Genetic engineereing

Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification or genetic

manipulation, is the modification and manipulation of an
organism's genes using technology. It is a set of technologies used to
change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within
and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel organisms.
New DNA is obtained by either isolating and copying the genetic material
of interest using recombinant DNA methods or by artificially
synthesising the DNA. A construct is usually created and used to insert
this DNA into the host organism. The first recombinant DNA molecule was
designed by Paul Berg in 1972 by combining DNA from the monkey
virus SV40 with the lambda virus. As well as inserting genes, the process
can be used to remove, or "knock out", genes. The new DNA can either be
inserted randomly or targeted to a specific part of the genome.[1]

An organism that is generated through genetic engineering is considered

to be genetically modified (GM), and the resulting entity is a genetically
modified organism (GMO). The first GMO was a bacterium generated
by Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen in 1973. Rudolf Jaenisch created the
first GM animal when he inserted foreign DNA into a mouse in 1974. The
first company to focus on genetic engineering, Genentech, was founded in
1976 and began the production of human proteins. Genetically engineered
human insulin was produced in 1978, and insulin-producing bacteria were
commercialised in 1982. Genetically modified food has been sold since
1994, with the release of the Flavr Savr tomato. The Flavr Savr was
engineered to have a longer shelf life, but most current GM crops are
modified to increase resistance to insects and herbicides. GloFish, the first
GMO designed as a pet, was sold in the United States in December 2003.
In 2016, salmon modified with a growth hormone were sold.

Genetic engineering has been applied in numerous fields, including

research, medicine, industrial biotechnology, and agriculture. In research,
GMOs are used to study gene function and expression through loss-of-
function, gain-of-function, tracking, and expression experiments. By
knocking out genes responsible for certain conditions, it is possible to
create animal model organisms of human diseases. As well as producing
hormones, vaccines, and other drugs, genetic engineering has the
potential to cure genetic diseases through gene therapy. Chinese hamster
ovary (CHO) cells are used in industrial genetic engineering.
Additionally, mRNA vaccines are made through genetic engineering to
prevent infections by viruses such as COVID-19. The same techniques that
are used to produce drugs can also have industrial applications, such as
producing enzymes for laundry detergent, cheeses, and other products.

The rise of commercialised genetically modified crops has provided

economic benefit to farmers in many different countries; however, it has
also been the source of most of the controversy surrounding the
technology. This has been present since its early use; the first field trials
were destroyed by anti-GM activists. Although there is a scientific
consensus that food derived from GMO crops poses no greater risk to
human health than conventional food, critics consider GM food safety a
leading concern. Gene flow, impact on non-target organisms, control of
the food supply, and intellectual property rights have also been raised as
potential issues. These concerns have led to the development of a
regulatory framework, which started in 1975. Eventually, this has led to a
proposal of an international treaty, the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety,
which was officially adopted in 2000. Individual countries have developed
their own regulatory systems regarding GMOs, with the most marked
differences occurring between the United States and Europe.

IUPAC definition

Genetic engineering: Process of inserting new genetic information into

existing cells in order to modify a specific organism for the purpose of
changing its characteristics.

Note: Adapted from ref.[2][3]

Overview
 Comparison of
conventional plant breeding with transgenic and cisgenic genetic
modification

Genetic engineering is a process that alters the genetic structure of an

organism by either removing or introducing DNA or modifying existing
genetic material in situ. Unlike traditional animal and plant breeding,
which involves doing multiple crosses and then selecting for the organism
with the desired phenotype, genetic engineering takes the gene directly
from one organism and delivers it to the other. This is much faster, can be
used to insert any genes from any organism (even ones from
different domains), and prevents other undesirable genes from also being
added.[4]

Genetic engineering could potentially fix severe genetic disorders in

humans by replacing the defective gene with a functioning one.[5] It is an
important tool in research that allows the function of specific genes to be
studied.[6] Drugs, vaccines, and other products have been harvested from
organisms engineered to produce them.[7] Crops have been developed
that aid food security by increasing yield, nutritional value, and tolerance
to environmental stresses.[8]

The DNA can be introduced directly into the host organism or into a cell
that is then fused or hybridised with the host.[9] This relies
on recombinant nucleic acid techniques to form new combinations of
heritable genetic material, followed by the incorporation of that material
either indirectly through a vector system or directly through micro-
injection, macro-injection, or micro-encapsulation.
Genetic engineering does not normally include traditional breeding, in
vitro fertilisation, induction of polyploidy, mutagenesis, and cell fusion
techniques that do not use recombinant nucleic acids or a genetically
modified organism in the process.[9] However, some broad definitions of
genetic engineering include selective breeding.[10] Cloning and stem
cell research, although not considered genetic engineering,[11] are closely
related, and genetic engineering can be used within them.[12] Synthetic
biology is an emerging discipline that takes genetic engineering a step
further by introducing artificially synthesised material into an organism.
[13]

Plants, animals, or microorganisms that have been changed through

genetic engineering are termed genetically modified organisms or GMOs.
[14] If genetic material from another species is added to the host, the
resulting organism is called transgenic. If genetic material from the same
species or a species that can naturally breed with the host is used, the
resulting organism is called cisgenic.[15] If genetic engineering is used to
remove genetic material from the target organism, the resulting organism
is termed a knockout organism.[16] In Europe, genetic modification
is synonymous with genetic engineering while within the United States of
America and Canada, genetic modification can also be used to refer to
more conventional breeding methods.[17][18][19]