Chapter Two

CHAPTER TWO

2. Measurement of river Stage, depth, velocity

2.1 Introduction

The stage of a river is the height of the water surface above an established reference plane.
Stages are relatively easy measurable, even though the requirements for the accuracy of the
measurement can differ for each different purpose. The highest accuracy is required when the
slope of the water surface for a relatively short reach of the river needs to be determined. Stages
are frequently used to determine stage-discharge curves or to estimate a discharge at a particular
moment with the help of a discharge-curve (See also Jansen et al. [1979, reprint 1994], p. 174
and further).

2.1.1 Selection of Location

Before starting with the actual measurements a suitable location has to be selected. The choice
of the location depends on:

 Purpose of the measurement

 Hydrological and hydraulic properties of the location
 Costs of installation and sustenance
 Accessibility and distance to public road
 Availability of mains voltage

Besides these points of decision the watercourse, at the point of measurement, has to fulfill
certain requirements for the usefulness of the measurement. The requirements for the
watercourse are:

 The watercourse has to be straight for at least 100m upstream and downstream from the
point
 measurement for a regular velocity distribution in the water
 No inundation (flooding) when extreme high water occurs (1 time per 50 years)
 No backwater

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 Close to the point of measurement, measurements of velocity have to be possible so stage

discharge curves can be compiled
 No big changes in resistance (think of plant growth or lack of such in wintertime, this for
instance occurs with discharge measurement stations in the Swiss Rhine).

2.1.2 Equipment pre-considerations

The accuracy of the discharge data is determined by the accuracy with which the stages can be
measured. It is essential that the measurement equipment fulfills the necessary accuracy. The
choice of measurement equipment depends on:

1. Local field situation

2. Purpose of the measurement
3. Possibility of data processing
4. Available manpower
5. Costs of installation and maintenance
6. Availability of mains voltage

2.2 Principles of measurement equipment

With measurements of stage one should differentiate between direct and indirect measuring
systems. Direct systems measure the stage directly, while indirect systems measure not the stage,
but another parameter (e.g. water pressure) which is being converted into a stage.

Available direct systems are:

 Staff gauges
 Float gauges
Available indirect systems are:
 Bubble-type pneumatic gauges
 Ultrasonic water level gauges
 Electronic pressure transducers

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Fig. 2.1: Left: Vertical staff gauge, right: inclined staff gauge
2.2.1 Staff gauges

The easiest way to measure a stage is with a staff gauge, normally either a vertical staff gauge
(see Fig. 2.1 (left)) or an inclined staff gauge (see Fig. 2.1 (right)). The latter is less vulnerable
for ships and floating ice. The zero line of the scale has to be fixed to a reference plane by means
of a leveling instrument. The smallest subdivision of the scale is 10 mm. The reading accuracy
is 3 mm.

Advantages of staff gauges:

 Easily installed
 Direct reading
Disadvantages of staff gauges:
Difficult reading when waves occur
Not suitable for automatic data processing

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Chance of inaccurate reading. Staff gauges usually show only intervals of decimetres and
centimetres, this has often showed to be a recipe for reading the improper meter
indication.
2.2.2 Float gauges

The float gauge is the oldest and most commonly used equipment for measurements of stage. It
is the only direct system, which can measure the water stage continuously and automatically. The
float gauge is used mainly as an inside stilling well reference gauge for a water level recorder

Fig. 2.2: Float gauge

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Fig. 2.3: Bubble-type pneumatic gauge

and consists of a float attached to a counterweight by means of a cable or a stainless steal tape.
The cable or tape passes over a pulley of the recording device (see Fig. 2.2). The recording
device continuously records the stage.

2.2.3 Bubble-type pneumatic gauge

The bubble-type pneumatic gauge is based on measurement of the pressure needed to produce
bubbles against the water pressure (see Fig. 2.3). A gas, mostly nitrogen or air, is blown through
a tube into the water. The pressure needed to overcome the water pressure at the end of the tube
is an indication for the water head above the end of the tube.

The bubble-type pneumatic gauge is mainly used when the location is not suitable for a float
gauge; e.g. conditions for a tower and stilling well are unfavorable. On the other hand, for the
bubble-type pneumatic gauge an airtight tube has to be laid, which is potentially cumbersome
and vulnerable. Extreme temperature variations of the gas in the purge system will cause
pressure fluctuation. An increase of the temperature will cause an overestimate of the real stage.

