‘Understand how to classify a substance as an eloment, = Understand how a chromatogram provides Cae) rea cue neU RC ua Meee ena nL a me on eR ee Cue ean Ek} Pee eu edo identify the components of a mixture ete a cier eee OIC uEUr pg) St CS Rona Renu Cad rence? Sen eee ed . Cc . Dre) You might want to look at Chaptor 3 if you do not already know the term ator’ ‘tisn't completely true to say that ‘elements consist of enly one type of atom. A betior way of saying it would be that al the atoms in an element hhave tha same atomic pumber. Most folemonte consist of mixtures of 'Sotopes, which have the same atomic ‘number, but diferent mass numbers {ue to aifarent numbars of neutrons} ‘When we draw diagrams or make ‘models, we aren't usualy interested in the ditferences neteen the isotopes. lcotopes wif be discussed in Chapter 3. feast tay Coney ELEMENTS. Elements are substances that can't be spilt nto anything simpler by chemical means. An element contains only one type of atom (aut see the key point in the margin). In modets or diagrams they are shown as atoms of a single colour or size. pure metal ongen gas ‘Bamand (a form of carbon) such as magnesium Figure 2.3 ements ccntan only one type of atom,‘There are 118 elements and these are shown in the Periodic Table, Most of the ‘elements occur naturally, such as hydrogen, helium and sulfur. Some others have to be made artiicialy, such as elnsteinium, te Ty ‘Compouncis are formed when two or more elements chemically combine. The elements always combine in fixed proportions. For example, hydrogen and fluorine always combine to form hydrogen fluoride, with formula HF, whereas magnesium and fluorine alvays combine fo form magnesium fluoride, with formula MgF. ~ the elements must combine in these ratios. Examples of ‘ther compounds are carbon dioxide (CO,) and methane (CH.). Diagrams of ‘compounds show more than one type of atom bonded together water ‘siteon tonto -A Figure 2.4 Some compounds In.a mixture, the various substances are mixed together and no chemical reaction occurs. Mixtures can be made from elements and/or compounds. ‘The various components can be in any proportion, for example you can put ‘any amount of sugar into your cup of tea or coffee (until it becomes saturated) -mixre of elements = muro compounds _miure at zn eboment wth rittogon and oxyg00 carbon dexide and —_a.compound ~ceroon dioxide water \aour) ‘ane nitrogen ‘A Figuro25 Some micuros, ae See ae et In water (a compound, every single water molecule has two hydrogen atoms combined with one oxygen atom. it never varies. In a mixture of hydrogen and ‘oxygen gases, he tho could be mixes together in ary proportion. if you had some ron metal and some sulfur. you could mix them in any proportion you wanted to. In iron sulfide (FeS), a compound, the proportion of iron to sulfur is always exactly the same.Tears kl Ina mixture of elements, each element keeps its own properties, but the properties of the compound are quite ciferent. For example, in a mixture of iron Geulras and sulfur, the iron is grey and the sulfur is yellow. The iron reacts with dilute acids YYoucan ind out about thereactions Such a8 hydrochloric acid to produce hydrogen; the sulfur doesn't react with the ‘ot miata wih dle acide on ponee acid. However, the compaund iron sulfide (FeS) reacts quite differently with acids 174-175. The reaction between iron to produce poisonous hydrogen sulfide gas, which smelis of bad eggs. fide and acids ien't needed for exam A mixture of tydrogen and oxygen is a colourless gas which explodes when urposes at international GCSE. you put a flame to it. The compound, water, is @ colourless liquid which just Puts out a flame. EASE OF SEPARATION Mixtures can be separated by physica! means, Physical means are things ike changing the temperature or dissolving part of the mixture in a solvent such as ‘water; in other words, methods that don't involve any chemical reactions. For example, a mixture of iron and sulfur is quite easy to separate into the two elements using a magnet. The iron sticks to the magnet and the sulfur doesn't. The elements in @ compound cannot be separated by physical means. To convert iron sulfide into separate samples of iron and sulfur requires chemical reactions. ‘You can cool a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen gases to separate it by a physical process. Oxygen condenses into a liquid at a much higher temperature than hydrogen (-183°C as opposed to -253°C). This would leave Yyou with quid oxygen and hydrogen gas, which are