LSG 3102 PHYSICAL

GEODESY
Brian Makabayi, PhD
Mak2brian@[Link]
Room: 3004
Mobile : +256784994995
Course Outline

• Introduction
• Problems of geodesy
• Newton’s gravitation law
• Horizontal is bumpy
• Free air and bouguer anomalies
• Potential theory
• Gravimetry
• Terminology in geodesy
• Satellite gravity measurement
• Geoid modelling
• Height systems
 Overview
‘New’ Geodesy
absolute geocentric
coordinates Classical Geodesy
Floating height datum,
relative coordinates
Geometrical Physical
Geodesy Geodesy
Where am I? What is uphill? Geometrical Physical
Geodesy Geodesy

The level ellipsoid

Stokes’ problem Potential Theory
Convert gravity to potential
Measure gravity on a surface  Find gravity in space

Theory and practice of Laplace’s equation

modern height systems Fourier transforms (Cartesian coordinates)
Spherical harmonics (Spherical polar coordinates)
 Lecture 1
An overview of
what’s new about
Geometrical Geodesy
Geometrical and Physical Geodesy

• There has long been a division of geodesy into its geometrical and
physical branches but the advent of satellite-based positioning has
made geometrical geodesy relatively more important both in practice
and philosophically.
• Formerly both parts were mutually dependent.
• Now, the object of geometrical geodesy – in essence the
determination of absolute geocentric coordinates for accessible
points on the Earth – is effectively independent of the results of
physical geodesy.
Geometrical and Physical Geodesy
 Physical geodesy is about knowing what is uphill – a property
determined by the direction of the Earth’s gravity field.
 In the modern world, physical geodesy has to locate level surfaces in
terms of the purely geometrical coordinates supplied by geometrical
geodesy.
 In the post satellite positioning era, the objects of geometrical geodesy
are available without knowing about or using the irregular form of the
Earth’s gravity field.
 Because geometrical geodesy no longer needs a direct contribution
from physical geodesy but stands alone, in this textbook, we start our
introduction to geodesy at a different point from an introduction to
classical geodesy.
Geometrical and Physical Geodesy

• Now, a logically structured account of geometrical geodesy can take

as given an ability to find Cartesian coordinates {x,y,z} of an isolated
survey point on the surface of the Earth, in a frame that is geocentric
and global.
• This has been a paradigm-shifting event brought about by satellite
positioning.
Choosing a reference
Mean sea
ellipsoid level

What is
mean sea level? exact
ellipsoid

Look later at how

to choose a
better datum
 Don’t choose an ellipsoid that fits the
topographic surface best

Classical process involves

a fit of the ellipsoid to
‘mean sea level’

– what does ‘mean sea level’ mean?

Now determine the shape from satellite gravity

and the size from a best fit to the coordinates of
satellite tracking stations
 What GPS does and doesn’t do!
Satellite positioning systems provide coordinates that are geocentric
and absolute – distances measured in metres.

We know where we are and the position and shape of the Earth’s
surface in these coordinates, so we have everything we need for
navigation and for aircraft to avoid bumping into mountains!

Geometric coordinates do not tell you what is level and which

direction is uphill – these are determined by the Earth’s gravity field
and are the province of physical geodesy, only necessary (but then
essential) when dealing with the energy needed to transport mass.

‘Energy-based’ heights are needed to plan road and rail inclines,

hydroelectric power plants, ‘gravity-feed’ irrigation, pipelines, etc
 Absolute vertical coordinates
– the crucual innovation

‘New’ geodesy Classical geodesy

levelling plus
GPS gives gravity H
h
this directly estimated inside
the Earth

Gravity inside the Earth geoid

and a worldwide integral N
Ellipsoid
 Overview
‘New’ Geodesy
absolute geocentric
coordinates Classical Geodesy
Floating height datum,
relative coordinates
Geometrical Physical
Geodesy Geodesy
Where am I? What is uphill? Geometrical Physical
Geodesy Geodesy

