 Cut-Off Region: When both the junctions are reverse biased, a very small collector current is
obtained which is close to horizontal axis.
IC = IB + ( ICBO
In cutoff region IB=0
Then IC = (β+1)ICBO
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Fig. 2.19. Output V-I Characteristics of CE

Ques 1: Derive the relationship IC= βIb+Icbo ? (AKTU 2013-14)

Ques 2: Explain the working of N-P-N Common Emitter circuit with its circuit diagram. Draw the input
and output characteristics of common base (CE) configuration. (AKTU 2022-23)
OR
Draw the I/P and O/P characteristics of Common Emitter Configuration? (AKTU 2020-21, 2015-16)
OR
Draw and explain the working of N P N transistors in common Emitter configuration with its suitable
characteristics graph. (AKTU 2011-12, 2010-11)
OR
Describe the construction and working of a NPN transistor in CE configuration w.r.t to size and doping.
Also draw the input and output characteristics graph. (AKTU 2021-22)

[Link]. Common emitter configuration (CE) -PNP:-

In this configuration input is applied between base and emitter while output is taken out from collector
and emitter. So, emitter of transistor is common to both input and output.

Fig 2.20. Common Emitter PNP BJT in active region

1. DC Current gain: It is the ratio of output current (IC) to the input current (IB).
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Since value of IB << IC. So β >>1. Therefore, current gain is available in CE configuration.
Value of β varies from 20 to 500.

2. Expression for Output Current :

IC = IE +ICBO
IC = (IC + IB) + ICBO ---------------------------------- (1)
[ IE=IC+IB]
IC = IC + IB + ICBO
IC (1- ) = IB + ICBO
IC = IB + ----------------------- (2)

But =

+1 = +1
= +1 (3)
Using equation 2 and 3 we get,

IC = IB + ( ICBO -----------------(4)

IC = IB + ICEO - ------------------ (5)

Where ICEO: Leakage current between collector to emitter current when base is open and ICEO is given
ICEO = ( ICBO--------------------------- (6)

3. Input V-I Characteristics of CE Configuration:

It is graph between input current (IB) and input voltage (VBE) at constant output voltage (VCE). This
graph is drawn for active region of BJT.
Ic

P
Ib
N -
- +
+ P

IE

Fig 2.21. Common Emitter PNP BJT in active region

 By keeping constant VCE, when forward bias at emitter base junction is increased then graph
between IE and VBE is similar to forward characteristics of P-N junction diode.
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 If this graph is again drawn for some higher value of VCE a similar graph is obtained with
increased knee voltage. This is due to reduction in IB on increasing reverse bias at collector base
junction because of early effect.

Fig. 2.22. Input V-I Characteristics of CE

4. Output V-I Characteristics of CE Configuration:-

It is graph between output current (IC ) and output voltage (VCE )at constant input current (IB). This
graph is drawn for all three operating regions of BJT.
To draw the graph in active region equation of output current,
IC = IB + ( ICBO
 Active Region: For given β and IB, IC is dependent on (β +1) ICB0 which is more dependent on
VCE than in case of CB configuration. So, graph of active region has some slope showing change
in IC on changing VCE.
IC = IB + ( ICBO
 Saturation region: When the transistor is switched from active to saturation region, a large
change in collector current for very small change in collector voltage is obtained in negative
direction.
 Cut-Off Region: When both the junctions are reverse biased, a very small collector current is
obtained which is close to horizontal axis.
IC = IB + ( ICBO
In cutoff region, IB=0
Then IC = (β+1) ICBO

Fig. 2.23. Output V-I Characteristics of CE

Ques 1: Explain the working of P-N-P Common Emitter circuit with its circuit diagram. Draw the input
and output characteristics of common base (CE) configuration.
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[Link]. Common collector configuration (CC) –NPN:-

In this configuration input is applied between base and collector while output is taken out from collector
and emitter. So, collector of transistor is common to both input and output.