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Fig. 2.4: Ultrasonic water level gauge with sensor below the water surface

2.2.4 Ultrasonic water level gauges

The ultrasonic water level gauge has a sensor located at either a fixed point above the water
surface or a fixed point below the water surface (see Fig. 2.4). This sensor sends, with high
frequency, sonic waves to the water surface, the sonic waves are reflected by the water surface
and received again by the sensor. The time interval between transmission and reception is
measured, from knowledge of the velocity of sound in air or water, as the case may be, this can
be converted into a stage. The main advantage of the ultrasonic water level gauge with a sensor
located at a fixed point above the water surface is that the sensor doesn’t have contact with
the water. This is especially useful for measurements in polluted water; the ultrasonic water
level gauge is for this reason often used by purification plants. The velocity of sound in air or
water changes with density. Hence temperature and humidity affect the accuracy of the method.
Most systems correct their measurements automatically for temperature and humidity, but this
is only a partial correction. The accuracy of this sensor is about the same as the accuracy of
the diaphragm-type pneumatic gauge.

2.2.5 Electronic pressure transducers

An electrical pressure transducer has two main components: the force summing device, which
responds to the pressure (caused by the water head above the device), and the sensor which

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converts the output of the force summing device into an electrical signal. There are several
designs for each component part (see Fig. 2.5). The transducer may contain signal processing
electronics, which change the low-level sensor output into a form suitable for transmission over
long distances. In all transducers, water pressure + atmospheric pressure are measured with
respect to a reference. This reference gives the transducer a classification:

1. Vented transducer - reference to atmospheric pressure

2. Sealed transducer - reference to a fixed known pressure

Fig. 2.5: Left:possible electric pressure transducers for measurements of stage, right:sealed
pressure transducer (van Essen diver)
Since all open channel flows are subject to atmospheric pressure, the vented gauge type is the
most suitable for application to measurements of stage. The vented gauge incorporates a vent
pipe. Disadvantage is that for instance condensation water in the vent pipe, can cause the
transducer to become inaccurate. Sealed transducers need additional measurement of
atmospheric pressure.

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For all measuring systems a regular check of equipment on the measuring site is necessary.
Suspicions about correctness of the data are never superfluous. Regular calibration (in the field)
is highly recommend.

2.3 Method of velocity Measurements

For the measurement of discharge, the mean velocity is required at various vertical lines as
discussed above. The following methods are commonly used:

 Float method
 Current meter method
Velocity Measurement by Float
In this method, a straight and uniform reach of the river is selected for the float to travel. The
time t taken by a float to travel a certain distance L is measured.

A C E

1
This method consists noting the time taken by the floats to traverse a measured distance.

Then

Dis tan ce travelled by a float in m

 Velocity in m / sec.
Time taken in sec

There are three types of float commonly used in practice

- Surface floats
- Sub-surface floats of Double floats
2
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- Velocity rods or rod floats.

Surface floats: They are made up of light material for example cork. Any object that can float
can be used as surface float.
To make them easily distinguishable they are painted on top. The floats should be of sufficient
small size so that they may be carried further by the velocity of the surface filament.

The measurements of velocity are done as mentioned below.

- Two wire ropes or cables are stretched across the channel at right angles to the flow. The ropes
are marked to divide the channel width in various paths or tracks for floats.

- The two ropes are separated by a known distance. The distance between the ropes is
called a reach or a run. This distance should be sufficiently long.
- For rivers and large irrigation channels it should be more than 50 metres. Usually 75
metres length is found to be sufficient
- A third marked rope is stretched across the channel upstream of the reach by about 15
to 20 metres. The floats are released at this point.
- By the time the floats enter the run they acquire uniform velocity.
- The floats which follow their respective tracks are only considered.
- As the velocity of the floats is affected by wind, a calm day should be chosen for
taking observations.
- By this method surface velocity is obtained which is not the mean velocity of flow.
Hence this value should be multiplied by a constant to arrive at a mean velocity of
flow.
Sub-surface float or Double float: It consists of a lighter surface float attached by a cord to a
hollow metal sphere or a cylinder which is another subsurface float.

Sub-surface float is slightly heavier than water. The depth to which sub-surface floats be
confined may be increased or decreased by adjusting the length of the cord.

When the sub-surface float is adjusted accurately (about 0.2 D above bottom) the velocity
obtained by timing the surface float is nearly equal to the mean velocity.

 This method is superior to surface float.