The level ellipsoid

Stokes’ problem Potential Theory
Convert gravity to potential
Measure gravity on a surface  Find gravity in space

Theory and practice of Laplace’s equation

modern height systems Fourier transforms (Cartesian coordinates)
Spherical harmonics (Spherical polar coordinates)
 Lecture 2
Introduction to Physical Geodesy

1 Gravity, equipotential surfaces and height

Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
for a point mass
δF (r2 )   r  r 
 G  (r1 )  V1   1   2 
δg (r2 )  1
m2  r  r 2   r2  r1 

 2 1 

mass inverse square unit

element term vector

m
r2  r1
r2 2   G  (r1 ) δV1
r2  r1
3
m – r
1 r r1 2
1
The effect of an extended body is found by integrating the point mass formula


r2  r1
g (r2 )   G  (r1 ) dV1
r2  r1
3
V1

The gradient operator  operating of the inverse distance gives

 1  r2  r1
2    
r
 2  r1  r2  r1
3

So we can write gravity as the gradient of a scalar potential V

g (r2 )   2V (r2 )
where


1
V (r2 )  G  (r1 ) dV1
V1
r2  r1
 Level surfaces
V is the differential (ie the slope) of V in the
direction of most rapid change.

This property makes V at right angles to a level surface

‘horizontal’
suface on which the potential V is a constant – equipotential
an equipotential surface

There can therefore be no component of

gravitational force that is tangential to an V = constant
equipotential surface
– an equipotential surface is level
g  V
Provided that there are no other forces acting,
the surface of a fluid at rest will be level
We also use the word horizontal to describe a
level surface
 horizontal is bumpy

go - background gravity of the bulk Earth

plus g - effect of local high density mass

g

g
go
 horizontal is bumpy

go - background gravity of the bulk Earth

plus g - effect of local high density mass
= g – the resultant net gravity is deflected

g

g go
 horizontal is bumpy

‘Vertical’ is the direction of net gravity

 horizontal is bumpy

‘Vertical’ is the direction of net gravity

‘Horizontal’ is a surface at right angles to vertical

 horizontal is bumpy

On the ‘horizontal’, a marble does not roll away

because there is
no component of gravity parallel to the surface
– no where on it is ‘down hill’.
the surface of a fluid at rest will be horizontal

Mean sea level geoid

 We shall see later that the effect of measuring gravity on a rotating Earth is to add
another ‘inertial’ force – the centrifugal force – whose effects are indistinguishable from
‘gravitational’ gravity.
Like gravity, the centrifugal force can be derived as the gradient of a potential, F, so the
net potential W is the sum of both components.
W is called the geopotential
W = V + F
and, what we observe as gravity, is
W
|g| = | W|  
H

 H is an increment of distance along the normal to the equipotential surface

W
so H  
|g| W = W2
H12
Level surfaces are closer together when
gravity is stronger, even though each has a W = W1
constant ‘height’
 Classical heighting uses levelling

Now use  H3
W  H4
|g| 
H H 2 P4
 H1 P3

P2
W   | g |  H P1

to give


N

WN 0   | g |H  W0
i 0

or


N

cN  W0  WN 0  | g |H
i 0
 Since 1956, the adopted measure of height has been
a direct measure of the gravitational potential energy
Each level surface heighting is labelled by W
and height measured in metres is no longer definitive
(but has remained in widespread use)

c is the geopotential number at a point with coordinates (h,j,l)

and Wo is the potential on the zero height datum.

W is the gravitational potential energy

and depends only on where point N is
– it does not depend on the route taken by the levelling

 
N N

cN  | g |H H
i 0 i 0
If is unique, cannot be unique
Geopotential heights without levelling
The essence of heighting for ‘new geodesy’ is determine the geopotential
number directly from a model of the geopotential expressed in terms of
ellipsoidal coordinates
The geopotential number c at a point with coordinates (h,j,l) is then
c(h,j,l ) = Wo – W(h,j,l
rather than

(Because the potential decreases with height, this definition ensures that the
geopotential number increases upwards!)