Fig 2.24. Common Collector NPN BJT in active region

1. DC Current gain:- It is the ratio of output current (IE) to the input current (IB).

γ=

Since value of IB << IE. So γ >>1. Therefore, current gain is available in CC configuration. But voltage
gain is not available in CC.

2. Expression for Output Current:-

IC = IE +ICBO ---------------------(1)
IE = IC+IB = IE +ICBO + IB
IE (1- ) = ICBO + IB
IE = ICBO + IB

IE = ( +1) IB + ( +1) ICBO---------------------- (2)

IE = γ IB+ γ ICBO - --------- (3)

3. Input V-I Characteristics of CC Configuration:-

It is graph between input current (IB) and input voltage (VBC) at constant output voltage (VCE). This
graph is drawn for active region of BJT.

 The output voltage VCE initially kept at 3V and kept constant. The input voltage VBE is increased
from zero gradually and the corresponding input current IB is noted.
 Then the output voltage which is kept constant is increased, let’s say 5V and kept constant and
output voltage is gradually increased and input current is noted. Graph is drawn with all the
values noted.
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Fig 2.25. Input V-I Characteristics of CC

4. Output V-I Characteristics of CC Configuration:-

It is graph between output current (IE )and output voltage (VCE) at constant input current (IB). This graph
is drawn for all three operating regions of BJT.
To draw the graph in active region equation of output current,
IE = γ IB+ γ ICBO
 Active Region: For given γ and IB, IE is dependent on γ ICBO which is more dependent on VCE
than in case of CE configuration. So, graph of active region has some slope showing change in
IE on changing VCE.
IE = γ IB+ γ ICBO
 Saturation region: When the transistor is switched from active to saturation region, a large
change in collector current for very small change in collector voltage is obtained in negative
direction.
 Cut-Off Region: When both the junctions are reverse biased, a very small collector current is
obtained which is close to horizontal axis.
IE = γ IB+ γ ICBO
In cutoff region IB=0
Then IC = γ ICBO

Fig 2.26. Output V-I Characteristics of CC

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Ques1: Explain the working of N-P-N Common Collector circuit with its circuit diagram.
(AKTU 2015-16) OR
Discuss the common collector (CC) configuration of a BJT. (AKTU 2023-24)

[Link]. Common collector configuration (CC) -PNP:-

In this configuration input is applied between base and collector while output is taken out from collector
and emitter. So, collector of transistor is common to both input and output.

Fig. 2.27. Common Collector PNP BJT in active region

1. DC Current gain: It is the ratio of output current (IE) to the input current (IB).

γ=

Since value of IB << IE. So γ >>1. Therefore, current gain is available in CC configuration. But voltage
gain is not available in CC.

2. Expression for Output Current:

IC = IE +ICBO ---------------- (1)
IE = IC+IB = IE +ICBO + IB
IE (1- ) = ICBO + IB
IE = ICBO + IB

IE = ( +1) IB + ( +1) ICBO ----------------- (2)

IE = γ IB+ γ ICBO - ---------- (3)

3. Input V-I Characteristics of CC Configuration:

It is graph between input current (IB) and input voltage (VBC) at constant output voltage (VCE). This
graph is drawn for active region of BJT.
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 The output voltage VCE initially kept at 3V and kept constant. The input voltage VBE is
increased from zero gradually and the corresponding input current IB is noted.
 Then the output voltage which is kept constant is increased, let’s say 5V and kept constant and
output voltage is gradually increased and input current is noted. Graph is drawn with all the
values noted.

