Ecosystem

EEE – Unit – II
Prepared by – Prof. Priya Chauhan
Ecology
All living organism, whether plant or animal or human being is surrounded by
the environment, on which it derive its needs for its survival.
Each living component interacts with non –living components for their basic
requirements form different ecosystem.

Definition
Ecology is the study of interactions among organism or group of organisms
with their environment. The environment consists of both biotic components
(living organisms) and abiotic components (non – living organisms) or
Ecology is the study of ecosystems.

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Ecosystem is the basic functional unit of ecology. The term ecosystem is coined
form a Greek word meaning study of home.

Definition
A group of organisms interacting among themselves and with environment is
known as ecosystem. Thus an ecosystem is a community of different species
interacting with one another and with their non living environment and one
another and with their non- living environment exchanging energy and matter.
Example:
Animals cannot synthesis their food directly but d ep end on the plants
either directly or indirectly.

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TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM

Natural Ecosystem
Natural ecosystems operate themselves under natural conditions. Based on habitat types,
it can be further classified into two types.
[Link] ecosystem
This ecosystem is related to land.
Example
Grassland ecosystem, forest ecosystem, desert ecosystem, etc.,
[Link] ecosystem
This ecosystem is related to water. It is further sub classified into two types based on salt
content.
•Fresh water ecosystem
(i) Running water ecosystems.
Examples: Rivers, Streams
(ii) Standing water ecosystems
Examples: Pond, lake
• Marine ecosystem
Examples: Sea & Sea Shore
Man – made (or) Artificial Ecosystems
Artificial ecosystem is operated (or) maintained by man himself.
Example: Croplands, Gardens
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STRUCTURE (or) COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
The term structure refers to the various components.
So the structure of an ecosystem explains the relationship between the abiotic
(non –living) and the biotic (living) components.

An ecosystem has two major components

•Biotic (living) components
•Abiotic (non living) components

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Biotic components
The living organisms (or) living members in an ecosystem collectively form
its community called biotic components (or) biotic community.
Examples
•Plants (producers),
•Animals (consumers),
•Microorganisms (decomposers).

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Members of components of an ecosystem (or) Classification biotic
components

The members of biotic components of an ecosystem are grouped in to

three based on how they get food.

•Producer (plants)
•Consumer (Animals)

•Decomposers (Micro-organisms)

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[Link] (Autotrophs)
Procedures synthesize their food themselves through photosynthesis

Example : All green plants, trees.

Photosynthesis
The green pigments called chlorophyll, present in the leaves of plants, converts
CO2 and H2O in the presence of sunlight into carbohydrates.

6CO2 + 12H2O ----> C6H12O6 + 6O2+6H2O

This process is called photosynthesis

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Consumers (heterotrophs)

Examples: Plant eating species, Insects, rabbit, goat, deer, cow, etc.,

Classification of consumers
Consumers are further classified as
(i) Primary consumers (Herbivores) (Plant eaters)
Primary consumers are also called herbivores, they directly depend on the plants for
their food. So they are called plant eaters.
Examples : Insects, rat, goat, deer, cow, horse etc
(ii) Secondary consumers (primary carnivores) (meat eater)
Secondary consumers are primary carnivores, they feed on p rimary
consum ers. They directly d e p e nd on the herbivores for their food.
Example: Frog, cat, snakes, foxes, etc.,

(iii) Tertiary consumers (Secondary carnivores) (Meat-eaters)

Tertiary consumers are secondary carnivores, they feed on secondary
consumers. They d e p e n d on the primary carnivores for their food.
Examples: Tigers, lions, etc.,
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3. Decomposers Examples
Microorganisms like bacteria and fungi. Decomposers attack the dead bodies of
producers and consumers and decompose them into simpler compounds. During
the decomposition inorganic nutrients are released.
The inorganic nutrients together with other organic substances are then utilized
by the procedures for the synthesis of their own food.

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Abiotic (non-living) components
The non-living components (physical and chemical) of ecosystem collectively
form a community called abiotic components (or) abiotic community.
Examples: Climate, soil, water, air, energy, nutrients, etc.,
1. Physical components
They include the energy, climate, raw materials and living space that the biological
community needs. They are useful for the growth and maintenance of its member.
Examples: Air, water, soil, sunlight, etc.,
2. Chemical Components
They are the sources of essential nutrients
Examples
•Organic substances : Protein, lipids, carbohydrates, etc.,

• Inorganic substances: All micro (Al, Co, Zu, Cu) and macro elements (C,H, O, P,

N, P, K) and few other elements.