The geopotential number now serves the purpose of the ‘energy-based’

form of height for all cases where the ellipsoidal height is inappropriate


N

cN  W0  WN 0  | g |H
i 0
 How can we find W(h,j,l)?
Modelling
Calculate the gravity field (potential and gravity) for an object
with a known shape (perhaps plus density or some other defining property)
This approach is used for example to model the ‘normal’ Earth
and the topographic masses.
We subtract gravity calculated from the models from real gravity
to make residual gravity very small
Potential Theory
Laplace’s equation can transform residual gravity to potential
If a function satisfies Laplace’s equation, measurements over a
coordinate surface determine it in the space above (or below) the surface

 2T   2T  2T 
   2  
2 
z 2  x y 
 Classical geodesy
Pre-satellite geodetic technology could
* measure angles very precisely, at best ~ 0.02 arc second (10-7 radians);
* measure distances (few km to < 0.1mm), referenced to the wavelength
of light, using calibrated invar wires or tapes
* determine positions and large horizontal distances through a network of
triangulation stations, or, latterly, though microwave trilateration;
* determine the absolute direction in space of the local vertical and the
Earth’s spin axis using observations of stars and an adopted star
catalogue (astronomical latitude and longitude);
* compute geodetic latitude from a measured horizontal distance over the
surface of the ellipsoid;
* determine the geopotential number by levelling from mean sea level at
a coastal tide gauge;
* measure gravity at accessible points on land and on ships at sea
Problems
• Regionally different reference ellipsoids
origin of local ellipsoid chosen to minimise local geoid heights
not absolute or geocentric

• Floating height datum

Geopotential number converted to geometric height assuming
gravity inside the Earth; position of geoid unknown

• Stokes’ problem
Need a global integral of gravity anomalies to compute the height
of the geoid above the ellipsoid, in order to find the absolute the ellipsoidal
height of a surface point

• The gravity anomaly

Cannot compare real and normal gravity at the same place
– rotational potential does not cancel when forming the anomalous
potential

• No global gravity model

Stokes’ integral had to deal with the whole of gravity anomaly not a small
residual; no control of far-field effects.
Slides illustrating gravity height corrections
and their effect
 11823
gravity
measurement
points
on land
in the
Grampian
Highlands

Data square
200 by 200 km
Measured
gravity

Variations
have a range
of
410 ppm
 Height
Range up to
1500 m
 Height Gravity
Gravity variations correlate with
an up-side-down topographic map
ie, gravity is low where topography is high
 There are two competing effects
that change the gravity measured on a hill
compared with that at sea level

* the free-air effect – just the result of getting

further from the attracting centre of the Earth

* the effect of topographic masses

– on the top of a hill, there is the additional
attraction of the mass between you and
sea level
 GM
go gh go 
R R2

GM
R+h gh 
( R  h) 2
GM 1

R2  h
2
1  
(binomial theorem)  R
But, for small x, (1 x) n  1  n x
 h
Free air Thus g h  g o  g o 1  2   g o
 R
correction 2g 2  9 .8

R 6378 000
h
g h  go   2 go  3.0   10  6 m s - 2 m -1
R

 3.0  gu m -1
 Free air anomaly
 2g 
g FA  g obs    h
 R 
2g
 g obs    h
R
The free air anomaly is the residual from a model that does not include
the attraction of topographic masses.

Therefore it should correlate positively with local topographic roughness.

Locally, it should be large and rough,

disguising the effects of subsurface density variations

ie geology
 Freeair
anomaly

Make
corrections for
gravity
measured at
an increased
distance from
the centre of
the Earth
(cf Newton’s
inverse square
law).