Fig. 2.28. Input V-I Characteristics of CC

4. Output V-I Characteristics of CC Configuration:

It is graph between output current (IE )and output voltage (VCE) at constant input current (IB). This graph
is drawn for all three operating regions of BJT.
To draw the graph in active region equation of output current,
IE = γ IB+ γ ICBO
 Active Region: For given γ and IB, IE is dependent on γ ICBO which is more dependent on VCE
than in case of CE configuration. So, graph of active region has some slope showing change in
IE on changing VCE.
IE = γ IB+ γ ICBO
 Saturation region: When the transistor is switched from active to saturation region, a large
change in collector current for very small change in collector voltage is obtained in negative
direction.
 Cut-Off Region: When both the junctions are reverse biased, a very small collector current is
obtained which is close to horizontal axis.
IE = γ IB+ γ ICBO
In cutoff region IB=0
Then IC = γ ICBO

Fig. 2.29. Input V-I Characteristics of CC

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[Link]. Relation between α, β and γ:-

We know that
α= , β =

IE = IB+IC --------- (1)

In Eq.(1) dividing both sides by IC

= +

= +1

β ( 1- α) = α

β = - ------ (2)

γ= -------(3)

In Eq.(1) dividing both sides by IB

= +

γ= β +1 -------- (4)

Ques 1: Derive the relation between α, β and γ. (AKTU 2011-12)

OR
Derive relation between current gain CB and CE configuration of transistor. (AKTU 2022-23)
Ques 2: Determine IE, α and β of CB transistors when IC= 7ma, IB=0.1 mA? (AKTU 2011-12)
Ques 3: For a transistor IE = 10 mA and α = 0.987. Find IC and IB? (AKTU 2022-23)
Ques 4: Determine β, if IE =5 mA, IC = 4.95 mA. (AKTU 2021-22)
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[Link]. Compare different configuration of BJT:-

Table 2.2. Compare different configuration of BJT

[Link]. Base Width Modulation:-

● In active region JEB is forward biased and JCB is reverse biased. Also doping profile is
DE>DC>DB.
● So width of depletion layer is formed on JEB and JCB is non uniform. At both the junction major
width of depletion is towards the base. So effective width of base is very small.
● On increasing VCB effective width of base region further reduces. This effect is called Base
Width Modulation or Early Effect.
● On increasing VCE, IE and IC increase but IB decreases (due to reduction in base width,
possibility of recombination in this region reduces). Thus α, β and γ increases.

Fig. 2.30. Base Width Modulation

Ques 1: What is Base Width Modulation? How does it affect the characteristics of CB and CE
configuration? (AKTU 2011-12)
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Solved Numerical based on BJT:-

Ques 1 : In NPN transistor with β = 98 is operated in the CB configuration . If the emitter current is 2
mA and reverse saturation current is 12 uA. What are the base and collector current? (AKTU 2016-17)
Ans: Given : β = 98 , IE= 2 mA , ICB0= 12 uA
α = = = 0.989

For CB: IC = α IE + IcBO = 0.989 × 2 × 10^ (-3) + 12× 10^(-6) = 1.99 mA

IE = IC +IB
IB = IE – IC = (2 – 1.99) × 10 ^(-3) = 0.01 mA .

Ques 2: A transistor having α = 0.975 and ICO = 10 µA is operated in CE mode. What is for the
configuration. If the IB is 250 µ A then Calculate IE and IC. (AKTU 2013-14)
Ans: Given : α = 0.975, IB= 250 µA , ICO = ICE0= 10 µA
β = = 0.975/ (1 - 0.975) = 39

For CE
IC = 39× 250 × 10^(-6)+ 10 ×10^(-6)= 9.76 mA.
IE= IC +IB = (9.75 + 0.25) ×10-3 = 10.01 mA.

Ques 3: A transistor having α = 0.975 and ICBO = 10 uA is operated in CE mode. What is for the
configuration. If the IB is 250 µA. Then Calculate IE and IC.(AKTU 2021-22)
Given: α = 0.975, IB= 250 µA , ICBO= 10 µA
β = = 0.975/ (1 - 0.975) = 39

For CE
IC = 39× 250 × 10^(-6)+ 40 × 10 × 10-6
= 10.15 mA.
IE= IC +IB = (10.15+ 0.25) ×10-3 = 10.40 mA.

2.3. The BJT has two principal disadvantages:-

● It has low input impedance due to forward biased emitter junction.
● It has considerable noise level.

The above-mentioned problems are overcome by Field Effect Transistor (FET).

