CH2.

Socialisation and Identity

Part 1: The Process of Learning and Socialisation
Unit 2.1.1: Culture

Culture is the "whole way of life" of a society. It includes everything a society shares: knowledge,
beliefs, language, values, norms, customs, traditions, food, art, and music. Culture is what makes
us human and allows us to form societies.

Key Components of Culture:

Beliefs: Strong convictions that people hold to be true, often without proof. These can be
religious, political, or historical.
Example: The belief in the "divine right of kings" in the past, contrasted with modern beliefs
in "republicanism."
Example: The "American Dream" – the belief that anyone can achieve success regardless
of their background.
Example: "Rationalism" in Western societies – basing decisions on reason and scientific
evidence.
Example: "Patrimonialism" and "authoritarianism" in some Middle Eastern, North African,
and Asian societies – power concentrated in a single leader.
Language: The "social glue" that binds people together. It's how we communicate, think, and
connect to our culture.
Example: The adoption of Hindi as the government language in India helps unify its diverse
cultures.
Symbolic Cultural Artefacts: Objects or products that have shared meaning for a society.
Examples: Flags, traditional dress, monuments, music, sports, and cuisine (like sushi for
Japan, burgers for the USA).
Example: Cricket's connection to colonialism and imperialism in former British colonies.
High Culture: Products (art, theatre, classical music) valued by the educated elite for their
exceptional skill and aesthetic value.
Example: Shakespeare's plays, Japanese Kabuki theatre.
Mass or Popular Culture: Mass-produced cultural products for large audiences, often for
profit.
Examples: Television shows, films, pop music, social media. Often criticized for being
superficial.
Folk Culture: The culture of ordinary people, often from pre-industrial societies, reflecting
their everyday lives and experiences.
Examples: National costumes, folk art, traditional songs and tales.

Values: Widely accepted beliefs about what is worthwhile and desirable. They guide behavior.

Universal Values: Found in most societies (e.g., human life, compassion, marriage, family).
 Relative Values: Specific to particular times and societies.
Example: American values of allegiance to the "American way of life" and the right to bear
arms.
Example: Collectivist values in some Asian cultures (e.g., the Muslim concept of 'Ummah
Islamiyyah') emphasizing the group over the individual, versus Western values
emphasizing individual rights.
Example: Asian cultures valuing hierarchy and strong leadership (Confucian influence)
versus Western emphasis on freedom and personal choice.
Example: Japanese values prioritizing the group, trust within communities, and status
inequality, versus UK/USA values stressing self-help and individual freedom.

Norms: Practical rules for behavior in specific social situations. They are values put into practice.

Example: In Western societies, valuing privacy leads to norms like knocking before entering
and asking permission to use the bathroom.
Example: In Trinidad and Tobago, it's a norm to be involved in the lives of friends and
neighbors.
Example: Greetings vary culturally (handshakes in the West, bowing in Japan).
Example: Communication styles differ; Arabs tend to be more animated than Americans,
leading to potential misunderstandings.
Example: In some Native American cultures, direct eye contact is seen as hostile.
Example: Kneeling in deference to men or elders in some African cultures.
Example: In Muslim societies, norms like 'purdah' (seclusion of women) reflect collectivist
values.
Example: Food norms vary greatly (e.g., eating dogs in Vietnam, insects in Thailand, versus
cereal in the USA for breakfast).
Example: Norms around death: Western societies view death as taboo and solemn, while the
Torajan people in Indonesia keep mummified bodies at home, and Tibetans practice sky
burials.

Roles: Patterns of behavior expected of someone in a particular social position (e.g., a doctor's
professional behavior).

Customs: Traditional, widely accepted norms passed down through generations, often with
rituals (e.g., Ramadan fasting, Diwali).

Deviance: Behavior that deviates from social norms. It can be seen as odd, abnormal, or even
criminal if it breaks laws.

Laws: Formal rules enforced by the state.

Researchers Mentioned:

Christopher Jencks (1993): Defined culture as "the whole way of life of a

society." (Sociological perspective on defining culture).
Anthony Ciddens (1997): Argued that "culture cannot exist without society" because they are
 interdependent. (Sociological perspective on the relationship between culture and society).
James Carroll (2009): Stated, "language is to humans, what water is to fish." (Sociological
perspective on the importance of language).
James Truslow Adams (1931): Defined the "American Dream." (Sociological perspective on
cultural beliefs).
Eva Beilin (2004): Argued that belief in patrimonialism and authoritarianism in some Middle
Eastern, North African, and Asian societies explains the lack of success of Western-style
democracy there. (Sociological perspective on cultural beliefs and governance).
Francis Loh Kok Wah (2004): Observed that values like freedom, justice, and solidarity often
transcend loyalty to particular groups. (Sociological perspective on the universality of certain
values).
Jefferson Plantilla (1996): Argued that Asian value systems differ from Western ones, with
Asian cultures often prioritizing the group over the individual due to Confucian influence.
(Sociological perspective on cultural values and governance).
Eva Krockow et al. (2018): Studied the role of "trust" in national value systems of Japan, UK,
and USA, finding differences related to collectivist vs. individualist orientations. (Sociological
research on cultural values and trust).
C.S. Lewis (1952): Claimed Christianity views individuals as unique organs in a body,
contributing differently, influencing Western values of self-help and individual choice.
(Sociological perspective on the influence of religion on values).
Mike Haralambos and Martin Holborn (2013): Defined folk culture. (Sociological perspective
on defining folk culture).
Dominic Strinati (1995): Observed that folk culture is often self-created and reflects everyday
life. (Sociological perspective on the nature of folk culture).
Daniel Miller (2011): Argued that prying into others' lives is a norm in Trinidad and Tobago,
contrasting with Western norms of privacy. (Sociological research on cultural norms and
privacy).
Henry Hitchings (2015): Argued that societies have unique norms for greetings and
addressing others. (Sociological perspective on cultural norms).
Marzieh Gordan et al. (2013): Observed cultural differences in communication (body
language, facial expressions) between Arabs and Americans, leading to misinterpretations.
(Sociological research on cultural norms and communication).
Patience Akumu (2018): Noted kneeling in deference to men and elders as a norm for
females in many African groups. (Sociological observation on cultural norms).
Winnie Byanyima (2018): Argued that practices like curtsying and kneeling can subordinate
women and have no place in an equal world. (Sociological critique of cultural norms).
Caitlin Doughty (2018): Conducted ethnographic research on attitudes and practices towards
death globally, contrasting Western solemnity with practices in Ghana, Mexico, Indonesia
(Toraja), and Tibet (sky burial). (Sociological research on cultural norms surrounding death).