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FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM
To understand clearly the nature of ecosystem its functioning should be
thoroughly understood. The function of an ecosystem is to allow flow of
energy and cycling of nutrients.
Types of Functions
Functions of an ecosystem are of three types.
1. Primary function
The primary function of all ecosystem is manufacture of starch
(photosynthesis).
2. Secondary function
The secondary function of all ecosystem is distribution energy in the
form of food to all consumers.
3. Tertiary Function
All living systems die at a particular stage. These d ead system s are
decomposed to initiate thir d function of ecosystems namely
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The functioning of an ecosystems may be understood by studying the
following terms.
• Energy and material flow.
• Food chains
• Food webs
• Food pyramids

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ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEMS
Energy is the most essential requirement for all living organism. Solar energy
is the only source to our planet earth. Solar energy is transformed to chemical
energy in photosynthesis by the plants (called as primary producers). Though
a lot of sunlight falls on the green plants, only 1% of it is utilized for
photosynthesis. This is the most essential step to provide energy for all other
living organisms in the ecosystem.
Some amount of chemical energy is used by the plants for their growth and
the remaining is transferred to consumers by the process of eating.
Thus the energy enters the ecosystems through photosynthesis and passes
through the different tropic levels feeding levels.

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Relationship between Structure and Function (flow model)
From the above it is clear that, the biotic components and abiotic
components are linked together through energy flow and nutrient
cycling as shown in the following figure.

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Energy flow and Thermodynamics
The flow of energy through an ecosystem follows the two laws of thermodynamics.
I law of thermodynamics
It states that “energy can be created nor destroyed, but it can be considered from one from to
another”.
Illustration
Energy for an ecosystems comes from the sum. It is absorbed by plants, here in it is converted
into stored chemical energy i.e., solar energy in converted into chemical energy.
II law of thermodynamics Statement
It states that, “Whenever energy is transformed, there is a loss of energy through the release of
heat”.
Illustration
This occurs when energy is transferred between tropic levels. There will be a loss of
energy (about 80-90%) in the form of heat as it moves from one tropic level to another tropic
level. The loss of energy takes place through respiration, running, hunting etc.,
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Nutrient Flow (OR) Nutrient Cycling (Or) Biogeochemical Cycle In The
Ecosystem
Nutrients
The elements, which are essential for the survival of both plants and
animals are called are called nutrients.
Macronutrients
The elements needed in large amounts are called macronutrients
Examples: Oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, calcium, magnesium and phosphorus.

Micronutrients
The elements, needed in small amounts are called micronutrients.
Example: Boron, cobalt, strontium, zinc, copper

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Nutrient Cycles
The cyclic flow of nutrients between the biotic and abiotic components is

known as nutrient cycle (or) biogeochemical cycles.

The nutrients enter into procedures and move through the food chain and

ultimately reach the consumer. The bound nutrients of the consumers, after

death, are decomposed and converted into inorganic substances, which are

readily used up by the plants (procedures) and again the cycle starts.
The major nutrients like C, H, O and N are cycled again and again between
biotic and abiotic component of the ecosystem.

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 Hydrological Cycle
Movement of water in a cyclic manner is known as hydrological cycle.

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Carbon Cycle
Carbon is the basic component in all the organic components. The
carbon is present in all biotic components in different forms as food.
Examples:
Carbohydrates, proteins, fats and amino acids. Carbon is present in the
atomosphere as CO2. The CO2 taken up by the green palnts as a raw
material for photosynthesis of different food. This food moves through
food chain, finally the carbon present in the dead matter is returned to
the atmosphere as CO2 by microorganisms.

Sources of CO2 in atmosphere

•During respiration, plants and animals liberates CO2 in the atmosphere.
•Combustion of fuels also release CO2.
•Volcanic eruptions also release CO2.
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Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen is present in the atmosphere as N2 in large amounts (78%). The nitrogen is
present in all biotic components in different forms as food.

Examples
Proteins, vitamins, amino acids, etc.,
The N2 from the atmosphere is taken up by the green plants as a raw material for
biosynthesis of different foods (amino acids, proteins, vitamins) and used in
metabolism. These food move through the food chain. After death of the plants and
animals, the organic nitrogen in dead tissues in decomposed by several micro
organisms aminofying and nitrifying bacteria into ammonia, nitrites and nitrates, which
are again used by the plants. Some bacteria convert nitrates into molecular nitrogen
(N2) which is again released back into atmosphere and the cycle goes on.