easy to separate, But to ‘Separate water into hydrogen and oxygen, you have to change it chemically using electrolysis. Electrolysis is explained in Chapter 10. eee ae] Pure substances, such as elements and pure compounds, melt and boil at fixed temperatures. For example, the meiting point of water is 0°C and the boiling point 100°C. However, mixtures usually melt or boil over a rango of temperatures The presence of impurities lowers the melting point of a eubstance and raisoe Aniias Sacra pase bcos the boiling point, For instance, dissolving 10g of common (table} salt (sodium Rceaqie coal eoavenrey chloride) in 1 litre of water lowers the melting point to about -0.6°C and raises amount ofen urwanied sutstaree, the the boiling point to about 100.2°C. unwanted substance might becalld The melting point can be very useful in determining whether or not a an impurity. ‘substance is pure. If you continue to study chemistry you might carry out a practical experiment to make some aspirin. In order to cetermine whether your ‘sample is pure or not you can measure the melting point. You would record the ‘temperature at which your sample starts to malt, and then you would record the temperatura at which it has fully malted to compietely form a liquid. Aspirin is a white powder that metts at 138°C. If the melting point of the sample you made is 128-134°C you can see that itis quite impure because it melts over a ‘wide range of temperature (below the melting point of pure aspirin), Sa al ‘Separating mixtures ie extremely important in chemistry. For example, we can ‘389 this in the processing of crude ol, in producing fresh water trom salt water and in the enrichment of uranium. In forensic science, the components of a ‘mixture usually have to be separated before they can be analysed.Peart a Tt Mrs aL Filtration can be used to separate a solid from a liquid. fuel For example, sand can be seperated from water by fitration. The apparatus for & her pep Sof filtration is shown in Figure 2.6. || ‘The substance left in the fiter paper Is called the resiciue and the liquid that, (ee) comes through is called the filtrate. beaker Filtration can also be used to seperate two solids from each other if only one of l i them is solubie in water (see below ~ rock salt) ‘te) ‘4 Figure 2.6 Fitration canbe used te soparate ‘a mixture of sand and water ki» Crystallisation can be used to separate a solute from a solution. For example, it could be used to separate sodium chloride from a sodium chloride solution. The solution is heated in an evaporating basin to boil off some of the water unti' an almost saturated solution is formad. This can be tested by dipping a glass rod into the solution and seeing if crystals form quickly on its surface when it is removed. The Bunsen bumer is then turned off and the crystals allowac to form as more water evaporates and the solution cools, The crystals can now be removed from the mixture by fitration. The apparatus for crystallisation is shown in Figure 2.7. rep of solution L ‘sempled on a ‘A Figuro27 Crystalistion can be used to separate a sclute trom a sohtin, Ma ees We can use filtration and crystallisation to obtain pure salt fram rock salt. Rock salt consists of salt contaminated by various earthy or rocky impurities. These impurities aren't soluble in water. If you crush the rock salt and mix it with hot water, the salt dissolves, but the impurities don't. The impurities can be filtered off, and remain on the filter ‘paper. The filtrate is then a salt solution, The solid salt can be obtained from the solution by crystallisation. This is typical of the way you can separate any mixture of two solids, one of which is soluble in water and one of which isn’t ‘A Figure 2.8 Rock salt 7PCM oats ad Ca Lx ‘Simple distillation can be used to separate the components of a solution Although we can use crystallisation to separate sodium chloride from a sodium chloride solution, we can also collect the water if we use simple distillation. ‘The water boils and is condensed back to a liquid by the condenser. The salt remains in the flask. Notice that watoris always fed into tho condenser atthe lower end. That way ir fls he condenser jacket beter and it ‘he flow of water stops for eny reason ‘he condenser ackel rere ul of water. ‘A Figure 2.9 Uistting pure water from sodium ohlerde selution ‘You could, of course, collect the salt rom the solution as well as collecting pure water, The sodium chloride solution eventually becomes so concentrated that the salt will crystalise