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1 Introduction to Sociology
What is Sociology?
Sociology is the study of how people live together in groups, how they interact, and the rules and
ways of life they share (culture). Sociologists use research to understand why people behave the
way they do in different groups. They develop ideas and theories to explain their findings.
Sociology started in Europe in the early 1800s when society was changing a lot because of the
Industrial Revolution. People like Henri de Saint-Simon and Auguste Comte wanted to
understand how these changes would affect people's lives. Auguste Comte believed sociology
should be a science, and Émile Durkheim, considered one of the founders of sociology, further
developed this idea.
Sociologists look at both the amazing things people achieve when they work together (like
building amazing structures or finding new medical treatments) and the terrible things that can
happen (like war or discrimination). They try to understand why humans are capable of such
extremes.
Key Concepts in Sociology
Sociologists use several important ideas, called Key Concepts, to help them understand the
social world. These are:
Inequality and Opportunity: This looks at how some people have more advantages and
chances in life than others.
Power, Control, and Resistance: This explores who has influence over others, how they
maintain that influence, and how people push back against it.
Social Change and Development: This examines how societies transform over time, moving
from older ways of life to newer ones.
Socialisation, Culture, and Identity: This focuses on how people learn the rules of society, the
shared ways of life, and how they see themselves.
Structure and Human Agency: This debates whether society's rules control individuals or if
individuals have the power to shape society.
Inequality and Opportunity
Inequality means that some people have more chances and resources than others. For example,
people born into poverty often struggle to get basic needs met, while wealthy people can afford
luxuries. Sociologists study why this happens and how it affects different parts of society. They
look at things like:
Life chances: These are the opportunities individuals have to improve their lives, such as
getting a good education or a better job.
Types of inequality: This includes differences based on age, gender, social class, and
ethnicity.
Distribution of wealth: Sociologists examine how wealth is spread between different groups
and countries.
Researchers and Thinkers:
Karl Marx: While not directly discussed in this section, Marx is a key figure in understanding
inequality from a conflict perspective, arguing that economic inequality is fundamental. He
would be against the current system of inequality, seeing it as a result of exploitation.
Max Weber: Weber also studied inequality, but he argued that it wasn't just about economic
class. He believed that status and power, based on things like authority or charisma, were
also important sources of inequality. He would be against Marx's sole focus on economics
and would highlight other forms of inequality.
Key Terms:
Inequality: The uneven distribution of resources, benefits, and opportunities.
Opportunity: The range of desirable options available to individuals or groups.
Life chances: The opportunities an individual has to improve their quality of life.
Power, Control, and Resistance
Power is the ability to influence or control how others behave. Sociologists are interested in
where this power comes from and how it's used.
Social control refers to the ways society keeps people's behaviour, thoughts, and appearance in
check using rules, norms, and laws. For instance, a police officer using their authority to stop
someone breaking the law is social control. The pressure people feel to fit in with social
expectations (like how to dress) is also social control.
Without social control, society could be chaotic. However, even when there's social order, it might
unfairly benefit some groups over others.
Resistance is when individuals or groups challenge or oppose the existing social order.
Researchers and Thinkers:
Thomas Hobbes: This philosopher is mentioned for his phrase "the war of all against all" to
describe a state of complete disorder without social control. He would be for social control
as a necessary mechanism to prevent chaos.
Émile Durkheim: While not explicitly in this section, Durkheim's work on social solidarity and
collective conscience relates to how societies maintain order and shared values, which are
forms of social control. He would be for social control that promotes social cohesion.
Key Terms:
Power: The ability to influence or direct the behaviour of others.
Social control: The mechanisms society uses to regulate behaviour, thoughts, and
appearance.
Resistance: Opposition to social control or the existing social order.
Social Change and Development
Social change is about how societies and people's behaviours transform over time. Sociologists
study how societies moved from traditional ways to modern industrial ones.
Traditional society: Based on farming, with strong family ties, customs passed down through
generations, low literacy, and religion playing a big role.
Modern industrial society: Driven by technology, science, and individual effort. Family and
community ties are weaker, and people have more chances to change their social position.
People move from rural areas to cities. Religion has less influence.
