Though there aren’t many Q’s , in CN, but add 4-5 Q’s after each revision , Almost all

are done

Leave , not so imp , Cn , if know basics and revised well , DSA +SQL Focus

R-1: Done Upar upar se , but do once more after react

1. Basics of Networking
1. Network = Group of connected devices (computers, servers, phones).
2. Protocols: Rules for communication (HTTP, TCP, IP).
. Types of Networks:
PAN: Personal (Bluetooth).
LAN: Small/local area (home, office), Connects devices in buildings, Wired (Ethernet cables) or
Wireless (Wi-Fi), Enterprise LANs for organizations.
MAN: Covers a city.(Metropolitan Area Network) WAN: Country/continent (Internet)- Wide
area Netwo
GAN: Global via satellites.

2. IP Addressing:

1. IP Address: A logical address used to identify a device on a network

2. IPv4: 32-bit (e.g., [Link]), limited addresses.
3. IPv6: 128-bit (e.g., 2001:db8::1), huge address space.
4. Subnetting: Dividing a network into smaller parts for efficiency.

3. OSI Model (7 Layers):

J2R: All People seem to need Data Processing
Application -> Presentation ->Session ->Transport -> Network -> Data link -> Physical
Protocols at Each OSI Layer:
 Application Layer
o User-facing services and applications. Browser uses HTTP/HTTPS to request the web
page.
o Protocols: HTTP/HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol), FTP (File Transfer Protocol), DNS (Domain Name System), POP3, IMAP.
 Presentation Layer
o Translates data formats, handles encryption/compression.
o Protocols: SSL (Secure Sockets Layer)/TLS (Transport Layer Security), JPEG/GIF/MPEG.
 Session Layer
o Manages sessions (start, maintain, terminate communication).
o Protocols: RPC (Remote Procedure Call), SIP (Session Initiation Protocol, used in VoIP).
 Transport Layer
o Ensures end-to-end delivery, reliability, flow control.
o Protocols: TCP (reliable, connection-oriented), UDP (fast, connectionless).
 Network Layer
o Main job: End-to-End logical delivery (host to host) (IP Addressing) , Responsible for
(routing) → choosing best path through routers, Splits data into packets and ensures
they can move across different networks.
o Think: “How do I get from my laptop ([Link]) to Google’s server ([Link])
across the internet?”
 o Protocols: IPv4/IPv6(Internet Protocol), IPsec (security), ICMP (Internet Control Message
Protocol), IPsec (security), RIP (Routing Information Protocol).

 Data Link Layer:

o Main job: Node-to-Node physical delivery (hop to hop).
o Think: “How does this packet actually get from my laptop’s NIC to the router’s NIC
inside my Wi-Fi/Ethernet network?”
o Deals with frames, MAC addressing, error detection.
o Protocols: Ethernet (frame part), ARP (Address Resolution Protocol), PPP (Point-to-Point
Protocol)
 Physical Layer
o Concerned with raw transmission of bits (0s and 1s).
o Protocols/Standards: Ethernet (physical part), Wi-Fi(Wireless- Fidelity), USB, Bluetooth,
radio specs, DSL(Digital Subscriber Line)

J2R: In Reverse Order “Please Do Not Try SPA”

5. TCP/IP Model (J2R: NITA -> network , Internet , Transport , Application )

How does TCP map to OSI layer: ( Just read no need to remember ) the mapping of OSI to TCP layer
 Simpler 4-layer model:
 Application (HTTP, DNS)
 Transport (TCP/UDP)
 Internet (IP, ICMP)
 Network Access (Ethernet, Wi-Fi)

6. What happens when you enter [Link] in the web browser?

Below are the steps that are being followed: (First read basic, then after 1-2 Revision read whole of
the Process )
 Check the browser cache first if the content is fresh and present in cache display the same.
 If not, the browser checks if the IP of the URL is present in the cache of (browser and OS) if
not then request the OS to do a DNS lookup using UDP to get the IP address of the URL from
the DNS server to establish a new TCP connection.
 A new TCP connection is set between the browser and the server using three-way
handshaking.
 An HTTPS request is sent to the server using the TCP connection.
 The web servers running on the Servers handle the incoming HTTPS request and send the
response.
 The browser processes the HTTPS response sent by the server and may close the TCP
connection or reuse the same for future requests.
 If the response data is cacheable then browsers cache the same.
 Browser decodes the response and renders the content .
Extra: If you type [Link] →The browser will first try HTTP (unencrypted), but Google
immediately redirects you to HTTPS.

