E-Learning study material for [Link] Physics students by Dr.

Ananda kumar V M, Associate

Professor, Mahatma Gandhi college, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala 2018

SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
Superconductivity was first observed in 1911 by the Dutch Physicist H.
Kamerlingh Onnes when he was studying the conductivity of metals at low
temperatures. He found that resistivity of pure mercury metal Vanishes abruptly at
4.2K. The temperature at which this transition happens is called critical
Temperature T c . This effect of vanishing of resistivity below a critical
temperature is called superconductivity.
The Superconducting transition is reversible. Above the critical temperature
the metals is in a normal state while below T 0 . The Superconducting state is
found to be a new state of mater.
Resistivity of a metals is given by equation
m
ρ= 2
ne τ
m → mass of electron, n → the concentration and τ → the collision
time.
As temperature decreases the lattice vibrations begin to decrease this results in
longer collision time and hence ρ decreases. At extremely low temperatures
τ →∞ resulting in ρ→0 and hence electrons undergo no scattering.
For a pure metals which are structurally perfect, the super conducting
transition happens at a sharp temperature. For an impure metal, the
superconducting transition temperature is not sharp.

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Fig-1
Empirical Facts
1) Superconductivity occurs only in substances where the valence electrons is
between 2 and 8.
The phenomenon is not observed generally in alkali or noble metals.
2) A small atomic volume accompanied by a small atomic man favours
superconductivity.
3) Substances with odd number of valence electrons and favourable for super
conductivity while with even number of valence electrons and unfavorable.
Perfect diamagnetism or Meissner effect
It is observed that super conductor expels magnetic flame completely and the
phenomenon is called Meissner – ochsenfeld effect.

Fig-2

As soon as the temperature is lowered to critical temperature T c the metal

becomes superconducting and all the magnetic lines of force are expelled. It is also
seen that the effect is reversible.
The magnetic induction inside a substance is given by
B=μ0 ( H +M )
Where H is the intensity of the magnetic field and M → the magnetization in the
medium

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[ ]
B=μ0 H 1+
M
H
M
=χ m , the magnetic susceptibility
H
ie B=μ 0 H ( 1+ χ m )
For a super conductor magnetic induction is expelled hence B = 0
ie μ 0 H (1+χ m )=0
ie 1+χ m=0 or χ=1
M
=−1
ie H
ie the magnetization cancels external intensity exactly. This phenomenon is called
diamagnetism. Then a super conductor behaves as a perfect diamagnet.
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Critical Field
Super conductivity can be destroyed by the application of magnetic field. For a
particular value of applied magnetic field called critical field (Hc) a
superconductor becomes a normal metal.
The critical field Hc depends on temperature. For a given substance, the field
decreases as the temperature rises from T = 0 k to T =Tc
Experimentally it has been found that

[ ( )]
2
T
H c (T )= H c (O) 1−
Tc
When T = Ok Hc(T) = Hc(O)
At T= Tc Hc(T) = 0 ie normal state

Fig-3

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Electrodynamics of Super conductors

The electrodynamic properties were put forward by F. London in 1950. It
explains known observations about superconductors.
It uses two fluid model put forward by Gorter and Casimir. According to this
model the electrons in a super conductor are of two types – super-electrons and
normal electrons. The normal electrons behave normally as in a metal at room
temperature. But super electrons exhibit certain new properties so that it becomes
super conducting. There electrons experience no scattering, have zero entropy and
a long coherence length or spatial extension. The no. of super electrons varies with
temperature as

[ ( )]
4
T
n s=n0 1−
Tc
London’s equations
At Ok superconductor contains only super electrons and at transition
temperature all electrons are normal.
At any other temperature below Tc
n=n + n
n s → density of super e-
s n

nn = density of normal e-
Let j be the current density. n = density of electrons
∴ j=J s +J n
Where Js is the superconducting current density and J n current density due to
normal electrons.
But J n =e n n V n and J s =e ns V s where μn is the velocity of normal
electrons and μS the velocity of super electrons.
The equation of motion of a superconducting electrons is
md μ s
=eE
dt ………..(1)
Where E is the externally applied electric field.
But J s =en s μ s ………..(2)
dJ s dμ
=en s s
dt dt ………...(3)

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ie J s =en s μ s …………(4)
eE
μs =
From eqn. (1) m
Sub : (5) in (4) we get
2
eE n s e E
J s =en s =
m m …………..(6)
For a steady current Js = 0
ie Js = a constant
ie E = 0 …………..(7)
for a super conductor ie the electric field inside a superconductor vanishes
For a normal metal
2
n e τE
J n =σ n E= n
m …………..(8)
If E = 0 Jn = 0 …………..(9)
Ie By only applying a voltage a current flows.
From Maxwell's equation
−∂ B
∇×E=
∂t ………….(10)
If E = 0 as in the case of a super conductor.
∂B
=0
∂t ie B = a constant
But Meissner effect tells that B = 0
Inside a super conductor.
For steady currents Maxwell’s equation is
∇×B=μ 0 j ……………(12)
∂B
∇×E=−
and ∂t ……………(13)
ie Curl B=μ0 J s ……………(14)
Curl E=−B c o ……………(15)
2
ns e E
J s=
But m ……………(16)