● The FET has large input impedance by virtue of its construction and biasing.
● The FET is generally much less noisy than bipolar transistor.

2.3.1. Introduction of FET:-

A field-effect transistor (FET) is a three terminal (namely drain, source and gate) semiconductor device
in which current conduction is by only one type of majority carriers (electrons in case of an N-channel
FET or holes in a P-channel FET). It is also called the unipolar device.
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[Link] Classification of FET:-

Classification of FET

Fig. 2.31. Classification of FET

*FET: Field Effect Transistor
JFET: Junction Field Effect Transistor
MOSFET: Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor

2.3.2. N channel JFET (Junction Field Effect Transistor):-

1. Construction:
A n-channel JFET have n type base. On both side of base two heavily doped p regions are formed. So
two p-n junction is formed which are internally connected by a gate terminal. Other two terminal are
drain and source.

Fig. 2.32. Construction and Symbol of N channel JFET

2. Working of n Channel JFET:
FET is called Voltage controlled device because output is controlled by input voltage. In FET the gate
voltage controls the current flow from drain to source.
Its working is divided in two parts:
(1) When VDS>0 and VGS=0
(2) When VDS>0 and VGS<0
1. When VDS= (Positive)>0 and VGS=0:
● When VDS is increased more and more electrons move from source to drain. So current increases
and depletion layer also increases. So, channel becomes narrower.
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● If VDS is further increased a condition comes when depletion layer just touches each other. This
condition is called Pinch off condition.
● The value of VDS which establish this condition is called Pinch off voltage (VP). After pinch off
current becomes constant.

Fig. 2.33. Working of N channel JFET

Fig. 2.34. V-I Characteristics of N channel JFET

2. When VDS>0 and VGS<0
● As VGS is increased pinch off condition comes earlier and pinch off voltage decreases in
Parabolic manner.
● At VGS= VP, current ID will be zero.

Fig. 2.35. Working of N channel JFET

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3. JFET Characteristics:-
They are two types of characteristics
1. Drain or output characteristics
2. Transfer characteristics

1. Output Characteristics (Drain Characteristics):-

● It is graph between drain current (ID) and drain to source voltage (VDS) while gate to source
voltage (VGS ) should be constant. It can be explained from working of the structure discussed
above.
● Ohmic region: The current ID increases linearly with VDS. In ohmic region the slope of the graph
is dependent on VGS. So FET can be used as voltage controlled resistance in this region.
● Saturation region or Active region: After pinch off condition the drain current (IDSS) become
constant and this region of the graph is called saturation region. In this region JFET used as an
amplifier.

Fig. 2.36. Drain characteristics of N channel JFET

2. Transfer Characteristics:-

● It is graph between drain current (ID) and gate to source voltage (VGS). While drain to source
voltage (VDS) should be constant.
● The relation between ID and VGS can be given as:

(1)
● Above equation is also known as Shockley’s equation.
● The transfer curve can be obtained using Shockley’s equation or from the output characteristics.
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Fig. 2.37. Transfer characteristics of N channel JFET

Ques 1: What is Pinch off Condition in FET? (AKTU 2011-12)

Ques 2: Explain Ohmic region of JFET? (AKTU 2015-16)
Ques 3: Explain the working of N channel JFET? (AKTU 2009-10)
Ques 4: Explain the Construction and characteristics of JFET? (AKTU 2008-09)
Ques 5: Explain the construction and working of N channel JFET. Draw the drain characteristics and
transfer curves.(AKTU 2010-11, 2023-24)
Ques 6: Describe the construction of N channel JFET. Explain how the gate controls the conductivity of
the channel. (AKTU 2023-24)
Ques 7: Why FET is a voltage controlled device? (AKTU 2023-24)
Ques 8: Define: IDSS, Pinch off Voltage, and Voltage controlled resistance of JFET? (AKTU 2009-10)
OR
Define Pinch-off voltage for JFET. (AKTU 2022-23)

2.3.3. P channel JFET (Junction Field Effect Transistor):-

1. Construction:-

A p-channel JFET have p type base. On both side of base two heavily doped n regions are formed. So
two p-n junction is formed which are internally connected by a gate terminal. Other two terminal are
drain and source.