Some societies today mix elements of both traditional and modern ways. Sociologists also
consider postmodernity (or post-industrial society), a stage some believe society has moved
into, characterized by questioning traditional beliefs and the growing influence of technology and
global forces.
Researchers and Thinkers:
Jean-François Lyotard: Argued that postmodern societies reject "meta-narratives" (grand
explanations from science, religion, etc.) and embrace "relativism" (all viewpoints have value).
He is a key figure in postmodernist theory.
Ulrich Beck: Coined the term "high modernity" to describe how modern industrial-capitalist
societies create "manufactured risks" (like environmental damage) due to consumerism and
waste. He sees this as an evolution, not a complete transformation, and would be against the
idea of a complete break into postmodernity, focusing on the continuation of risks.
Zygmunt Bauman: Rejected the term "postmodern" and instead used "liquid modernity" to
describe societies in constant change and uncertainty. He sees this as a continuation of
modern trends, not a new era.
Anthony Giddens: Also rejected "postmodern" and proposed "late modernity." He emphasized
how technology (internet, smartphones) has made communication instantaneous and how
people are more "reflexive" (actively shaping their own identities). He sees these as
extensions of modern forces.
Karl Marx: His ideas about the transition from feudalism to capitalism are foundational to
understanding social change from traditional to modern societies. He would likely see
modern industrial society as a step towards further change driven by class conflict.
Key Terms:
Social change: Transformations in social behaviour and institutions.
Development: Improvement in social and economic conditions.
Globalisation: Increasing interconnectedness of societies worldwide.
Traditional society: A society based on agriculture, customs, and strong kinship ties.
Modernity: A society characterized by technology, science, and individualism.
Postmodernity/Post-industrial society: A societal stage characterized by a shift to service
economies, advanced technology, and a questioning of grand narratives.
Meta-narratives: Grand theories that aim to explain society and human behaviour.
Relativism: The idea that all points of view have value, and there is no absolute truth.
Individualism: A focus on personal interests and self-reliance.
Reflexivity: The ability to examine and adjust one's own actions and identity.
Socialisation, Culture, and Identity
Socialisation is the process by which people learn the norms, rules, and values of their society.
This starts in childhood within the family and continues through education, religion, and the
media.
Culture is the shared way of life, including customs and beliefs, of a particular group or society.
Most societies have many cultural groups based on factors like class, ethnicity, gender, and
religion.
Social identity is how a person sees themselves based on the groups they belong to. People can
have multiple social identities (e.g., student, friend, child).
Researchers and Thinkers:
Émile Durkheim: Believed that socialisation leads to a "collective consciousness" (shared
beliefs and values) that unites society and promotes social solidarity. He saw culture as the
"cement" bonding individuals. He would be for socialisation as essential for social order.
George Herbert Mead: A key figure in symbolic interactionism, he argued that our sense of
"self" (identity) develops through social interaction and by seeing ourselves through the eyes
of others. He would be for social interaction as the creator of identity.
Herbert Blumer: Expanded on Mead's ideas, emphasizing that our "self" develops through
childhood socialisation and role-playing. He would be for socialisation and interaction in
identity formation.
Key Terms:
Socialisation: The process of learning societal norms, rules, and values.
Culture: The way of life of a particular group or society.
Social identity: A person's sense of self based on group membership.
Collective consciousness: Shared beliefs, values, and norms that unite a society.
Social solidarity: A feeling of belonging and connection to others in society.
Structure and Human Agency
This is a central debate in sociology:
Structural perspective: Views society as a force that shapes and constrains individuals
through institutions (like family, government, education). It emphasizes how social structures
create order.
Interactionist perspective: Sees society as being created by the interactions between
individuals. People have more freedom to interpret rules and influence society.
Human agency is the power individuals have to think for themselves and act in ways that shape
their lives.
Researchers and Thinkers:
Émile Durkheim: A proponent of the structural perspective. He believed society and its
institutions were more important than the individual, shaping behaviour through value
consensus and social integration. He would be for the structural perspective.
Karl Marx: Also a structuralist, focusing on how economic structures (infrastructure and
superstructure) determine social class and individual behaviour. He would be for the
structural perspective, emphasizing class structure.