Conclusions:

Culture is fundamental to society, providing a framework for beliefs, values, and behavior.
Cultures are relative and change over time and between societies.
Different social groups within a society may experience and value aspects of culture
differently (high, folk, popular).
Without culture, individuals cannot function as members of society.
Failure to conform to dominant cultural norms can lead to deviance and punishment.

Unit 2.1.2: The Importance of Socialisation

Socialisation: The lifelong process of learning a society's culture (values, norms, language,
customs) to live successfully and communicate effectively, and to understand what is
acceptable vs. deviant behavior.

Stages of Childhood Socialisation (Jean Piaget):

1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): Learning through reflexes, motor actions, and senses. Child
learns they are separate from the environment.
2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years): Using symbols, absorbing information, developing language,
imagination, and learning norms through play.
3. Concrete Operational Stage (until adolescence): Progress in conformity to norms, developing
abstract thinking and reason, internalizing norms, and developing a conscience.
4. Formal Operational Stage (puberty to adulthood): Capable of hypothetical reasoning and
complex arguments.

Primary Socialisation (The Family):

The most crucial stage, occurring in early childhood.

Parents teach children: social interaction, reasoning, communication, emotional regulation,
and relationship management.
Key Idea (Roy Baumeister): Children learn to conform to parental norms to gain love and
approval.
Role Models (George Herbert Mead, Charles Cooley): Children develop self-identity through
interaction with "significant others" (parents, etc.). Cooley's "looking-glass self" suggests our
self-concept comes from how we believe others see us.
Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura): Children learn through observation and imitation of
role models.
Role-play: Children imagine themselves as others, practicing interactions and understanding
acceptable behavior.
Gender Role Socialisation (Ann Oakley): Parents provide gendered examples for imitation.
Outcome: Children become aware of themselves as social beings, understand social roles
(son, daughter), and realize their actions have consequences.
Feral Children: Case studies of children raised in isolation or by animals show the crucial role
of socialisation in developing human characteristics like language, upright posture, and social
behavior.

Primary Socialisation by Others: In modern societies, childminders, nannies, and nurseries also
contribute to primary socialisation due to dual-income families. Grandparents also play a
significant role.

Secondary Socialisation: Learning outside the home from sources other than parents.

Formal Education:
Academic Curriculum: Teaches knowledge and skills.
Hidden Curriculum: Unwritten, unintentional lessons about norms and values learned
through school organization (e.g., respect for authority, punctuality, aspiration for
success). Marxist and feminist sociologists argue this can disadvantage certain groups.
Example: School ethos, rules, and teacher expectations shape behavior.
 The Workplace: Teaches occupational skills, work discipline, and informal norms. Can foster
collectivist values (dangerous jobs) or individualistic ones.
Peer Groups/Friendship Networks: Highly influential for adolescents, creating tension
between parental control and independence. Peer pressure can lead to conformity or
deviance.
Religion: Traditionally a key agent, though declining in secular societies. In many non-Western
cultures, it remains highly influential, teaching morality and norms.
The Media: Increasingly seen as a dominant agent, influencing values and norms through
various forms (TV, internet, social media). Feminist studies highlight how media can socialize
females into restricted roles. Social media is linked to mental health issues in young people.

Researchers Mentioned:

Jean Piaget: Developmental psychologist who identified four stages of childhood

development crucial for socialisation. (Psychological perspective on development and
socialisation).
Leon Kuczynski (2012): Observed that parents aim for cultural continuity and competence in
children through primary socialisation. (Sociological perspective on parental goals in
socialisation).
Roy Baumeister (1986): Argued that parental love and approval motivate children to conform
to behavioral norms. (Psychological/Sociological perspective on motivation in socialisation).
George Herbert Mead (1934): Argued children develop self-identity through interaction with
significant others. (Sociological perspective on self-development).
Charles Cooley (1998): Developed the concept of the "looking-glass self." (Sociological
perspective on self-development and social interaction).
Albert Bandura (1963): Proposed social learning theory, emphasizing observation and
imitation. (Psychological perspective on learning).
Ann Oakley (1972): Argued mothers and fathers provide gendered guidelines through role
modeling. (Feminist sociological perspective on gender socialisation).
Douglas Candland (1996): Observed characteristics of feral children, highlighting the
importance of socialisation. (Sociological/Anthropological perspective on the impact of
isolation).
Karl Thompson (2017): Discussed the "hidden curriculum" and school ethos. (Sociological
analysis of education).
Howard Becker (1995): Argued teachers unconsciously promote an "ideal pupil" stereotype.
(Sociological analysis of education).
Paul Willis (1977) and Paul Corrigan (1979): Conducted ethnographic research showing
working-class students could resist the hidden curriculum. (Sociological research on
resistance to education).
James Suzman (2018): Observed that work shapes dignity, self-worth, identity, and political
beliefs. (Sociological analysis of the workplace).
Daniele Hervieu-Leger (2000): Described secularization as "cultural amnesia" regarding
religious socialisation. (Sociological analysis of secularization).
Dominic Sandbrook (2012): Argued that socialisation into American identity in the "Bible Belt"
involves literal biblical interpretation. (Sociological analysis of religion and identity).
Adrian Wooldridge and John Micklethwait (2010): Argued religion is a major source of
socialisation in non-Western societies. (Sociological analysis of religion).
Neil Postman (1985): Claimed the media replaced the family as the main source of
socialisation in Western societies. (Sociological critique of media influence).
Jeremy Tunstall (1983): Argued media presents young females with limited role models
(housewives, consumers). (Feminist sociological critique of media).
Naomi Wolf (1990): Argued media messages for women focus on body improvement.
 (Feminist sociological critique of media).
Jean Twenge (2014): Argued social media leads to mental health issues (anxiety, depression)
in young people. (Sociological research on social media impact).