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Nitrification
The conversion of ammonia into nitrates is termed as nitrification.
This is brought about by nitrifying bacteria.
Examples: Nitrobacter, Nitrosomonas.

Denitrification
The conversion of nitrates into nitrogen (N2) is termed de-
nitrification. This process is brought about by denitrifying bacteria.
Examples: Pseudomonas, florescence.

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Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus is mainly present in the rocks and fossils. The phosphorus is
present in all biotic components in different forms.

Examples
Bones, teeth's, guano deposits. Phosphate rocks is excavated by man for using
it as a fertilizers. Farmers use excess of fertilizers for the crops. The excess
phosphate fertilizers move with the surface run-off reaches the oceans and are
lost into the deep sediments. Sea birds eat sea – fishes, which are phosphorus
rich, and the excreta of the birds return the phosphorus to the land. Thus the
sea birds, are playing an important role in phosphorus cycling animals and
plants use these dissolved phosphates during the biosynthesis.

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ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

In an area one community may be replaced by another community or by a

series of communities. Thus the progressive replacement of one community by

another till the development of stable community in a particular area is called

ecological succession.

Stages of ecological succession

[Link] community
The first group of organism, which establish their
community in the area is called ‘Pioneer’ Community.
[Link] (or) Seral stage
The various developmental stages of a community is called ‘seres’.

Community: It is the age group of plants or animals living in an area.

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Types of Ecological Succession
Ecologists recognize two types of ecological succession, used on the conditions
present at the beginning of the process.

[Link] Succession
It involves the gradual establishment of biotic communities on a lifeless ground.
a. Hydrarch (or) Hydrosere
Establishment starts in a watery area like pond and lake.
b. Xerarch or Xerosere
Establishment starts in a dry area like, desert and rock

2. Secondary Succession
It involves the establishment of biotic communities in the area, where some
type of biotic community is already present.

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Process of Ecological Succession
The process of ecological succession can be explained in the following steps.
[Link]
It is the development of a bare area without any life form
[Link]
It is the establishment of one or more species on a bare area through migration followed by establishment.
Migration -Migration of seeds is brought about by wind, water or birds.
b. Establishment
The seeds then germinate and grow on the land and establishes their pioneer communities.
[Link]
As the number of individual species grows, there is a competition with the same species and
between different species for space, water and nutrients.
[Link]
The living organisms take water, nutrients and grow and modify the environment is known as reaction. This
modification becomes unsuitable for the existing species and favor some new species, which replace the
existing species this leads to seral communities.

[Link]
It leads to stable community, which is equilibrium with the environment.
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FOOD CHAINS

Definition
“There sequence of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem is
known as food chain”
(or)
“Transfer of food energy from the plants through a series of
organisms is
known as food chain”
When the organisms die, they are all decomposed by microorganism (bacteria
and fungi) into nutrients that can again be used by the plants. At each and every
transfer, nearly 80-90% of the potential energy gets lost as heat. A food chain
always starts with plant life and ends with animal.

Herbivores
Animal that eat only plants are called herbivores.

Carnivores
Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores.
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Tropic Levels (T1,T2, T3, T4, T5) (or) Feeding levels

The various steps through which food energy passes in an ecosystem is called as
tropic levels.
The tropic levels are arranged in the following way as
Where ,
The green plants or producers represent first tropic level T1,
The herbivores or primary consumers represent second tropic level T2.
The carnivores or secondary consumers represent third tropic level T3.
The tertiary consumers are fourth tropic level T4.
Finally decomposers represent last tropic level T5

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Types of food chain
Food chains are classified into two main types
[Link] food chain
[Link] food chain

[Link] food chain

Found in Grassland ecosystems and pond ecosystems. Grazing food chain
starts with green plants (primary procedures) and goes to decomposer food
chain or detritus food chain through herbivores and carnivores.

[Link] food chain

Found in Grassland ecosystems and forest ecosystems. Detritus food chain
starts with dead organic matter (plants and animals) and goes to decomposer
food chain through herbivores and carnivores.

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Flow diagram
The following flow diagram of grazing food chain and detritus
food chain shows that they are interconnected to each other but
are not isolated.