Fig. 2.38. Construction and Symbol of P channel JFET

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2. Working of p Channel JFET:-

Its working is divided in two parts:
(1) When VDS<0 and VGS=0
(2) When VDS<0 and VGS>0

1. When VDS= (Negative)<0 and VGS=0:

● When VDS is increased more and more holes move from source to drain. So current increases and
depletion layer also increases. So, channel becomes narrower.
● If VDS is further increased a condition comes when depletion layer just touches each other. This
condition is called Pinch off condition.
● The value of VDS which establish this condition is called Pinch off voltage (VP). After pinch off
current becomes constant.

Fig. 2.39. Working and V-I Characteristics of P channel JFET

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2. When VDS<0 and VGS>0

● As VGS is increased pinch off condition comes earlier and pinch off voltage decreases in
Parabolic manner.
● At VGS= VP, current ID will be zero.

Fig. 2.40. Working of P channel JFET

3. JFET characteristics:-
They are two types of characteristics
1. Drain or output characteristics
2. Transfer characteristics
1. Output Characteristics (Drain Characteristics):-
● It is graph between drain current (ID )and drain to source voltage (VDS )while gate to source
voltage (VGS) should be constant. It can be explained from working of the structure discussed
above.
● Ohmic region: The current ID increases linearly with VDS . In ohmic region the slope of the graph
is dependent on VGS. So FET can be used as voltage controlled resistance in this region.
● Saturation region: After pinch off condition the drain current (IDSS) become constant and this
region of the graph is called saturation region. In this region JFET used as an amplifier.

Fig. 2.41. Drain characteristics of P channel JFET

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2. Transfer Characteristics:-
● It is graph between drain current ID and gate to source voltage VGS. While drain to source voltage
VDS should be constant.
● The relation between ID and VGS can be given as:

(1)
● Above equation is also known as Shockley’s equation.
● The transfer curve can be obtained using Shockley’s equation or from the output characteristics.

Fig. 2.42. Transfer characteristics of P channel JFET

Ques 1: Explain the construction and working of P channel JFET. Draw the drain characteristics and
transfer curves. (AKTU 2022-23) OR
Why is a JFET called a Voltage Controlled device? Draw its structure and O/P characteristics of P
channel JFET indicate different regions and its significance? (AKTU 2010-11)

2.3.4. FET as voltage variable resistor:-

JFET works as a variable resistance in ohmic region. The resistance of JFET is given by:
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So JFET works as variable resistance or voltage-controlled resistance in ohmic region.

Fig. 2.43. V-I characteristics of JFET

Ques 1: Explain how FET can be used as voltage variable resistor. (AKTU 2009-10, 2022-23)
OR
Explain why FET is a Voltage Variable resistor?(AKTU 2015-16, 2014-15)

2.3.5. Various FET parameters:-

Different parameters of JFET

● Transconductance (gm)
● AC Drain Resistance
● Amplification Factor

● Transconductance (gm): It is defined the ratio of change in drain current (ΔID) and change in
gate to source voltage (ΔVGS) at constant drain to source voltage (VDS). Unit of gm is Siemen.
gm = | VDS= constant

● AC Drain Resistance (rd): This is the ratio of change of drain to source voltage (ΔVDS) to the
change of drain current (ΔID) at a constant gate to source voltage (VGS = Constant). The ratio is
denoted as rd.
rd = | VGS=constant

● Amplification Factor ( ): The amplification factor is defined as the ratio of change of drain
voltage (ΔVDS) to change of gate voltage (ΔVGS) at a constant drain current (ID = Constant).
= | ID = Constant

There is a relation between transconductance (gm) and AC drain resistance (rd) and that can be
established in the following way.
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= (ΔVDS / ΔID) × (Δ ID / ΔVGS )