Conclusions:

Primary socialisation in the family is crucial for developing a social identity and internalizing
cultural norms.
Socialisation is a lifelong process, with secondary agents like education, work, peers, religion,
and media continuing to shape individuals.
The effectiveness of the family can be influenced by external factors and other caregivers.
The media, especially social media, plays a significant and potentially detrimental role in
contemporary socialisation.

Unit 2.1.3: The Nature versus Nurture Debate

This debate explores whether human behavior is primarily determined by biology (nature) or by
social environment and learning (nurture).

Nature (Biological Argument):

Sociobiologists (e.g., Desmond Morris): Argue biology shapes culture and behavior through
genetics and heredity.
Lionel Tiger and Robin Fox: Claim gender roles are biologically determined.
Simon Baron-Cohen: Suggests the female brain is hard-wired for empathy, and the male brain
for systems.

Nurture (Sociological Argument):

Sociologists argue that while biology might influence physical aspects (like hunger), culture
determines what and how we eat.
Most social behavior is a social construct, meaning it's created by society through
socialisation.
Cordelia Fine: Argues neuroscience is sometimes used to justify gender inequality and that
evidence doesn't support "hard-wired" gender differences. She criticizes neurological
approaches as "old-fashioned stereotypes with a veneer of scientific credibility." Gender roles
are deeply influenced by culture.

Researchers Mentioned:

Desmond Morris (1968): Sociobiologist arguing biology shapes culture. (Biological

perspective on culture).
Lionel Tiger and Robin Fox (1971): Argued gender roles are biologically determined.
(Biological perspective on gender).
Simon Baron-Cohen (2012): Argued for biological differences in male and female brains
related to empathy and systems. (Neuroscience/Biological perspective on gender).
 Cordelia Fine (2011): Argued neuroscience is patriarchal and used to justify inequality; gender
roles are cultural. (Feminist sociological critique of biological determinism).

Key Terms:

Nature vs. Nurture: Debate on whether behavior is innate (biological) or learned

(environmental).
Social Construct: A concept or behavior created by society, not naturally occurring.

Conclusions:

Sociologists generally reject biological determinism for social behavior.

They emphasize "nurture" – the social environment and socialisation – as the primary
influence on social behavior.

End-of-Part Questions (from the text):

1. Describe two types of secondary socialisation.

Education: Formal learning (curriculum) and informal learning (hidden curriculum) about
norms and values.
Workplace: Learning job skills, discipline, and informal work norms.

1. Explain two reasons why families are very effective at socialisation.

Emotional Intensity: Parents provide love and approval, which children strive to maintain,
motivating conformity (Baumeister).
Early and Prolonged Contact: Children spend their formative years in constant interaction
with parents, allowing for consistent transmission of norms and values through imitation and
role-play.

1. Explain one strength and one weakness of schools in the socialisation process.

Strength: Schools provide a structured environment with a formal curriculum and hidden
curriculum that instills societal norms, values, and skills necessary for functioning in society.
They are compulsory, ensuring widespread reach.
Weakness: The hidden curriculum can potentially disadvantage certain social groups
(Marxist/feminist critique), and schools may not always reflect the diverse realities of
students' lives, leading to resistance or alienation.

Part 2: Social Control, Conformity and Resistance

Unit 2.2.1: The Role of Structure and Agency in Shaping
the Relationship Between the Individual and Society
This unit explores two main sociological perspectives on how individual behavior and identity are
shaped:

Structuralist Theories:

Core Idea: Society's structure (its organization and social forces) determines individual
actions and identities. Individuals are influenced by large-scale forces beyond their control.
Approach: "Macro" (focuses on large-scale societal forces) and "positivist" (aims for
scientific, objective observation).
Types:
Consensus Theories (e.g., Functionalism): Believe society is organized around shared
agreement and order.
Conflict Theories (e.g., Marxism, Feminism): Believe society is characterized by inequality
and conflict.
Key Thinkers/Concepts:
Marxism: Society is shaped by economic structure and class conflict.
Feminism: Society is shaped by patriarchal structures and gender inequality.

Social Action Theories (Interactionist Theories):

Core Idea: Individuals have agency (free will and the ability to make choices). Society is a
"social construct" created by individuals interacting.
Approach: "Micro" (focuses on individual interactions and interpretations) and
"humanistic" (emphasizes individual experience).
Key Idea: People are active agents who shape their own identities and society through
voluntary choices and interpretations.
Key Thinkers/Concepts:
Goffman: Individuals "perform" and actively construct their identities.
Mead: The "self" is composed of the "I" (private self) and the "me" (social self).
Social Construction: Reality is built through social interactions and shared meanings.
Voluntarism: Emphasizes free will and choice.

Researchers Mentioned:

Julian Salisbury (2018): Differentiated structuralist theories into consensus and conflict
types. (Sociological analysis of structuralism).
Giddens: Argued for a "structuration approach" where structure and agency interact.
(Sociological theory of identity formation).
Bauman: Argued globalization increases consumer choice but economic structure still
constrains free will. (Sociological analysis of globalization and consumerism).

Key Terms:

Social Structure: The organization of society.

Social Construction: Behavior seen as natural but is actually a product of cultural
expectations.
Agency: Free will; the ability to make choices.
 Structuralist Theories: Theories (functionalism, Marxism, feminism) where actions are
products of social organization.
Macro Approaches: Top-down, focusing on societal influence on individuals.
Positivist: Scientific approach using objective data.
Consensus Theory: Society based on agreement (e.g., functionalism).
Conflict Theories: Society based on conflict (e.g., Marxism, feminism).
Humanist Approach: Micro, bottom-up, focusing on individual interpretation.
Voluntarism: Human action is voluntary, not externally imposed.