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FOOD WEB
Definition
The interlocking pattern of various food chains in an ecosystem is known as
food web. In a food web many food chains are interconnected, where different
types of organisms are connected at different tropic levels, so that there is a
number of opportunities of eating and being eaten at each tropic level

Example
Grass may be eaten by insects, rats, deer's, etc., these may be eaten by
carnivores (snake, tiger).

Thus there is a interlocking of various food chains called food webs.

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Difference between food chains and food web
In a linear food chains if one species gets affected (or) becomes extinct, then
the species in the subsequent tropic levels are also affected. But, in a food
web, if one species gets affected, it doest not affect other tropic levels so
seriously. There are number of options available at each tropic level.

Significance of food chains and food webs

1. Food chains and food webs play a very important role in the ecosystem.
Energy flow and nutrient cycling takes place through them.
2. They maintain and regulate the population size of different tropic levels,
and thus help in maintaining ecological balance.
3. They have the property of bio-magnification. The non – biodegradable
materials keep on passing from one tropic level to another. At each
successive tropic level, the concentration keep on increasing. This process is
known as bio-magnification.
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ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
Definition
“Graphical representation of structure and function of tropic levels of an
ecosystem, starting with producers at the bottom and each successive tropic
levels forming the apex is known as an ecological pyramids.”

In food chain starting from the producers to the consumers, there is a regular
decrease in the properties (ie, biomass and number of the organisms). Since
some energy is lost as heat in each tropic levels, it becomes progressively
smaller near the top.

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Types of Ecological pyramids
1. Pyramid of Numbers.
2. Pyramid of Energy.
3. Pyramid of Biomass.

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Pyramids of Biomass
It represents the total amount of biomass (mass or weight biological
material or organism) present in each tropic levels.
A forest ecosystem
The above figure shows that there is a decrease in the biomass from the
lower tropic level to the higher tropic level. This because the trees
(producers) are maximum in the forest, which contribute a huge
biomass. The next tropic levels are herbivores (insects, birds) and
carnivores (snakes, foxes). top of the tropic level contains few tertiary
consumers (Snake and tigers), the biomass of which is very low.

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It represents the number of individual organisms present each tropic levels.
A Grassland Ecosystem
Example

• The producers in the grasslands are grasses, which are in size and large in
numbers. So the producers occupy lower tropic level (1st tropic level).
•The primary consumers (herbivores) are rats, which the 2nd tropic level. Since
the number of rats are lower Compared to the grasses, the size of which is lower.
•The secondary consumers (carnivores) are snakes, which occupy the 3rd tropic
levels. Since the number of snakes are lower when compared to the rats, the size
of which is 1ower.
•The tertiary consumers (carnivores) are eagles, which the next tropic level.

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TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM

Natural Ecosystem

1. Terrestrial Ecosystem
This ecosystem is related to land.
Example : Grassland ecosystem, Forest ecosystem, Desert ecosystem
2. Aquatic Ecosystem
This ecosystem is related to water.
It is further sub classified into two types based on salt content.
• Fresh water ecosystem
(i) Running water ecosystems.
Examples : Rivers, Streams
(ii) Standing water ecosystems
Examples : Pond, lake
• Marine ecosystem
Example : Seas & Sea Shore

Man – made (or) Artificial Ecosystems

Examples : Croplands, Gardens
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FOREST ECOSYSTEM
Introduction
A forest ecosystem is the one in which a tall and trees grow that support many
animals and birds. The forest are found in undisturbed areas receiving moderate to
high rainfall. The forest occupies nearly 40% of the world’s land area. In India it
occupies only 19% of its total land area.

Types of forest ecosystem

Depending upon the climate conditions, forests can be classified into the
following types.
[Link] Rain forests.
[Link] deciduous forests.
[Link] scrub forests.
[Link] rain forests.
[Link] deciduous forests.
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Features of different types of Forests
[Link] Rain forests
They are found near the equator. They are characterized by high temperature. They
have broad leaf trees like teak and saal and the animals like lion, tiger and monkey.
[Link] deciduous forests
They are found little away from the equator. They are characterized by a warm climate
and rain is only during monsoon. They have different types of deciduous trees like maple,
oak and hickary and animals like deer, fox, rabbit and rat.
[Link] Scrub forests
These are characterized by a dry climate for longer time. They have small deciduous trees
and shrubs and animals like maple, oak and hickory and animals like deer, fox, etc.,
[Link] Rain Forests
They are found in temperate areas with adequate rainfall. They are characterized by
coniferous trees like pines, firs, red wood etc., and animals like, squirrels, fox, cats, bear
etc.,
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5. Temperate deciduous forests
They are found in areas with moderate temperatures. have major trees including
broad leaf deciduous trees like oak, hickory and animals like deer, fox, bear,
etc.,