Variations
have a range
of
160 ppm.
 Height Freeair anomaly
Freeair anomaly correlates with
a ‘right-way-up’ topographic map
ie freeair anomaly is high where topography is high
 The Bouguer anomaly

corrects for both effects of topography

– the free air correction
(increased distance from the centre of
the Earth) and
– the Bouguer correction
(attraction of the extra mass between
the ground surface and sea level)
 Attraction of the topography

To make the Bouguer correction

you need to compute the gravitational attraction
of the topographic masses
– a tough task for rough terrain
– (now use (super-)computers and satellite-derived
digital terrain models)
Bouguer devised a simple and usually good approximation
– represent the terrain by an infinite horizontal slab
whose thickness is equal to the measurement height

g
Then just a very simple formula

 g  2 G  h h 
 Calculating the
gravitational attraction of
the topographic masses

 gT
Attraction of
the whole 
density 
topography

 gB
Attraction of
Bouguer 
slab density 

Attraction of
T
topographic 
relief  
 Bouguer anomaly
 2g 
g B  g obs    h   gT 
 R 
2g
 g obs    h   gT
R

The Bouguer anomaly is the residual from a model that includes

the attraction of topographic masses.

Therefore it should not correlate with local topographic roughness.

It should be smooth and small,

reflecting only the effects of subsurface density variations
 Bouguer
anomaly
Corrects for
attraction of
topographic
masses as
well as the
inverse
square law.

Locally much
smoother

Variations
have a range
of
97 ppm.
 Height Bouguer anomaly

Bouguer anomaly does not correlate locally with height

POTENTIAL THEORY
ELEMENTS
Introduction

• The law of gravitation allows to calculate a body’s gravitational

potential and attraction if its density distribution and shape are
given.
• In most real life situations the density distribution is unknown and in
physical geodesy even the shape of the body - the geoid – must be
considered unknown.
• The next question is whether the exterior field can be determined
from the function (the potential or its derivatives ) on the surface.
This is a boundary value problem.
Introduction

• Potential theory is the branch of mathematical physics that deals

with potentials and boundary value problems.
• Its tools are vector calculus, partial differentials equations, integral
equations and several theorems and identities of gauss (divergence) ,
stokes (rotation) and green.
• Potential theory describes the behavior of potentials f any type.
• Thus it finds applications in such diverse disciplines as electro-
magnetics , hydrodynamics and gravitational theory.
Introduction

• Here we will be concerned with gravitational potentials and the

corresponding boundary value problems.
Some vector calculus rules
Some vector calculus rules
Divergence - Gauss

• Vector flow – our treatment of the gauss divergence theorem begins

with the concept of vector flow through a surface.
• Vector flow is loosely speaking the amount of vectors going through a
certain surface - one could think of water flowing through a section
of a river.
• The amount of vectors is quantified by taking the scalar product of
the vector field and the surface normal.
Divergence - Gauss
Divergence - Gauss
Divergence - Gauss
Divergence - Gauss
Divergence - Gauss
Divergence - Gauss
Divergence - Gauss
Boundary value problem

• Starting of this chapter was the question, whether we can determine

the gravitational field in outer space without knowing the density
structure of the earth, but the knowledge of the potential on the
boundary.
• In our particular case we have two different partial differential
equations used in the boundary value determination problem.
The poisson equation leading to an interior BVP, and
Laplace equation leading to the exterior BVP
• We will only be concerned with the exterior BVP hence only the
Laplace equation
Boundary value problem
Boundary value problem
Solving laplace’s equation
Solving laplace’s equation
Solving laplace’s equation
 Solving laplace’s equation

• Solution of dirichlet and Neumann BVPs in x, y and z

• DIRICHLET’S SOLUTION
 Solving laplace’s equation

• NEUMANN’S SOLUTION
Solving laplace’s equation
Solving Laplace's equation
Solving Laplace's equation
Solving Laplace's equation
Assignment