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mjs
E=
ns e2 …………….(17)
o mj s
∴ B=−Curl E=−curl
ns e 2 …………..(18)
o
m
B =− curl js
ns e 2 …………..(19)
Also curl B=μ0 J s ……………(20)
Differentiating both sides
d
curl b=μ 0 j s
dt …………….(21)
o

ie curl B =μ0 j s ……………(22)

Taking curl on both sides
o

Curl Curl B =μ0 curl j s …………….(23)

o
1
j s= curl curl B
Ie curl μ0 …………….(24)
o
−m
B= curl j s
But ns e2 ……………(25)
2
−ns e o
j s= B
Curl m ……………(26)
Substituting back in equation (24)
−n s e 2 o 1 o
B= curl curl B
m μ0 ………….(27)
o o
−m
B= curl curl B
ie μ0 ns e2 ………….(28)
m
α=
Let μ0 ns e2 ……………(29)
o o
ie B =−α curl curl B ……………(30)
From vector calculus

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2
∇×(∇× A )=∇( ∇ . A )−∇ A
2
ie curl curl A = grad div A−∇ B …………..(31)
Invoking this identity
o o o
2
Curl Curl B = grad div B −∇ B …………(32)
o
But div B =0 ……………(33) (Maxwell’s eqn)
∂B
∇. =0
∇. B=0 ∂t
d
( ∇. B)=0
dt
Equation (3) becomes
o o
B =α ∇ 2 B
o
o
B
∇ 2 B=
ie α ……………(34)
But inside a super conductor B = 0.
This Maxwell’s equation fails to explain the electrodynamics of super
conductor.
To rectify the problem London postulated the relation
B
∇ 2 B=
α ……………(35)
2
μ0 n s e
2
∇ B= B
ie m …………….(36)
This equation is the second London’s equation
The solution for the above equation is
B ( x )=Bo exp
−x
√α ( )
………….(37)
−x
B ( x )=Bo exp
ie λ ………….(38)

where
λ=√ α=
√ m
μ0 ns e 2
is called the penetration depth. Equation (38)
shown that the magnetic field decreases exponentially as one proceeds from the
surface to inside a super conductor. Then the mag. Field vanishes inside a super

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conductor in accordance with Meissner effect. But the equation predicts

penetration of mag. Field inside a superconductor. The parameter

λ=
√m
μ0 ns e 2 is
called London penetration depth. This prediction was later experimentally verified.
The London penetration depth λ is found to vary with temperature
−1

[ ]T4
λ(T )=λ(o ) 1− 4
Tc
2

Where
λ( o)=
√ m
μ0 ne 2
is the penetration depth at OK. It is seen that
increases as T increases and at T = Tc the substance becomes normal.
λ

x
−
λ
Also J 2 ( x )=−J s ( o)e .
Thus the current also decays exponentially as one mores inside a super
conductor. Thus Meissner effect is accompanied by a surface current and this
surface current acts as a shield for the external magnetic field resulting in Meissner
effect. Thus in a superconductor current flow through the surface.
NPTEL-([Link]
v=RPusJNXEVMQ&list=PLbMVogVj5nJRjLrXp3kMtrIO8kZl1D1Jp&index=21).

Theory of super conductivity – BCS theory

The modern theory of superconductivity was put forward by Bardeen,
Cooper and Schrieffer in 1957. This theory explains all the observed phenomena
relating to superconductors. The theory was based on quantum treatment and can
explain various effects such as zero resistance, Meissner effect etc.
The Salient features of the BCS theory are
1. An attractive interaction between electrons can lead to a ground state
separated from excited states by an energy gap. The properties of superconductors
such as critical field, electromagnetic and thermal properties etc result from the
origin of the energy gap.
2. The electron lattice electron interaction leads to an energy gap. This
indirect interaction between electron and electron takes place via lattice. When one
electron interacts with lattice and deforms it. A second electron visualizes a

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deformed lattice and adjoins it self to lower its energy. Thus the second electron
interacts with first electron via the lattice.

Fig-4

Suppose that two electrons (1) and (2) pass each other. The first electron
attracts the +ve ions towards it self and second electron sees an electron which is
screened by the ions. This screening reduces the effective charge of this electron
and may result in a net positive charge. Thus electrons attract each other with the
help of lattice. These pain is called a cooper pain. In this interaction the first
electron emits a phonon which is absorbed by the second electron. Thus this
interaction is called electron-phonon interaction.
As a result of this binding, an energy gap appears.