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Surface Float Sub-surface Float Rot

Float

Fig. Floats

Rod Float: A velocity rod or a rod float consists of a hollow metal tube or a wooden rod.
Diameter of the float rod is about 3 to 5 cm. The rod is weighted at the bottom to keep the rod
floating vertically with its top just above the water surface. The rod should be of sufficient length
to cover entire depth. To suit different depths the rod is made in adjustable length that is it is
made telescopic. For large rivers the rod floats may be made of wooden logs of about 30 cm
diameter weighted at bottom to keep them vertical.

The velocity with which the rod travels in the channel is nearly equal to the mean velocity over
its depth.

D1

Fig. Cross section of Rod floats

The mean velocity of the section may be calculated from the formula

 D1 
Vm  V 1.012  0.116 
 D 

Where V is the observed velocity of the rod float

D is depth of flow in a channel

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D1 is clearance between lower end of the rod and the bed of channel.

The measurement of velocity is an important aspect of many direct stream flow measurement
techniques. A mechanical device, called current meter, consisting essentially of a rotating
element is probably the most commonly used instrument for accurate determination of the stream
velocity filed. Approximate stream velocities can be determined by floats.

Velocity Measurements by Current Meters

The most commonly used instrument in hydrometery to measure the velocity at a point in the
flow cross-section is the current meter. It consists essentially of

- a rotating element which rotates due to the reaction of the stream current with an
angular velocity proportional to the stream velocity.
There are mainly two types of current meters which are in common use, namely:

- cup type and

- propeller type current meter.
The principle involved in both the meters is that the water flowing past the rotating element of
the meter makes it revolve due to the unbalanced drag force acting on it and the speed of the
rotating element is directly proportional to the velocity of water.

Cup type current meter

The cup type current meter consists of a wheel of six conical cups rotating about a vertical axis
as shown in the fig. below,

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Electrical connection Cable

Counting Stabilizing

mechanisim Fin

Cups

Fig.: Cup type current meter

The tail vanes (also known as the fins) will always align the meter along the direction of flow.
Sounding
The purpose of sounding weight with streamlined shape at the bottom is to keep the meter cable
weight
as nearly as possible.

The speed of the meter, after it is inserted at a point where velocity is to be measured, is obtained
by starting a stop watch on a click and stopping it on another click after about 45 seconds.

The number of clicks counted divided by the elapsed time gives the speed of the meter N in
revolutions per second. Then the velocity measured by the meter is given by

v = a + bN

where a and b are the calibration constants of the meter supplied by the manufacturer. The
normal range of velocity measured is 0.15 to 4.0 m/s.

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Water surface A

a) 2.0

1.5

1.0
0.2d V3

0.6d 0.5 Water surface

b)
0.8d

A v0.2d

d v0.6d

Fig. Velocity Distribution of va0.8d

Channel Section
Channel
The profile suggests that the velocity needs to be measured at bed
number of locations at a section
and also at different elevations to get the average velocity of the whole channel section.

It is clear that the velocity of flow utilized for obtaining the discharge should be uniform
throughout the section. But Section-AA
in practice it is not possible. The velocity is never uniform
throughout the section. The obvious reason is, that frictional resistance offered by the sides and
the bed of the channel reduces the velocity.

Also the velocity of the top layer of water is reduced due to friction between the atmosphere and
the water surface or due to any other reason. Thus as we go inwards from the channel boundaries
the velocity of flow goes on increasing. The reduction in the velocity of the flow at boundaries
depends on the resistance offered by the surface in contact.

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 Velocity measurement by Ultrasonic method

Another method to measure velocity of a stream is the use of ultrasonic sound wave moving in
water from one side of the channel to other. Two transducers capable of emitting and recording
sound waves are placed at the same reduced level on either side of the river banks, making an
angle  with respect to the river bank as shown in Fig. below.

P2 Bank left

A B

Flow L  P1 P2

Fig: Velocity measurement by ultrasonic method (P1 and P2 are Transducers)

When the transducer P2 sends ultrasonic signals, it is received by P1. The signals move

P1 plus
with their own velocity in the water medium Banktheright
velocity ofSection
water favouring it.

When P1 sends signals, it is received by P2 with velocity of water opposing it. The velocity of
water is computed from the relation

L 1 1
V    
2 cos  t1 t 2 

where L is the distance between P1 and P2 , t1 and t2 respectively represents the times taken by
sound wave to reach from P2 and P1 and from P1 to P2.

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