out. Li» Fractional distillation is used to separate a mixture of liquids such es ethanol alcoho) and water. Ethanol and water are completely miscible with each other. Thai means you can mix them together in any proportion and they : Sahay vill form a single liquid layer. You can seperete them by taking advantage of Fae eee Se ang theiditferent boting points: water boils at 100°C, ethanol at 78°C. similar, though the seperation of ethanol and water in the lab werks iret — Perfectly welljust with an empty Colum. For reasons tha are beyond International GCSE, a high surtace area in the column helps separation ofthe ‘wo vapours. The ethenol produced by ‘i experiment about 96% puro. For complicated reasons, acain beyond International GCSE, tis impossible to remove tho last 4% of wator by tectorating —| disttion, column wateettares. ‘gauze a ‘4 Figure 2.10 Fractional stietionPeart a A oe Both liquids boil, but by careful heating you can control the tempecature of the column so that all the water condenses in the column and trickles back into the flask. Only the ethanol remains as a vapour all the way to the top of the {ractionating column and out into the condenser. PER CHROMA auld Paper chromatography can be usad to separate a variety of mixtures. However, at International GCSE level we will usually use it to separate mixtures of coloured inks or food colourings. Most inks and food colourings are not just ‘made up of one colour but contain a mixture of dyes. Paper chromatography can also be used to separate a mixture of colourless: ‘substances such as sugars, but then some method must be used to make the spots visible on the paper. eT a SM SU ae eS eg See a We can investigate the composition of a mixture of coloured ayes using paper chromatography. To do this we carry out the following steps. 1, Draw a line with @ pencil across a piece of chromatography paper; this line should be about 1 cm from the bottom of the paper. Do not use a. pen as the colours in the ink may move up the chromatography paper vith the solvent. 2, Puta spot (uso a toat pipette or a capillary tube) of the mixture of dyes ‘on the pencil line and allow it to dry. 3. Suspend the chromatography paper in a beaker that contains a small amount of solvent so that the bottom of the paper goes info the solvent, It is important that the solvent is bolow the poncil line so that the inks/colourings don’t just dissolve in the solvent, 4. Puta lid (euch as a watch glass] on the beaker so that the atmosphere: becomes saturated with the salvert. This is to stop evaporation of the ‘solvent from the surface of the paper. 5. When the solvent has moved up the paper to about 11¢m from the top, remove the paper from the beaker and draw a pencil line to show ihere the solvent got to. The highest level of the solvent on the paper at any time is called the solvent front, 6. Leave the paper to dry so that all the solvent evaporates For the solvent you can use water or a non-aqueous solvent (a solvent ‘other than water}. Which solvent you use depends on what substances are present in the mixture. A suitable solvent is usually found by ‘experimenting with different ones. [COLCA | re cyes that make up the mixture wil be ciforont in two important ways Safety Note: Avoid skin contact with the solvents and dyes, especially if you have sensitive sn. Pic heb ae rnc ten '© the affinity they have for the paper (how well they ‘stick’ to the paper) fake White awe Te |= how soluble they are in the solvent which moves up the paper. sohent you are using. In this case, In Figure 2.11 spot C has hardly moved. Etther it was not very soluble ay eed to tnd a: eet her in the solvent or it has a very high affinity for the paper (or both). On the ees res thor hang, spot A has moved almost aé far as the solvont. i must be sonert nt hed sco slubein || Yarysolube nthe solvent and not have much afr for the paper. The ate pattem you getis called a chromatogram, aditferent solventsolvent spot one ine Figure 2.11 Poper chromatography In this example, the mixture must have contained a minimum of three itferent dyes. We say a minimum of three dyes because there could be more ~ itis possible that one of the spots is madie up of two coloured dyes that by concidence moved the same distance. You could only confirm this by doing the experiment again with a different solvent. 