Conclusions:

Structural theories see behavior as determined by social forces.

Social action theories emphasize individual agency and choice, viewing society as a social
construct.

Unit 2.2.2: Mechanisms of Social Control, Social Order

and Conformity

Social Control: The methods societies use to regulate behavior and ensure conformity to norms
and laws.

Agencies of Social Control:

1. Formal Agencies: Use laws and official sanctions.

Examples: Police, courts, prisons, military, intelligence services.

Sanctions: Often negative and coercive (e.g., fines, imprisonment, capital punishment).
Control by Consent: Persuading citizens that rules are fair and beneficial, leading to voluntary
compliance (e.g., traffic laws). Marxists criticize this as ideological manipulation.
Education: Both formal (compulsory attendance, school rules, punishments) and informal
(teachers' management, praise).

1. Informal Agencies: Rely on social pressure within primary groups.

Examples: Family, peer groups, media, religion.

Sanctions: Often positive (praise, rewards) or negative (gossip, ridicule, exclusion).
The Family: Uses praise and discipline (positive and negative sanctions) to encourage
conformity and develop a conscience.
The Workplace: Uses formal (rules, dismissal) and informal (praise, promotion, warnings)
sanctions to ensure productivity and adherence to norms.
Peer Groups: Exert pressure through rewards (status) and punishments (ridicule, exclusion)
to enforce subcultural norms.
The Media: Reinforces boundaries between normal and deviant behavior, often through
stereotyping and "demonization."

Researchers Mentioned:
 David Morgan (1996): Suggested much family interaction is about social control.
(Sociological analysis of the family).
Sylvia Y.C.L. Kwok, Wenyu Chai, and Xuesong (2013): Studied parental smacking in China,
finding it widespread but potentially harmful. (Sociological research on discipline and child
abuse).
Joan Durrant and Ron Emson (2012): Conducted a meta-analysis showing smacking has
negative long-term effects on children's mental health and behavior. (Sociological research on
discipline and child development).
Mac an Ghaill (2004): Discussed the "crisis of masculinity." (Sociological analysis of
masculinity).
Malgorzata Matlak (2014): Researched men's depression due to failing traditional gender
roles. (Sociological research on masculinity and mental health).
Jordan Stephens (2017): Wrote about toxic masculinity, encouraging men to confront
emotions. (Sociological commentary on masculinity).
Deirdre McKay (2016): Researched Filipino caregivers in London using social media to
maintain cultural ties ("archipelago of care"). (Sociological research on migration and
identity).

Key Terms:

Social Controls: Rules to ensure conformity.

Formal Social Control: State-enforced rules and sanctions.
Negative Sanctions: Punishments for deviance.
Control by Consent: Persuading people that rules are beneficial.
Ideological: Based on justifying inequality.
Informal Social Controls: Social pressure from groups.
Conformity: Adhering to norms.
Positive Sanctions: Rewards for conformity.
Subculture: A group with distinct values within a larger culture.
Spectacular Youth Subculture: Highly visible youth groups seen as threatening.
Symbolisation: Media highlighting features of a group for identification/targeting.
Demonisation: Portraying groups as social problems.
Fat-shaming: Humiliating someone for their weight.

Conclusions:

Socialisation is often reinforced by social controls.

Formal controls (state-based) and informal controls (group-based) work to ensure
conformity.
Coercive control can lead to resistance; consensual control aims for willing compliance.
Agencies like education and workplaces use a mix of controls.

Unit 2.2.3: The Influence of Social Pressure, Sanctions,

Individualism and Social Exchange on Social Order and
Expectations

This unit explores how social pressure, sanctions, individualism, and social exchange contribute
to social order.

Social Pressure: Influence exerted by individuals or groups to encourage conformity. It can be

through rational argument, persuasion, or coercion.

Sanctions: Rewards (positive) or punishments (negative) used to enforce norms.

Individualism vs. Collectivism:

Mechanical Solidarity (Durkheim): Found in traditional societies with strong shared values
and norms, where conformity is high, and individualism is seen as deviance. The collective
good is prioritized. Examples: Pre-industrial societies, China, North Korea, Iran, Saudi Arabia.
Organic Solidarity (Durkheim): Found in modern industrial societies with greater diversity and
individualism. Community ties are weaker, and moral uncertainty (anomie) can arise. People
act more in self-interest. Examples: Modern industrial societies.

Social Exchange Theory:

People cooperate and conform because they believe it brings reciprocal benefits (social
capital).
Cost-Benefit Analysis: Individuals weigh the benefits of conformity against the costs of
deviance.
Civility: Norms like politeness and respect are exchanged for social capital, community, and
reduced conflict.
Examples:
Conforming to laws benefits citizens through protection by the justice system.
Adhering to rules is exchanged for safety and order, avoiding anarchy.
Social Capital:
Bonding Social Capital: Connections among similar people, providing shared information
and mutual aid (e.g., online student groups).
Bridging Social Capital: Connections among diverse people, fostering alliances and
potential for social change (e.g., feminists connecting with anti-racism movements
online).

Researchers Mentioned:

Edward Shils and Steven Grosby (1997): Observed that "civility is a belief which affirms the
possibility of the common good." (Sociological perspective on civility).
Durkheim: Developed concepts of mechanical and organic solidarity and anomie.
(Sociological theory on social cohesion).

Key Terms:

Social Pressure: Influence to conform.

Sanctions: Rewards or punishments.
 Consensual Policing: Police legitimacy based on public approval.
Cost-Benefit Analysis: Weighing pros and cons of actions.
Anarchy: Absence of authority or rules.
Social Exchange: Interaction for mutual benefit.
Bonding Social Capital: Connections within similar groups.
Bridging Social Capital: Connections across diverse groups.
Mechanical Solidarity: Social cohesion based on similarity (traditional societies).
Organic Solidarity: Social cohesion based on interdependence (modern societies).
Anomie: State of normlessness or moral uncertainty.

Conclusions:

Conformity is often motivated by the social benefits (social exchange) it brings.