= rd × gm

Ques 1: Discuss the various FET parameters and derive relation between them.(AKTU 2015-16, 2021-
22)
Ques 2: Explain the Transconductance curve of JFET? (AKTU 2015-16)
OR
Define transconductance of JFET? (AKTU 2021-22)
Ques 3: In JFET Idss=6mA, Vp=-3V biased at Vgs= -2 . Determine the value of transconductance?
Ques 4: In JFET Idss=8mA, Vp=-4V biased at Vgs= -1.8V. Determine the value of transconductance?
(AKTU 2015-16)
Ques 5: In JFET Idss=6mA, Vp=-4.5V biased at Vgs= -1.8V. Determine Id at Vgs=-2V and -3.6 V?
(AKTU 2011-12)
Ques 6: Define Ohmic Region, gate cut-off voltage and transconductance in JFET? (AKTU 2012-13)
Given Idss= 9mA and Vp=-3.5V determine Id when Vgs=0V and Vgs=-2V? (AKTU 2011-12)

2.3.6. Relationship of transconductance gm of JFET with drain current ID :-

gm = 2√(I DSS × ID) / V P
from Shockley equation:
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Ques 1: Show that transconductance gm of JFET is related drain current ID by

gm = 2√(I DSS × ID) / V P

2.3.7. N channel Depletion type MOSFET:-

1. Construction: n-channel depletion type MOSFET have p-type base (substrate). Then two n region
are formed. A thin layer of Sio2 (Silicon dioxide) is deposited. Drain and source are connected with
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metallic contact. A n channel is formed between two n regions. Gate is insulated from n-channel by
Sio2 layer. So, IG is zero. It is also called Insulated gate field effect transistor (IGFET)

Fig. 2.44. Construction and symbol of N-DMOSFET

2. Operation :
1. VGS = 0 , VDS = Positive (+ve) > 0

● When VDS is increased more and more electrons move from source to drain. So current increases.
A condition comes when current becomes Constant.
● This condition is called pinch-off condition. The value of VDS which established this condition is
called pinch-off voltage (VP). After pinch-off current becomes constant.

Fig. 2.45. Working and V-I of N-DMOSFET

2. VGS = negative (-ve )<0 , VDS = Positive (+ve) > 0

● If VGS is increased then holes in p-type substrate moves towards the channel.
● So, recombination process occurs in channel. So, pinch-off condition comes earlier and pinch-off
voltage decreases in parabolic manner. This is called depletion mode.
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Fig. 2.46. Working of N-DMOSFET in depletion mode

3. VGS = Positive (+ve )<0 , VDS = Positive (+ve) > 0

● If positive voltage is applied at gate then electrons in p-type substrate move towards the channel.
So, the number of electrons in channel increases. So current increases. This is called
enhancement mode.

Fig. 2.47. Working of N-DMOSFET in enhancement mode

3. Characteristics:
It has two types of characteristics.
1. Drain or output characteristics: It is the curve between drain current (ID) and drain to source
voltage (VDS), while gate to source voltage (VGS) should be constant.
2. Transfer characteristics: It is the curve between drain current (ID) and gate to source voltage
(VGS), while drain to source voltage (VDS) should be constant.
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Fig. 2.48. Drain and transfer charactersitics of N-DMOSFET

Ques 1: Explain the construction and working of N channel depletion type MOSFET. Also draw the
drain and transfer characteristics. (AKTU 2020-21)
OR
Explain the Characteristics, Working and Construction of n Channel Depletion type MOSFET? (AKTU
2015-16, 2014-15) OR
Explain the working principle of Depletion type MOSFET (n-channel). Draw & Explain its
characteristics. (AKTU 2013-14) OR
Explain the construction, working and characteristics of N channel Depletion MOSFET. (AKTU 2011-
12) OR
Draw the structure of Depletion Type N-MOSFET. Explain its operation with a characteristic graph.
(AKTU 2022-23, 2021-22)