Application → HTTP, DNS, rendering, caching Transport → TCP (handshake, reliable

transfer), UDP (DNS)
Internet → IP (addressing, routing) Network Access → Ethernet/Wi-Fi (frames,
signals)

Sequence Number :

7. TCP vs UDP:
 TCP: Used in web browsing, email. Connection-oriented, reliable but slower.
 UDP: Used in video streaming, gaming. Connectionless, less reliable but fast.
 1. MSS (Maximum Segment Size):
largest chunk of data in one TCP
segment.
2. RTT (Round Trip Time): time for a
packet to go client → server → client.
3. Timeout & Retransmission: if ACK
not received in time, resend packet.
->ACKs (Acknowledgments):
confirm receipt of packets.
4. Threshold: Called ssthresh → slow
start threshold.
It’s the cutoff point that decides whether TCP uses:
-> Slow Start (exponential growth) or
-> Congestion Avoidance (linear growth).

Uses algorithms like Slow Start, AIMD (Additive Increase Multiplicative Decrease).
Flow Control = protects the receiver. Congestion Control = protects the network.

7. IP (Internet Protocol) Address:

 Definition: A logical address used to identify a device on a network.
 Nature: Software-assigned, can change (dynamic or static).
 Purpose: Tells where the device is located in the network (like a postal address).

J2R: Network can be very big like MAN (whole City) or whole Country (WAN) and where specifically it is located , just like pin code it is
not Exact location but an idea of the address

 MAC (Media Access Control) Address: Used in Data Link Layer.

 Definition: A physical/hardware address burned/hard coded into the NIC (Network Interface Card) by the manufacturer.
 Nature: Permanent (though can be spoofed).
 Purpose: Tells which device it is (unique identifier, like a fingerprint).

8.. Switching & Routing & Hub & Gateway:

Switch vs Router:

 Switch: Connects devices within a LAN (uses MAC address).

 Router: Connects different networks (uses IP address).

 Hub vs Switch: Hub broadcasts to all; switch sends only to the right device .

Router vs Gateway:
 Router: Connects different networks. (Router vs Gateway)
 Gateway: Connects networks with different protocols.

9. DNS (Domain Name System) : Maps domain names (like [Link]) into IP addresses. Works like a phonebook for the Internet.

10. HTTP vs HTTPS: HTTP: Plain communication, not secure. Vs. HTTPS: Encrypted with SSL/TLS (secure)

11. Firewalls: Security systems that filter traffic (allow/block data). Can be hardware or software.

12. Proxy Server: Acts as an intermediary between user and Internet. Provides anonymity, caching, and access control.

13. VPN (Virtual Private Network): Creates a secure tunnel over the Internet. Encrypts data, hides IP, allows remote secure access

14. Subnet Mask: Defines which part of IP is network and which is host. Example: [Link] → first 3 blocks are network, last
block is host. People confuse it as part of the IP itself, but it’s more like a rule to separate network vs host portion.

15. ARP & RARP: ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): Finds MAC(Exact adresss) from IP(From pin Code) and vice – versa for
RARP

16. Transmission Types: Unicast: one → one. Anycast: one → nearest one. Multicast: one → many selected. Broadcast: one → all.

17. ipconfig vs ipconfig: ipconfig: Windows. vs. ifconfig: Linux/Unix/Mac.

18. ICMP: Error reporting, ping. vs. DHCP: Auto assigns IP, mask, DNS (port 67).

19. 6. Network Topologies

 Bus: all devices on one line; failure breaks all. Star: central hub; easy to troubleshoot.

 Ring: circular; break affects all. Mesh: each connected to many; robust, costly.

 Tree: hierarchy (star + bus). Hybrid: mix for flexibility.

20. IPv4 & Classes

 32-bit address, 4 octets.

 Classes: A: 0–127 → Large networks B: 128–191 → Medium C: 192–223 → LANs

D: 224–239 → Multicast E: 240–255 → Research

21. Private & Special IPs

 Private: A → 10.x.x.x, B → 172.16–31.x, C → 192.168.x.x. Special: 127.x.x.x = loopback/test.