Individualism and collectivism shape how social exchange operates and influences social
order.
Social capital, built through online and offline interactions, strengthens social bonds.

Unit 2.2.4: Explanations of Deviance and Non-Conformity

Deviance: Behavior that violates social norms. Non-conformity challenges conventions.

Explanations of Deviance:

1. Biological Explanations: (Largely discredited) Claim criminals have inherent physical or

genetic traits.

Example: Cesare Lombroso's theory of "born criminals" with specific physical features.

1. Psychological Explanations: Focus on "weak" character traits (poor self-control, intelligence)

shaped by childhood experiences, parenting, or inadequate socialisation.
2. Sociological Explanations: View crime and deviance as products of society.

Macro/Structural Approaches: Social and economic inequalities create tensions leading to

deviance.
Micro Approaches: Focus on interactions between powerless groups and agents of social
control (labeling theory). Deviance can be a rational response to circumstances.

Researchers Mentioned:

Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909): Proposed biological explanations for criminality ("born

criminals"). (Early criminological theory).

Key Terms:

Deviance: Behavior violating norms.

Non-conformity: Behavior that challenges convention.
 Crime: Deviant behavior that breaks the law.

Conclusions:

Biological and psychological explanations for deviance are generally not supported by
sociological evidence.
Sociologists emphasize social factors, both large-scale (structure, inequality) and small-scale
(interaction, labeling), as key causes of deviance.

End-of-Part Questions (from the text):

1. Describe two agencies of formal social control.

The Police: Enforce laws, investigate crimes, and apprehend offenders.

The Courts (Judiciary): Determine guilt or innocence and impose punishments based on
laws.

1. Using sociological material, give one argument against the view that crime and deviance is a
product of social structure.

Argument (from Social Action Theory): Crime and deviance are not solely determined by
social structure. Individuals possess agency and free will. They make choices, interpret
situations, and can resist structural pressures. For example, individuals within the same
disadvantaged structural position may choose not to engage in crime due to personal values,
fear of consequences, or alternative coping mechanisms.

1. Evaluate the view that social control serves the interests of the ruling class.

Argument For (Marxist perspective): Social control mechanisms (laws, policing, media
narratives) are designed by the ruling class to maintain their power and suppress the working
class. For example, laws may protect private property, and media can demonize working-
class dissent as criminal. "Control by consent" is seen as an ideological tool to legitimize this
system.
Argument Against (Functionalist/Consensus perspective): Social control benefits the whole
society by maintaining order, stability, and shared values, which are essential for everyone's
well-being. Agencies of social control aim to protect all citizens, not just the ruling class.
Informal controls like family and religion also promote cooperation and moral development
for the good of all.
Evaluation: While structural inequalities influence the application and perception of social
control, it's an oversimplification to say it solely serves the ruling class. Informal controls and
the complex interplay of structure and agency mean social control operates in more nuanced
ways, sometimes benefiting broader society, sometimes reinforcing existing power
structures.

Part 3: Social Identity and Change

Unit 2.3.1: The Construction of Social Identity
Identity: The qualities, beliefs, personality, and expressions that define how we see ourselves and
how others see us.

Two Components of Identity:

1. Self-Identity (The "Self"): How we see ourselves.

"I" (Mead): The spontaneous, private self.

"Me" (Mead): The social self, how we present ourselves based on societal expectations.
Looking-Glass Self (Cooley): Our self-concept is based on how we imagine others perceive
us.

1. Social Identity: How society expects us to behave as members of particular social groups.
This is shaped by socialisation experiences.

Approaches to Identity:

Structuralist: Identity is imposed by social forces like social class, gender, ethnicity, religion,
and nationality. Society (family, school, work) shapes identity for social functioning and
consensus.
Social Action: Identity is a product of choice and active construction. We choose affiliations
(sports teams, music) and perform our identities (Goffman).
Structuration (Giddens): Identity results from the interaction of structure (social forces) and
agency (individual choice). Individuals are "reflexive," reflecting on how others see them and
adjusting their identity. Identity is changeable and co-dependent on social factors and
individual interpretation.

Subcultures and Identity: Membership in subcultures (groups with distinct values within a larger
culture) shapes identity alongside dominant culture.

Social Identity and Social Class:

Social Stratification: Hierarchical ranking based on wealth, income, occupation, etc.

Capitalist Societies: Class identity is strongly linked to socio-economic status.
Bourgeoisie/Capitalist Class: Owns means of production, has wealth, political/ideological
power. Identity linked to "conspicuous consumption," privilege, and often private
education.
Middle Class: Professionals, managers. Identity linked to education, cultural capital,
economic security, thrift, ambition, and "deferred gratification" (sacrificing now for future
rewards).
Working Class: Manual/blue-collar workers. Identity often collectivist due to shared work
experiences, class consciousness (awareness of exploitation), solidarity, and attachment
to local communities.
Precariat: Precarious workers (unskilled, insecure, low-paid, gig economy). Identity
characterized by present-day orientation, fatalism, lack of security, anxiety, and potential
for anger/resistance.
Class Identity and Social Change: Declining industries and globalization may be weakening
traditional working-class identity, potentially leading to individualism or susceptibility to
 populist ideologies.

Social Identity and Gender:

Patriarchal Societies: Males culturally valued more than females.

Masculine Identity: Traditionally focused on toughness, authority, providing for family.
Hegemonic Masculinity: Emphasizes power, control over women, indifference to emotion,
contempt for homosexuality/weakness.
Toxic Masculinity: Harmful aspects of hegemonic masculinity, leading to sexism,
misogyny, violence.
Crisis of Masculinity: Men struggling with changing roles due to economic shifts, leading
to potential depression or risky behavior.
Subordinate Masculinity: Emerging healthier forms emphasizing emotional openness,
vulnerability, shared parenting, and empathy (e.g., "metrosexual" male, Frank Ocean, David
Beckham).
Feminine Identity: Traditionally subordinate, focused on motherhood/housewifery.
Feminine Identity and Social Change: Increased education/employment opportunities for
women are challenging patriarchal definitions, leading to greater aspiration, economic
power, and a sense of equality. Resistance to sexism through movements like #MeToo.
Gender and Sexuality: Traditionally assumed heterosexual due to links with reproduction.
However, increasing acceptance of homosexuality and recognition of transgender and non-
binary identities are making gender identity more fluid.
Intersex Identity: Individuals born with biological characteristics not fitting typical male/
female definitions.