Characteristics of forest ecosystems

[Link] are characterized by warm temperature and adequate rainfall, which
make the generation of number of ponds, lakes etc.,
[Link] forest maintains climate and rainfall.
[Link] forest support many wild animals and protect biodiversity.
[Link] soil is rich in organic matter and nutrients which support the growth of
trees.
[Link] penetration of light is so poor, the conversion of organic matter into
nutrients is very fast.

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Structure and Function of Forest Ecosystem

I. Abiotic components
Climatic factors (temperature, light, rainfall) and minerals. The abiotic
components are inorganic and organic substances found in the soil and
atmosphere. In addition minerals, the occurrence of litter is characteristic
features, majority of forests.

II. Biotic components

1. Producers: The plants absorb sunlight and produce photosynthesis Trees,

shrubs and ground vegetation..

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2. Consumers

(a) Primary consumers (herbivores) :They directly depend on the

plants for their food.
Example : Ants, flies, insects, mice, deer, squirrels.

(b) Secondary consumers (primary carnivores): They directly depend

on the herbivores for their food
Examples: Snakes, birds, fox.

(c) Tertiary consumers : They depend on the primary carnivores for

their food
Examples : Animals, like tiger, lion, etc.,

3. Decomposers
Example: Bacteria and fungi.
They decompose the dad plant and animal matter. Decomposition in
tropical and subtropical forest is in rapid then in the temperate forests.

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GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM.
Introduction
Grassland occupies about 20% of earth’s surface addition to grass species,
some trees and shrubs are also pre in grasslands. Limited grazing helps to
improve the net primary production of the grasslands. But, over grazing leads
degradation of these grasslands resulting in desertification
Types of grassland ecosystem
Depending upon the climate conditions grassland classified into three types

[Link] grasslands.
[Link] grasslands.
[Link] grasslands.

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Features of different types of grassland

[Link] grasslands
They are found near the borders of tropical rain forests. They are characterized by
high temperature and moderate rainfall (40 to 100 cm). It is also known as Savanna
type. They are tall grasses with scattered shrubs and stunted trees and animals like
zebras, giraffes, antelopes, etc.,
[Link] grasslands
They are usually found in the centers of continents, oil sloped hills. They are
characterized by very cold winters and hot summers.
3. Polar grasslands
They are found in arctic polar regions. They are characterized by severe cold and
strong winds along with ice and snow. In summers several small annual plants grow.
They animals like arctic wolf, weasel, arctic fox, etc.,

Characteristics of Grassland Ecosystems

Grassland ecosystem is a plain land occupied by grasses. Soil is very rich in
nutrients and organic matter. Since it has tall grass, it is ideal place for grazing
animals. It is characterized by low or uneven rainfall.
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Structure and function of the grassland Ecosystems
[Link] components
Nutrients, H, 0, A, P, S, etc.,
These abiotic components are supplied by C0 2, H2, C, Nitrate, phosphates and
sulphates.
[Link] Components
[Link]: They produce food.
Example :Grasses, forbs and shrubs.
[Link]:.
Primary consumers (herbivores) :They depend on grasses for their food Examples:
Cows, buffaloes, deer, sheep, etc.,
Secondary consumers (carnivores) :They feed on herbivores.
Examples: Snakes, lizards, birds, Jackals, fox, etc.,
Tertiary consumers: They feed on secondary consumers Examples :Hawks, eagle,
etc.,
[Link] :They decompose the dead organic matter Examples :Fungi and
bacteria.

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DESERT ECOSYSTEMS
Introduction
Desert occupies about 35% of our world ’s land area. It is characterized
by less than 25 cm rainfall. The atmosphere is dry and hence it is a poor
insulator .

Types of desert ecosystems

Based on the climatic conditions, deserts are classified three types.
[Link] deserts.
[Link] deserts.
[Link] deserts.