4 Figure 2.124 paper chromatography experiment CSR UE MAE ‘You can use paper chromatography to identity the particular dyes in a mixture. If you think that your mixture (m) could contain dyes d1, d2, d3 and d4, you ‘can carry out an experiment to determine this. A peneil line is drawn on a larger sheet of paper and pencil marks are drawn along the line to show the original positions of the various dyes placed on the line (see Figure 2.19). One spot is your unknown mixture: the others are single, known dyes. The chromatogram is then allowed to develop as before. ate e iy —_—= , | a ‘ anc ine a ‘A Figure 2:13 Paper chromatography can be used to analyse a mbcure, Lines wil not be present on Yur paper but thoy have been added nore toholp you moasure th cstances,Peart a rm ‘Measure fo the centre of the spot. The mixture (m) has spots corresponding to dyes dt, d3 and dé. They have the same colour as spots in the mixture, and have travelled the same distance ‘on the paper. Although dye d2 is the same colour as one of the spots in the mixture, it has travelled a different distance and so must be a diferent ‘compound. Instead of just saying the spots move different distances we can use the Ry value to describe how far the spots move. R, stands for retardation factor. Each time we do a chromatography experiment the solvent (and therefore the spots) will move different distances along the paper. This mneans we can't just report the distance moved by @ particular spot so we have to work out a ratio instead. distance moved by a spot (from the pencil R a distance moved by the solvent tront [from the pencil line) x In Figure 2.13 Fi y So in Figure 2.13 the R, value for dye 03 is: 2.90m _ P= Seam 708! The A; values of the dyes in mixture m ate: 09 r R= OS = blue spot: 3g7 022 =29. orange spot: Ri, = 5 = 0.56 29 eon spot: R= 22-081 green spot a The R, values of dyes a1 to d4 are: di: y= 056 62 y= 036 d3 Ry=081 da Ry=0.25 Because the spots in mixture m have the same R, values as d1, 03 and df, we can conclude that the mixture contains these dyes. ‘An Ry Value must be between 0 and 1. If you get a number bigger then 1 you have probably divided the numbers the wrong way round. An R, value has. no units. ‘You have to be careful when using Ay values as they depend on the solvent used and on the type of paper. Thore was no problem in the experiment described above bacause the mixture and the individual dyes were all put ‘on the same piece of paper. However, if the mixture was put on one piece of chromatography paper and the individual dyes on a separate piece, you can stil compare Fi, values as long as you use the same type of paper and the same solvent. Fa)Pages ad exc ne 1 Classy each ofthe folowing substances as an element, coinpoundl or mixture: sea water hydrogen honey magnesium oxide copper sulfate blood calcium ma potassium foie soliton 2 Look at the diagrams below and classify each one as an element, ‘compound or mixture, * HoH a. HOW HoH HoH 0. WW nH Be HH HOH WH HoH e 6 Dp@00000d OOOO, POO POO, POC set GP 2 Aieoenerias una to white poms ora dein the cheiay heeemanedaed laboratory. She wants to test to see if they are pure substances, so she Ireasute the mating pois Substance Xmetis ot 120°C ae substance ¥ melts between 87 and 93°C. Explain which one is the pure substance. FETED csormion 4 State which seperation method you woul! use to cay outta folowing separations «: Potacsism edo om a potassium odo olution. ator rom a potassium iodide sotution hans homa mare: etterit ane watt i an a a a po Calcium carbonate (Insoluble in water) from a mixture of calcium carbonate and water. eaoe '5 Suppose you had a valuable collection of small diamonds, which you kept safe from thieves by mixing them with white sugar crystals. You store ‘the mixture in 2 jar labelled ‘sugar’. Now you want to sell the diamonds. Describe how you would separate all the diamonds trom the suger. ELLE cacanire, DECISION HKGPeart a ELDERS roster sous ED awursis AR ee as 6 In order to identity the writer of an anonymous letter, a sample of ink from the letter was dissolved in 4 solvent and then placed on some chromatography paper. Spots of ink from the pens of tive possible writers, G.M.P, Rand T, were placed next to the sample on the chromatography paper. The final chromatogram looked like this: ' ’ 2 + + ' —! \ ‘ ' ' ' Liter @ mB AF |—penci ine 2 Which of the five writers is using ink that matches the sample from the letter? b Which of the writers is using a pen that contains ink made from a single aye? © What is the R, value of the blue dye in suspect P’s pen? Which two of the five writers are using pens containing the same ink? © Whose pen contained the dye that was most soluble in the solvent? Px}