Social Identity and Ethnicity:

Ethnic Identity: Sense of shared language, history, religion, ancestry. Can be based on visible
racial characteristics.
Construction of Differences: Ethnic groups can create "us vs. them" boundaries, sometimes
leading to racism, segregation, and ethnic cleansing (e.g., Holocaust, Rwanda).
Intersectionality: Ethnicity intersects with other identities (nationality, age, gender, class).
Hybrid Ethnic Identity: Increasing due to global migration, leading to mixed-race identities.
However, racism and cultural obstacles can persist.

Age and Identity:

Childhood: Seen as a special, innocent time for development, managed by parents and the
state. Legal ages for criminal responsibility vary. Education is a key influence.
Adolescence: Period between puberty and adulthood. Youth subcultures emerged with
consumerism. Most young people value traditional goals.
Young Adulthood: Independence from parents, taking responsibility. Marked by cultural
"markers" (e.g., moving out, marriage).
Middle Age: Often higher status due to economic success. May involve "midlife crisis."
Old Age: Respect in traditional cultures; often indifference or hostility in Western consumerist
societies, leading to negative self-identity, ageism, and infantilization. However, media
portrayals are improving, and wealth/status can mitigate negative aging stereotypes.
Researchers Mentioned:

Sarah McLaughlin (2017): Discussed the two components of identity (self and social).
(Sociological perspective on identity).
Mead: Broke down the "self" into the "I" and the "me." (Sociological perspective on self).
Cooley: Developed the "looking-glass self" concept. (Sociological perspective on self).
Goffman: Argued individuals perform and construct their own identities. (Sociological
perspective on identity performance).
Giddens: Proposed structuration theory, combining structure and agency. (Sociological theory
on identity).
Bauman: Analyzed consumerism and choice in identity. (Sociological analysis of
consumerism).
Derek Egan (2013): Investigated the relationship between Facebook use and self-identity.
(Sociological research on social media and identity).
Jane Jacobs (1961): Coined the term "social capital." (Sociological concept of social
networks).
R.W. Connell (1987): Argued for hegemonic masculinity and subordinate forms of
masculinity. (Sociological theory on gender).
James Messerschmidt (2018): Discussed hegemonic masculinity's emphasis on power and
control. (Sociological analysis of masculinity).
Jaclyn Friedman (2017): Discussed "toxic masculinity" and its harmful effects. (Sociological
commentary on masculinity).
Mairtm Mac an Ghaill (2004): Identified the "crisis of masculinity." (Sociological analysis of
masculinity).
Sarah Schoppe-Sullivan et al. (2017): Noted increased male involvement in parenthood.
(Sociological research on changing fatherhood).
Jordan Stephens (2017): Wrote about toxic masculinity and emotional vulnerability.
(Sociological commentary on masculinity).
Sue Sharpe (1990) and Helen Wilkinson (1994): Observed increased educational/
employment opportunities for women. (Sociological research on gender and social change).
Natasha Walter (1999), Kat Banyard (2011), Catherine Redfern and Kristin Aune (2013):
Suggested women's increased economic power leads to greater aspirations and resistance to
sexism. (Feminist sociological analysis).
Guy Standing (2016): Coined the term "precariat." (Sociological analysis of precarious work).
Kate Pickett and Richard Wilkinson (2018): Linked insecurity/inequality of the precariat to low
well-being and potential criminality. (Sociological research on inequality).
Robert Roberts et al. (1999): Observed age as an important aspect of identity. (Sociological
perspective on age).
Harriett Bradley (1996): Identified five generational stages of age identity. (Sociological
analysis of age stages).
Karen Wells (2014): Noted state intervention in managing childhood identity and denial of
education in some societies. (Sociological analysis of childhood).
Ulrich Orth and Kali Trzesniewski (2010): Suggested elderly people in Western societies have
negative self-identity due to ageism. (Sociological research on aging).
Christin-Melanie Vauclair et al. (2017): Found elderly people experience ageism, leading to
marginalization and infantilization. (Sociological research on aging).
Mike Featherstone and Mike Hepworth (1991): Argued media images of aging are becoming
less derogatory. (Sociological analysis of media and aging).

Key Terms:

Structuration: Theory combining structure and agency in identity.

 Subculture: Distinct culture within a larger one.
Social Class: Hierarchical category based on socio-economic status.
Social Stratification: System of social ranking.
Satipatthana: Buddhist concept of mindfulness.
Caste System: Religious hierarchy in India.
Jati: The caste system.
Dalit: "Untouchables" in the Indian caste system.
Precariat: Workers with insecure employment.
Hegemonic: Culturally dominant.
Hegemonic Femininity: Subordinate female identity defined by patriarchy.
Reproductive Rights: Women's control over their bodies.
Misogyny: Hatred of women.
Hegemonic Masculinity: Dominant, tough male identity.
Toxic Masculinity: Harmful aspects of hegemonic masculinity.
Crisis of Masculinity: Men struggling with changing gender roles.
Subordinate Masculinity: Alternative, healthier forms of masculinity.
Metrosexual: Urban heterosexual male focused on appearance.
Homophobia: Hatred of homosexuals.
Transgender Identity: Gender identity differs from assigned sex.
Transsexual: Feels emotionally/psychologically belonging to the opposite sex.
Binary: Idea of only two sexes/genders.
Intersex Identity: Born with biological characteristics not fitting typical male/female.
Non-binary Identity: Gender identity not exclusively male or female.
Ethnic Cleansing: Mass expulsion/killing of an ethnic group.
Apartheid: Racial segregation system in South Africa.
Global Migration: Movement of people across borders.
Cultural Diversity: Variety of cultural/ethnic groups.
Multiculturalism: Equal attention to diverse cultural needs.
Islamophobia: Prejudice against Islam/Muslims.
Bi-racial / Dual Heritage: Of mixed ethnic background.
Rite of Passage: Ceremony marking a life stage.
Cultural Markers: Events symbolizing identity change.
Ageism: Prejudice based on age.
Infantilization: Treating someone as a child.