Fig-5

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−2
V'
g( E F )
The energy gap can be shown to be equal to Δ 0=4 ℏ ω D e

Where WD is the Debye frequency, g(EF) is the density of states of a normal

metal at Fermi level and V’ is the strength of electron lattice interaction.

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The value of Δ 0 is found to be 10-4 eV which is in agreement with observation.

1 1
− −
2 2
3. It is seen that W D αM where M is the mass of ion. Therefore Δ 0 αM
. The energy gap and hence critical temperature decreases as M increases. This can
be experimentally verified by substituting with isotopes. This properly ie
1
−
2
T c αM is known as isotope effect. This provides the strongest evidence that
lattice take part in super conductivity.
4. The penetration depth and coherence length emerge as consequences of
BCS theory. The Meissner effect also emerges as a natural way.
5. It is also seen that the magnetic field through a superconducting ring is
quantized and effective unit charge is found to be 2e. Thus BCS theory involves
pairing of electrons.
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Quantum Mechanical Tunneling and Josephson Effect

Fig-5

Consider two metals separated by an insulator. Normally insulator do not

allow the flow of electrons from one metal to another. But if the barrier is very thin
ie less than 20A° then there is a significant probability that an electron wheel
impinges on the barrier will pass from one metal to another. This phenomena is
called ‘tunneling’.

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Under suitable condition remarkable effects are observed with tunding of

super conducting pairs (Cooper pairs) from one super conductor to another super
conductor separated by a thin layer if insulator. This tunneling happening in
superconductors is termed as Josephson tunneling.

DC Josephson Effect
A dc current flows across the junction in the absence of any electric or
magnetic field. The principle behind this effect is that the wave function on both
sides would be highly correlated.
J=J 1 sin φ0
J1 is a measure of probability of transition across the function.

AC Josephson effect
A dc voltage applied across the function causes radio frequency oscellations
across the function

[
J =J 1 sin φ0 +
2 eV
ℏ
t
] ℏ=
h
2π
Where V is the applied dc voltage. Thus application of static potential leads
to an alternating current.
2eV
w=
The angular frequency ℏ
But ω=2 πυ
eV
υ=
Thus ℏπ
−19
Substituting for e=9 . 1×10 c ℏ=1 .06×10−34 JS and
π =3 .14
υ=484 V GH Z 1 GH z =10 9 Hz
V will be in the order of millivolts. These results were predicted by
Josephson in 1962 which are in agreement with experimental results. A dc volt of
IMV produces a frequency 483.6 MHz.
NPTEL-([Link]

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Type I and Type II Super Conductors

In some superconductors, application of a particular magnetic field destroys
super conductivity abruptly. The transition from superconducting to normal state is
sudden and abrupt as shown in figure. The value of applied field

Fig-6

At which transition happens is called critical field. In type I Meissner effect

is complete.
In type II Superconductors the transition from superconducting to normal
state by applied magnetic field is not abrupt. The Meissner effect is only partial.
Here the magnetic flow partially penetrates the super conductor. It starts at a value
HC, and completes at Hc2. Up to HC, the specimen is in super conducting state
while between Hc1 and Hc2 the specimen is said to be in mixed state or vertex
state. In the vertex state the specimen contains. Small circular normal regions
surrounded by large superconducting regions. The small normal regions are
referred to as vortex or fluxoids.
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High Temperature Superconductivity

In High temperature Super conductors, the critical temperature at which
super conductivity is manifested is high. Copper oxides such as YBaCaO
compounds and certain ceramic compounds show high Tc value.

Applications of super conductors

1) In transmission of electricity from one place to another with out

transmission loss.
2) Using Meissner effect we can have levitating trains.
3) Super conducting magnets with high magnetic intensity of several Tesla can
be fabricated.
ℏ
4) Josephson tunneling can be used for the accurate determination of e
5) Quantum interference can be used in the construction of sensitive magneto
meters.

SQUID (Super Conducting Quantum Interference Device)

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Fig-7

Consider two Josephson functions as shown a and b are insulators.

Let the phase difference through the path a in δ a and that of path b is δ b .
In the absence of applied field δ a =δ b
If we apply a flues φ through the cirinit then
2e
( )
δ a −δ b =
ℏc
φ

The current varies with φ and has maxima when

eφ
=sπ
ℏc where s is an integer.
This can be used to construct sensitive magnetometers squid is a very sensitive
magnetometer used to measure extremely small magnetic fields based on
superconducting loops containing Josephson junctions.

References:
1. Michael Tinkham – Introduction to Superconductivity (McGraw-Hill,Inc).
2. Philip Hofmann - Solid State Physics An Introduction (Wiley-VCH).
3. Mit-Supercoductivity.([Link]
prep/electromagnetism/electromagnetic-induction/superconductivity/)
4. NPTEL-([Link]

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