1) Solve the Laplace’s equation both in Cartesian and spherical

coordinates?
 This assignment is individual and should be handed in for
assessment to contribute towards your final mark in the
examination.
 It should be hand written and submitted on 16th December 2021.
Gravity and Gravimetry
Gravity Attraction and Potential
Gravity Attraction and Potential
 Gravimetry

• Gravimetry is the measurement of gravity

Gravimetric measurements : principles:pendulum
Gravimetric measurements :
principles:pendulum
Gravimetric measurements : principles:
spring
Gravimetric measurements : principles:
spring
Astatized spring: LaCoste-Romberg design

• Lacoste developed the concept

of a zero length spring as a
graduate student at the
university of Texas in 1932.
Gravimetric measurements : principles: free
fall
Gravimetric measurements : principles: free
fall
Gravimetric measurements : principles: free
fall
Gravimetric measurements : principles: free
fall
Gravimetric measurements : principles: free
fall
Corrections to be made
Relative gravimetry

In the pre-satellite era, global

gravity models had to be
constructed from terrestrial
gravity anomalies.
Most land and marine gravity
data were acquired with portable
gravity meters only capable of
measuring gravity differences
The disadvantages of this
technique were: first the logistic
one that every point where
gravity was needed had to be
visited to make a measurement;
Figure 10.1 Field measurement
with a LaCoste & Romberg gravity
meter.
Relative gravimetry

secondly that this relative survey

had to be made absolute by being
tied in to a recognised system of
reference stations where the
absolute value of gravity was
known.
In addition, the gravity reading
had to be combined with a
determination of height because
the geodesist wanted a free air
anomaly rather than a raw gravity
value.

Figure 10.1 Field measurement

with a LaCoste & Romberg gravity
meter.
Absolute gravimetry

In the mid 1990s freefall absolute

gravity meters because available
on an almost commercial basis
and now there is access within
most countries to a gravity site
individually measured with an
absolute free-fall instrument.
Modern absolute gravity meters
have routine accuracies of about
20-50nm s-2 so the need for an
internationally adopted gravity
reference has disappeared

Figure 10.3: Three generations of free-fall

absolute gravity meter at the Bureau of Weights
and Measures BIPM at Sevres, outside Paris.
Gravity Networks
Gravity networks
Gravity networks
Global Gravity Models
Satellite sea surface altimetry.
Before looking at a satellite as a
sensor of the gravity field it
experiences in space, we look at
satellite sea-surface altimetric
satellites.
They measure from space but
deduce gravity on the Earth’s
surface, so have a foot in both
camps.
Notable altimetric satellites have
been some early military satellites
called GeoSat, SEASAT, Earth
Resources Satellites ERS1 and
ERS2, TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason
1 and 2.
Satellite sea surface altimetry.

In the initial phase, the satellite is

tracked from the ground to
establish its orbital parameters so
that its position at any instant
becomes accurately predictable.
In the data collection phase, the
satellite transmits a narrow-beam
radar pulse vertically downwards.
Because of its salinity, sea water
has a high conductivity so acts
like a perfect mirror to
microwaves and reflects the pulse
back to the satellite.
Satellite sea surface altimetry.

From a measure of the there-and-

back travel time, the satellite
computes the distance to the nadir
point (the point vertically below the
satellite) and thence the ellipsoidal
height of the sea surface.
There are systematic effects to
correct: tides; the non-sinusoidal
shape of ocean wave makes their
troughs occupy a larger area than
their crests; and the effect of Earth
curvature – more pronounced with
rough seas because normal
reflection from the sloping limbs of
waves can come from much further
away from the nadir point.
Satellite sea surface altimetry.

After processing, the results give

along-track estimates of the geoid
height, N, plus any dynamically
sustained elevation of the sea-
surface from the geoid, so-called
seasurface topography, ζ.
Time-average sea-surface
altimetry data are now available
on 1-2 km grids and have vertical
accuracies of ~ 2 cm. Except for
polar regions with pack ice cover,
oceanic data coverage is uniform
and global.
Satellite sea surface altimetry.