Conclusions:

Identity is complex, shaped by both social structures and individual choices.

Identities related to class, gender, ethnicity, and age are significant but can be fluid and
intersecting.
Traditional notions of gender and age are being challenged and transformed.

Unit 2.3.2: Globalisation, Identity and Social Change

Globalisation: The increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of the world's nations

and people into a single global system (economic, political, cultural). Events happening far away
increasingly shape local lives.

Impact of Globalisation on Identity:

 Threat to Local Identities: Western norms (e.g., women's rights, democracy, consumerism)
can be seen as threats to traditional cultures, especially religious ones (e.g., fundamentalist
Islam). This can lead to increased religious fundamentalism.
Promotes Individualism: Undermines collectivist identities, increases choices, but also
creates fear and uncertainty ("global risks").
Hybrid Identities / Glocalisation: The fusion of global and local cultures.
Element 1: Global brands adapt products for local markets (e.g., MTV, McDonald's
menus).
Element 2: Local cultures adopt and adapt global elements (e.g., Bollywood films mixing
Western entertainment with Hindu culture).
Cultural Appropriation: Dominant cultures taking elements from marginalized cultures
without proper credit or respect (e.g., Western adoption of tattoos, dreadlocks).

Researchers Mentioned:

Allan Cochrane and Kathy Pain (2000): Noted globalization shapes lives by distant events.
(Sociological analysis of globalization).
Giddens (1999): Argued Islamic cultures view globalization as a Western threat to traditional
norms. (Sociological analysis of globalization and culture).
Bauman (1992): Saw globalization as promoting individualism and undermining collectivist
identities, leading to fear and fundamentalism. (Sociological analysis of globalization and
identity).
Luke Martell (2010): Described glocalization and its two elements. (Sociological analysis of
globalization and culture).
Daniel Miller (2011): Used Trinidadian Facebook use ("Fasbook"/"Macobook") as an example
of glocalization and cultural hybridity. (Sociological research on digital culture).

Key Terms:

Decadence: Spiritual emptiness.

Global Risks: Threats like climate change, terrorism.
Fundamentalism: Literal interpretation of religious texts.
Glocalisation: Blending global and local cultures.
Hybridised Identity: Identity combining aspects of multiple cultures.
Cultural Appropriation: Taking cultural elements without credit.

Conclusions:

Globalisation increases interconnectedness, impacting local identities.

It can be seen as a threat by traditional cultures, potentially leading to fundamentalism.
It fosters hybrid identities through "glocalisation" and leads to cultural appropriation.
Digital communication plays a key role in these processes.

End-of-Part Questions (from the text):

1. Describe the two components that make up identity.
 Self-Identity: How an individual perceives themselves (their private self, the "I," and how they
present themselves, the "me").
Social Identity: How society expects an individual to behave based on their group
memberships and social roles.

1. Explain one positive and one negative effect that globalisation might have on local cultures
and identity.

Positive Effect (Glocalisation/Hybridity): Globalisation allows for the blending of global

products and ideas with local cultures, creating unique hybrid forms (e.g., adapted menus for
global brands, Bollywood films). This can enrich local culture and offer new forms of
expression and identity.
Negative Effect (Threat to Traditional Norms/Cultural Appropriation): Globalisation,
particularly Western consumerism and liberal values, can be perceived as a threat to
traditional cultural norms and religious beliefs, leading to social tension or the rise of
fundamentalism. Additionally, Western cultures may appropriate elements from local cultures
without respect or understanding, leading to cultural theft.

1. Explain two reasons why traditional notions of femininity are undergoing change in modern
societies.

Increased Economic and Educational Opportunities: Women have gained greater access to
education and employment, increasing their economic power and independence, which
allows them to aspire to careers beyond traditional domestic roles.
Challenging Patriarchal Structures: Feminist movements and changing social attitudes have
led to greater awareness and resistance against sexism and misogyny. Women are
increasingly asserting their rights (e.g., reproductive rights, ability to initiate divorce) and
challenging the idea of female subordination, leading to more diverse and less restricted
definitions of femininity.

Exam-Style Practice Questions (from the text):

[4 marks]

Describe two factors that might influence a person’s social identity.

1. Social Class: A person's economic position, occupation, and wealth significantly shape their
identity, lifestyle, and opportunities. For example, belonging to the working class may foster a
collectivist identity due to shared work experiences and awareness of exploitation, while
membership in the middle class might emphasize individual achievement and deferred
gratification.
2. Gender: Societal expectations about masculinity and femininity influence how individuals
perceive themselves and are perceived by others. For instance, traditional hegemonic
masculinity emphasizes toughness and emotional restraint, while changing notions of
femininity are increasingly associated with independence and career aspirations, challenging
patriarchal norms.

[8 marks]
 a. Explain two reasons why people usually conform to social expectations.

1. Socialisation: Through primary and secondary socialisation, individuals internalize the norms
and values of their society. They learn what is considered acceptable behavior and develop a
conscience that guides them to conform to avoid guilt or disapproval. For example, children
are taught by their parents to be polite and share, and by schools to respect authority, making
these behaviors seem natural and expected.
2. Sanctions: Societies use both positive and negative sanctions to encourage conformity.
Positive sanctions, like praise, rewards, or social approval, reinforce desired behaviors.
Negative sanctions, such as criticism, ridicule, punishment, or legal penalties, deter deviance.
For instance, receiving a promotion for hard work (positive sanction) encourages continued
adherence to workplace norms, while being fined for speeding (negative sanction)
discourages breaking traffic laws.

b. Explain one strength and one limitation of the view that individual behaviour is shaped by
the social structure.
Strength: Structuralist views highlight how powerful social forces like class, gender, and
economic systems significantly constrain individual choices and shape life chances. For
example, the structure of a capitalist economy creates inequalities that limit opportunities
for the precariat, influencing their present-day orientation and fatalistic outlook, making it
difficult for them to act outside these structural constraints.
Limitation: This view can be overly deterministic, neglecting the role of individual agency
and free will. It may fail to explain why individuals in similar structural positions make
different choices or resist societal pressures. For instance, social action theories
emphasize that individuals actively interpret and respond to structures, constructing their
own identities rather than being solely passive products of them.