2.3.8. P channel Depletion type MOSFET:-

1. Construction: P-channel depletion type MOSFET have n-type base(substrate). Then two p region
are formed. A thin layer of Sio2 (Silicon dioxide) is deposited. Drain and source are connected with
metallic contact. A p channel is formed between two p regions. Gate is insulated from p-channel by
Sio2 layer. So, IG is zero. It is also called Insulated gate field effect transistor (IGFET)

Fig. 2.49. Construction and symbol of P-DMOSFET

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2. Operation :
1. VGS = 0 , VDS = Negative (-ve) < 0

● When VDS is increased more and more holes move from source to drain. So current increases. A
condition comes when current becomes Constant.
● This condition is called pinch-off condition. The value of VDS which established this condition is
called pinch-off voltage (VP). After pinch-off current becomes constant.

Fig. 2.50. Working and V-I of P-DMOSFET

2. VGS = Positive (+ve) > 0, VDS = Negative (-ve) < 0

● If VGS is increased then electrons in n-type substrate moves towards the channel.
● So, recombination process occurs in channel. So, pinch-off condition comes earlier and pinch-off
voltage decreases in parabolic manner. This is called depletion mode.

Fig. 2.51. Working of P-DMOSFET in depletion mode

3. VGS = Negative (-ve) < 0, VDS = Negative (-ve) < 0

● If negative voltage is applied at gate then hole in n-type substrate move towards the channel. So,
number of holes in channel increases. So current increases. This is called enhancement mode.
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Fig. 2.52. Working of P-DMOSFET in enhancement mode

3. Characteristics :-
It has two types of characteristics.
1. Drain or output characteristics: It is the curve between drain current (ID) and drain to source
voltage (VDS), while gate to source voltage (VGS) should be constant.
2. Transfer characteristics: It is the curve between drain current (ID) and gate to source voltage
(VGS), while drain to source voltage (VDS) should be constant.

Fig. 2.53. Drain and transfer charactersitics of P-DMOSFET

Ques 1: Explain the construction and working of P channel depletion type MOSFET. Also draw the
drain and transfer characteristics. (AKTU 2009-10, 2021-22, 2023-24)
OR
Draw and explain the construction and working of P channel depletion type MOSFET. Also draw the
drain and transfer characteristics. (AKTU 2023-24)
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2.3.9. N channel Enhancement type MOSFET:-

1. Construction:- n-channel Enhancement type MOSFET has p type substrate. Then two n regions
are formed, A thin layer of Sio2 (Silicon die oxide) is deposited. Drain and source are connected with
the help of metallic contact. There is no channel between two n regions.

Fig. 2.54. Construction and symbol of N-EMOSFET

2. Operation:
1. VDS = + ve, VGS = 0
If VDS is increased then no current will flow because the is no channel i.e. ID = 0

Fig. 2.55. Working of N-EMOSFET

2. VDS = + Ve , VGS = +Ve
● If positive voltage is applied at gate then electron in p type moves towards the gate and
holes moves away from the gate.
● Till 2V no channel is formed. But after 2V channel is formed.
● This 2V is called threshold voltage (VT). If VGS is further increased then ID continuously
increases. This is called enhancement MOSFET.
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Fig. 2.56. Working of N-EMOSFET in enhancement mode

3. Characteristics:-
It has two types of characteristics.
1. Drain or output characteristics: It is the curve between drain current (ID) and drain to source
voltage (VDS), while gate to source voltage (VGS) should be constant.

2. Transfer characteristics:
It is the curve between drain current (ID) and gate to source voltage (VGS), while drain to source
voltage (VDS) should be constant.

Fig. 2.57. Drain and transfer characteristics of N-EMOSFET

Ques 1: Explain the construction and working of N channel Enhancement type MOSFET. Also draw
the drain and transfer characteristics. (AKTU 2021-22)
OR
Explain the construction, working and characteristics of N channel Enhancement MOSFET.
(AKTU 2022-23)
OR
Explain the working of E-MOSFET along with their transfer characteristics. (AKTU 2015-16)
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2.3.10. P channel Enhancement type MOSFET:-

1. Construction: p-channel Enhancement type MOSFET has n type substrate. Then two p regions
are formed, A thin layer of Sio2 (Silicon die oxide) is deposited. Drain and source are connected with
the help of metallic contact. There is no channel between two p regions.