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Features of different types of deserts
[Link] deserts:
Tropical deserts are found in
•Africa: Sahara desert.
•Rajasthan: Thar desert.
They are characterized by only few species. Wind blow sand dunes are very
common.
[Link] deserts:
They are found in
South California: Majave.
They are characterized by very hot summer and very Winter time.
[Link] deserts :
They are found in -
China: Gobi desert.
They are characterized by cold, winter and summers.
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Characteristics of Desert ecosystem
The desert air is dry and the climate is hot. Annual rainfall is less than
25 cm. The soil is very poor in nutrients and organic matter, Vegetation
is poor.

Structure and functions of the desert systems ecosystems

1. Abiotic Components
Examples : Temperature, rainfall, sunlight, water, etc.,
The temperature is very high and the rainfall is very low. The nutrient
cycling is also very low.

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II. Biotic Components
Procedures
Examples :Shrubs, bushes, some grasses and few trees. In deserts mostly
Succulent (e.g., cacti) plants are found available. They have water inside them to
stay alive. They have cover on the outside to protect them from the sun.

Consumers
Examples :Squirrels, nice foxes, rabbits, deer and reptiles.
These animals dig holes in the ground to live in. They come out at night to find
food. Most of the animals can extract water from the seeds they eat.

Decomposers
Examples : Fungi and bacteria
Desert has poor vegetation with a very low amount of dead organic mater. They
are decomposed by few fungi and bacteria.

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AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
The aquatic ecosystem deals with water bodies. The major types of organism
found in aquatic environments are determined by the water’s salinity.

Types of aquatic life zone

Aquatic life zones are divided into two types.
•Fresh water life zones
Examples :Pounds, Streams, Lakes, Rivers.
• Salt water life zones
Examples :Oceans, Estuaries (Sea shores).

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FRESH WATER ECOSYSTEM POND ECOSYSTEMS
Introduction
A pond is a fresh water aquatic ecosystems, where water is stagnant. It receives
enough water during rainy season. It contains several types of algae, aquatic
plants, insects, fishes and birds.

Characteristics of pond
•Pond is temporary, only seasonal.
•It is a stagnant fresh water body.
•Ponds get polluted easily due to limited amount of water.

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Structure and functions of pond ecosystems
[Link] components
Examples
Temperature, light, water and organic and inorganic compounds
[Link] Components
•Producers
These include green photosynthetic organism. They are of two types.
Phytoplankton
These are microscopic aquatic plants, which freely float on the surface of
water.
Example :Algae, small floating plants like volvox, pandorina anabaena,
consumerism.
Microphytes
Examples: Large floating plants and submerged plants like hydrilla, Jussiaea,
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Consumers
•Primary consumers (Zooplanktons): These are microscopic animals
which
freely float on the surface of water. Zooplanktons are found along with
phytoplankton. They feed on plants (phytoplankton).
Examples :Protozoa, very small fish, ciliates, flagelaltes and protozoans.
•Secondary consumers (Carnivores):They feed on zooplankton
Examples :Insects like water beetles and small fish.
•Tertiary consumers :They feed on smaller fish Examples :Large fish like
game fish.

Decomposers: They decompose the dead plant and animal matter and their
nutrients are released and reused by the green plants.
Examples :Fungi, bacteria and flagellates
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LAKE ECOSYSTEM
Lakes are large natural shallow water bodies. Lakes are used for various
purposes. Lakes are supplied with water from rainfall, melting snow and
streams.
Types of lakes
Some important types of lake are
•Oligotrophic lakes : They have low nutrient concentrations
•Eutrophic lakes : They are over nourished by nutrients like N and P
•Dystrophic lakes : They have low pH, high humid content and brown waters.
•Volcanic lakes : They receive water from magma after volcanic eruption.

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Zones of Lake
Depending upon their depth and distance from the shore, likes consists of
four distinct zones.

[Link] zones: It is the top layer of the Lake. It has a shallow water.

[Link] zone: Next to the littoral zone is limnetic zone, where effect
penetration of solar light takes place.

[Link] (Euphotic) zone: The deep open water, where it is too dark.

[Link] zone: This zone is found, at the bottom of the lake.

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Characteristics of lake ecosystem
[Link] is a shallow fresh water body;
[Link] is a permanent water body with large Water resources.
[Link] helps in irrigation and drinking.