[6 marks]

The role of socialisation in shaping human behaviour has been exaggerated.’

a. Explain this view.
This view suggests that while socialisation is important, other factors play an equally or
more significant role in shaping human behavior. These factors could include biological
predispositions (nature vs. nurture debate), individual psychological traits, personal
choices, and the influence of immediate situational factors rather than just societal norms
learned through socialisation. For example, some might argue that innate personality
traits or genetic predispositions are more fundamental in determining behavior than what
is learned through socialisation.
b. Using sociological material, give one argument against this view.
Sociological material strongly supports the crucial role of socialisation. The study of feral
children, for instance, demonstrates that without social interaction and learning from birth,
individuals fail to develop uniquely human characteristics like language, complex social
behavior, and even the ability to walk upright. This highlights that fundamental aspects of
human behavior are not innate but are acquired through the process of socialisation,
suggesting its role is not exaggerated but foundational.

[26 marks]

Evaluate the view that social control serves the interests of the ruling class.
Introduction: Define social control and introduce the debate about whether it primarily
 serves the ruling class (conflict perspective) or society as a whole (consensus
perspective).
Argument For (Conflict Perspective - Marxists):
Laws Protect Property: Laws often protect private property and capitalist interests,
benefiting the bourgeoisie who own the means of production.
Ideological Control: "Control by consent" is an ideological device used by the ruling
class to persuade the populace that the system is fair, masking underlying inequalities
and exploitation. Media narratives often reinforce ruling-class values and demonize
dissent.
Criminalization of Dissent: Behaviors challenging the status quo (e.g., protests,
strikes) can be framed as deviant or criminal, subjected to formal social control by the
state (police, courts) to maintain order and protect the ruling class's interests.
Selective Enforcement: Some argue that law enforcement and judicial systems may
disproportionately target marginalized groups, while the wealthy or powerful might
evade punishment more easily.
Argument Against (Consensus Perspective - Functionalists):
Social Order and Stability: Social control is essential for maintaining social order,
stability, and predictability, which benefits all members of society, not just the ruling
class. Without it, society would descend into anarchy (anomie).
Shared Values: Socialisation and social control mechanisms instill shared values and
norms that promote cooperation and collective well-being. For example, traffic laws
protect everyone, and family norms promote social cohesion.
Protection of All: Formal agencies like the police and courts are intended to protect all
citizens from harm and ensure justice, regardless of social class.
Informal Controls: Informal controls (family, religion, peer groups) promote moral
development and conformity for the benefit of individuals and their communities, not
just the elite.
Evaluation:
Acknowledge the validity of both perspectives. Social control undoubtedly has
elements that reinforce existing power structures and benefit the ruling class (e.g.,
laws protecting property, biased media representation).
However, it also serves vital functions for societal cohesion and order that benefit the
majority. The effectiveness of informal controls and the agency of individuals mean
social control is not monolithic or solely dictated by the ruling class.
Consider how globalization and changing social structures might alter the dynamics of
social control.
Conclude that while the ruling class may benefit significantly from certain aspects of
social control, its overall function is more complex, involving elements of both social
cohesion and the maintenance of power structures.

Evaluate the view that people are free to choose their social identities today.
Introduction: Define social identity and introduce the debate between structuralist
(imposed identity) and social action (chosen identity) perspectives, considering the
impact of postmodernity and globalization.
Argument For (Social Action/Postmodern Perspective):
Increased Choice: Globalization, media, and consumerism offer a wider range of
lifestyles, values, and cultural influences, providing individuals with more options for
constructing their identities.
Reflexivity: Individuals are more "reflexive" (Giddens), actively reflecting on and
shaping their identities based on available choices and how they wish to present
themselves.
Decline of Traditional Structures: The influence of traditional structures like social
class, religion, and rigid gender roles may be weakening, allowing for greater personal
 freedom in identity formation. People can choose affiliations (e.g., subcultures, online
communities) and express diverse identities (e.g., transgender, non-binary).
Performance of Identity: Identity is seen as a performance (Goffman), something
actively constructed and managed through choices in appearance, behavior, and
affiliations.
Argument Against (Structuralist Perspective):
Persistent Structural Constraints: Social structures like social class, gender, ethnicity,
and economic inequality continue to significantly shape and limit identity choices. For
example, the precariat's identity is heavily influenced by job insecurity and lack of
opportunity, not free choice.
Unequal Access to Choice: While more choices may exist, access to these choices is
stratified. Wealthier individuals have greater freedom to "consume" identities through
education, travel, and lifestyle than those in lower socio-economic strata.
"Glocalisation" and Hybridity: Even seemingly global choices are often filtered through
local cultural contexts ("glocalisation"), meaning identities are not purely chosen but
are hybrid constructions influenced by both global and local forces.
Social Expectations and Norms: Deeply ingrained societal expectations and norms
regarding gender, ethnicity, and age still exert pressure, making it difficult to deviate
completely without facing negative sanctions or being labeled deviant.
Evaluation:
Acknowledge that people have more freedom to choose aspects of their identity today
compared to previous eras, especially in globalized, postmodern societies.
However, this freedom is not absolute. Structural factors remain powerful, influencing
the range of choices available and the ease with which individuals can enact certain
identities.
The concept of "choice" itself can be influenced by social conditioning and available
cultural resources.
Conclude that while agency plays a significant role, identity construction is a complex
interplay between structural constraints and individual choices, with the balance
varying across different social groups and contexts. People have more freedom, but
are not entirely free to choose their identities.