The best way to separate sea

surface topography ζ from the
true height of the
equipotential N combines the
satellite altimetrty with marin
egravimetry and a model for ζ
based on hydrography.
Subtracting ζ from the
provisional oceanographic
model from the ellipsoidal
height given by altimetry gives
a provisional value for N;
Satellite gravity measurement

Geodetic satellites
Geodetic’ satellites tend to be
simple and designed so that being
a freely accelerating mass is their
first priority.
They are small, have a high
density and a simple geometrical
shape
All features that minimise or
make calculable the effect of air
drag compared with gravity.
LAGEOS was a sphere covered
with cube-corner reflectors and
tracked by laser pulses from large
Earth-based telescopes. Figure 10.9: LAGEOS
The Laser Geodynamics Satellite.
60 cm diameter
Satellite gravity measurement

Geodetic satellites
• The LAGEOS satellites are still
the best way of finding the very
low spherical harmonic degrees
of the Earth’s gravity field (n < ~
12).

Figure 10.9: LAGEOS

The Laser Geodynamics Satellite.
60 cm diameter
Satellite gravity measurement

High-Low satellite pairs

A satellite in an orbit with a
large radius will be little
affected by perturbations due
to the higher degree
harmonics.
If the latter are well
determined by careful tracking
with geodetic satellites, the
high altitude satellite becomes
a known datum from which to
track satellites in lower
altitude orbits. Figure 10.10: CHAMP
Satellite gravity measurement

The advantage of this is that

signals from ground based
tracking stations must pass
through the lower
atmosphere, where the effect
of water vapour on the speed
of microwaves introduces
errors.
An example of this tracking
geometry was the satellite
CHAMP was launched in July
2000 and tracked by GPS
satellites Figure 10.10: CHAMP
Satellite gravity measurement

Low-Low satellite pairs

GRACE was launched in May 2002
and consists of two identical
satellites, one following about 200
km behind the other in the same
orbit.
This produces a long baseline
gradiometer when onboard
microwave transmitters monitor
the distance between the two.
In principle it will not be able to
detect gravity field variation with
wavelengths significantly less than
twice the baseline, say 400 km, that
is, spherical harmonics beyond
degree 100. Figure 10.11: GRACE
Satellite gravity measurement

Equally, the 200 km baseline will

not be efficient at measuring the
gentle gradients due to very long
wavelength components.
Although the GRACE mission
succeeded in its aim of getting
snapshots of the gravity field as a
time series in order to monitors
climatological contributions to
the Earth’s gravity field, the spin
off of a very high precision static
field has made an important
contribution.
Figure 10.11: GRACE
Satellite gravity measurement

A combination of GRACE and

geodetic satellites like LAGEOS
makes the most important
contribution to the global
gravity model for degrees up
to ~80 (wavelengths ~ 500 km)
and continues to make some
contribution to a combined
global model up to degree n ~
130 (wavelengths ~ 300 km).

Figure 10.11: GRACE

Satellite gravity measurement

On-board gradiometer
The GOCE satellite was
launched in October 2009.
It carries an on-board
gradiometer that measures
the difference in
acceleration across a
baseline of about 10 cm.
This gives all components
of the gravity gradient
tensor.

Figure 10.12: The GOCE satellite and gradiometer components.

Satellite gravity measurement

On-board gradiometer
In order to help with this
almost unbelievably
demanding task, GOCE has a
very low altitude orbit to
maximize the amplitude of
gravity variations but will
pay the penalty of a short
life time.

Figure 10.12: The GOCE satellite and gradiometer components.

Satellite gravity measurement

On-board gradiometer
Air drag will cause the
orbital radius to decrease
until it burns up in the
atmosphere.
GOCE has already
produced a good gravity
field model for wavelengths
greater than about 167 km
(n > 240)

Figure 10.12: The GOCE satellite and gradiometer components.

END