Structure and function of lake ecosystem

I. Abiotic components
Examples: Temperature, light, proteins and lipids, O2 CO2
[Link] Consumers
Producers: They are green plants, may be submerged, free floating
and amphibious plants.

Examples: Phytoplanktons, algae and flagellates.

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2. Consumers
(a). Primary Consumers (Zooplanktons): They feed on
phytopankton

Examples: Cilictes, protozoans, etc.,

(b)Secondary consumers (carnivores) : They feed on zooplankton.
Examples: Insects and small fishes.

(c)Tertiary consumers: They feed on smaller fish

Examples: Large fishes like game fish.

3. Decomposers
They decompose the dead plants ad animals Examples: Bacteria, fungi and
aclinonrcetes.

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 RIVER (or) STREAM ECOSYSTEM
Introduction
The running water of a stream or a river is usually well
oxygenated, because it absorb’s oxygen from the air. The
number of animals are low in river or stream.

Characteristics of River or Stream.

• It is a fresh water, and free flowing water systems.
• Due to mixing of water, dissolved oxygen content is more.
• River deposits large amount of nutrients.

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Structure and function of River or Stream Ecosystem

I. Abiotic components
Examples : River, Light, Temperature, Chemistry, Substrate

II. Biotic Components

Producers: Phytoplankton, algae, water grasses, aquatic masses

other amphibious plants.

Consumers
(i)Primary consumers: They feed on phytoplankton.
Examples : Water insects, snails, fishes:

(i)Secondary consumers: They feed on primary consumers

Examples : Birds

Decomposers: They decomposes the dead animals and plants.

Examples : Bacteria and fungi.
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SALT WATER ECOSYSTEMS. OCEAN (MARINE) ECOSYSTEMS
Introduction
Oceans cover more than two thirds of the earth’s surface. Ocean environment is
characterized by its high concentration of salts and minerals. It supplies huge
variety of products and drugs. It also provides us iron, magnesium, iron, natural
gas.
Zones of Oceans
The oceans have two major life zones.
(a)Coastal zone: It is relatively warm, nutrient rich shallow water. It has high
primary productivity because of high nutrients and sunlight.
(b)Open sea: It is the deeper part of the ocean. It is vertically divided into
three regions.
(i) Euphotic zone: It receives abundant light and shows high photosynthetic
(ii) Bathyal zone: It receives dim light and is usually geologically active.
(iii) Abyssal zone: It is the dark zone and is very deep (2000 to metres).

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 Characteristics of Ocean Ecosystem
1. It occupies a large surface area with saline water.
2. Since ship, submarines can sail in ocean, commercial activities
may be earned out.
3. It is rich in biodiversity.
4. It moderates the- temperature

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Structure and function Ecosystems

I. Abiotic components Examples

Temperature, light, NaCl, K, Ca, and Mg Salts alkalinity

II. Biotic components

1. Producers :
Phytoplanktons (diatoms, unicellular algae, etc., ) and marine plants (sea weeds,
chlorophycela, phaeophyceae).

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 2. Consumers
These are heterotrophic macro consumers. They depend on
producers for their nutrition.
• Primary consumers (herbivores) :They feed on producers
Examples :Crustaceans, moiluscs, fish
• Secondary consumers (carnivores) : They feed on herbivores
Examples :Herring sahd, mackerel, etc.,
• Tertiary Consumers: They are the top consumers. They feed on small
Examples :Cod, Haddock, -etc.,

[Link]: They decompose the dead organic matter.

Example s:Bacteria and some fungi.

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ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM
Introduction
An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal area at the’ mouth of a river, where
sea water mixes with freshwater. It is strongly affected by tidal action.
Estuaries are generally : abundant of nutrients. Estuaries are useful to human
beings due to their high food potential. It is essential to protect the estuaries
from pollution.

Characteristics of Estuarine ecosystem

[Link] are transition zones, which are strongly affected by tides of the sea.

[Link] characteristics are periodically changed.

[Link] living organism in estuarine ecosystems have wide tolerance.
[Link] remains highest during the summer and lowest during the winter.

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Structure and function of Estuarine Ecosystem
[Link] Components
Examples :Temperature, pH, sodium and potassium salts and various
nutrients.
[Link] Components
•Producers
Examples :Marsh grasses, seaweeds , sea-grasses and
phytoplankton.
•Consumers
Examples :Oysters, crabs, seabirds, small fishes
•Decomposers
Examples :Bacterias, fungi and actenomycetous.

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