Fig. 2.58. Construction and symbol of P-EMOSFET

2. Operation:

1. VDS = - ve, VGS = 0

If VDS is increased then no current will flow because the is no channel i.e. ID = 0

Fig. 2.59. Working of P-EMOSFET

3. VDS = - Ve , VGS = -Ve

● If negative voltage is applied at gate then holes in n type moves towards the gate and
electrons moves away from the gate.
● Till -2V no channel is formed. But after -2V channel is formed.
● This -2V is called threshold voltage (VT). If VGS is further increased then ID continuously
increases. This is called enhancement MOSFET.
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Fig. 2.60. Working of P-EMOSFET in enhancement mode

3. Characteristics:-
It has two types of characteristics-
1. Drain or output characteristics: It is the curve between drain current (ID) and drain to source
voltage (VDS), while gate to source voltage (VGS) should be constant.
2. Transfer characteristics:
It is the curve between drain current (ID) and gate to source voltage (VGS), while drain to source
voltage (VDS) should be constant.

Fig. 2.61. Drain and transfer characteristics of P-EMOSFET

Ques 1: Explain the construction and working of P channel Enhancement type MOSFET. Also draw
the drain and transfer characteristics. (AKTU 2014-15)
OR
Explain the Characteristics, Working and Construction of P channel Enhancement type Mosfet?
(AKTU 2015-16)

2.3.11. Difference between BJT and JFET :-

[Link]. BJT JFET

It is bipolar device i.e. operation
It is unipolar device i.e. operation
1. depends on majority and minority
depends on majority carriers only.
carriers both.
Current controlled device i.e. Voltage controlled device i.e. output is
2.
output is controlled by current. controlled by voltage.
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3. Input resistance is very low. Input resistance is very high.

Temperature dependent due to Temperature independent due to
4.
minority carriers. absence of minority carriers.
5. Power consumption is high. Power consumption is low.
6. More noisy. Less noisy.
7. Cost is low. Cost is high.
Table 2.3. Difference between BJT and JFET

Ques 1: List the difference between BJT and JFET. (AKTU 2021-22)
OR
Differentiate between BJT and JFET. (AKTU 2008-09)
OR
What is the difference between BJT and JFET. ( AKTU 2020-21, 2012-13)

2.3.12. Difference between D-MOSFET and E-MOSFET:-

[Link]. DMOSFET EMOSFET

1.

2. In DMOSFET channel is present. In EMOSFET channel is present.

It works in depletion and
3. It works in enhancement mode only.
enhancement mode both.
Sio2 layer is between gate and
4. Sio2 layer is between gate and substrate.
channel.
5. No threshold voltage. Threshold voltage exists.
Table 2.4. Difference between EMOSFET and DMOSFET

Ques1: Explain the operation and construction of MOSFET. Differentiate between Depletion MOSFET
and Enhancement MOSFET. (AKTU 2023-24)

2.3.13. Difference between JFET and MOSFET:-

[Link]. JFET MOSFET

It can only operates in the depletion It operates in both depletion mode and
1.
mode. enhancement mode.
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It has high input impedance on the

It offers even higher input impedance
order of 1010 ohms, therefore they
2. than the JFETs, therefore they are more
are more sensitive towards input
resistive.
voltage signals.
It is relatively cheaper than
3. Its too expensive.
MOSFETs
These are ideal for low noise
These are mainly used for high noise
4. applications.
applications.
Manufacturing process of JFETs is Manufacturing process of MOSFETs is
5.
simple. complex.
Table 2.5. Difference between JFET and MOSFET

Ques 1: List the differences between JFET and MOSFET? (AKTU 2011-12)
OR
What is the basic difference between JFET and MOSFET? (AKTU 2023-24)