Max Weber: While often seen as a structuralist, Weber also acknowledged individual agency
through status and power dynamics that weren't purely economic. His work bridges structural
and agency perspectives.
George Herbert Mead & Herbert Blumer: Key figures in interactionism. They emphasized how
individuals create meaning through interaction and develop their "self." They would be for
human agency and the interactionist perspective.
Erving Goffman: Used the "dramaturgical approach" (interactionist) to show how individuals
actively manage impressions and perform roles, highlighting agency. He would be for human
agency in constructing social reality.
Key Terms:
Social structure: The patterned relationships and institutions in society.
Human agency: The capacity of individuals to act independently and make their own choices.
Structural perspective: A view that emphasizes the influence of social structures on
individual behaviour.
Interactionist perspective: A view that emphasizes the role of social interaction in creating
society.
Major Sociological Theories (Structural
Perspectives)
These theories focus on how larger social forces and structures shape individual behaviour.
Functionalism
Core Idea: Society is like a biological organism, with different parts (institutions) working
together to keep the whole system healthy and stable. Shared values and beliefs (value
consensus) are crucial for social order.
Key Thinkers:
Émile Durkheim (1858-1917):
Reason for research: To establish sociology as a scientific discipline and understand how
societies maintain order and cohesion, especially during times of rapid change (like
industrialization).
Findings: Argued that society exists independently of individuals. Identified social order as
a result of "value consensus" (shared beliefs and norms), "social integration" (people
feeling connected), and "social solidarity" (a sense of community). He saw institutions like
family, education, and religion as performing vital functions to socialize individuals into
this consensus and maintain social order.
Research Type: Primarily theoretical and comparative, analyzing historical and social data.
Stance: For the structural perspective and the importance of social consensus and
integration for societal stability.
Criticisms of Functionalism:
Over-deterministic: Critics like Dennis Wrong argued it portrays people as "over-socialized,"
passively accepting everything they're taught, ignoring individual free will and the possibility
of resistance.
Ignores Conflict: Marxists and feminists criticize functionalism for focusing too much on
consensus and stability, neglecting the conflicts that exist between different groups (e.g.,
rich/poor, men/women).
Over-idealized: The existence of crime and deviance suggests that socialization isn't always
perfectly effective.
Key Terms:
Value consensus: Shared agreement on values, goals, and norms.
Social integration: The process of individuals fitting into society.
Collective consciousness: Shared beliefs, values, and morals that unite a society.
Social solidarity: A feeling of community and belonging.
Biological analogy: Comparing society to the human body, where all organs work together.
Over-deterministic: Believing that events could not happen any other way.
Marxism
Core Idea: Society is characterized by conflict, primarily between the bourgeoisie (owners of the
means of production) and the proletariat (workers). Capitalism inherently leads to exploitation
and inequality.
Key Thinkers:
Karl Marx (1818-1883):
Reason for research: To critically analyze capitalism and understand the sources of social
inequality and class conflict, aiming to advocate for a communist revolution.
Findings: Divided society into infrastructure (the economic base, including means of
production and social relations of production) and superstructure (institutions like family,
education, media, religion, which transmit ideology). Argued that the bourgeoisie exploits
the proletariat by appropriating "surplus value" (the difference between the value workers
create and their wages). This exploitation creates social class inequality. The
superstructure maintains this inequality by promoting "bourgeois ideology" and "false
class consciousness" among the proletariat.
Research Type: Historical materialism, critical analysis of capitalism, theoretical.
Stance: Against capitalism and the resulting inequality. Argued for a revolutionary
overthrow of the system.
Calculation Example (Surplus Value):
Imagine a worker assembles a motorbike.
Cost of materials and power: $3000
Worker's wage: $500
Selling price of the motorbike: $12,000
The value produced by the worker's labor power is the selling price minus the cost of materials
and power:
Value Produced = Selling Price - Cost of Materials/Power
Value Produced = $12,000 - $3000 = $9000
The surplus value is the difference between the value the worker produces and their wage:
Surplus Value = Value Produced - Wage
Surplus Value = $9000 - $500 = $8500
The employer receives $8500 in surplus value from this single motorbike.
Criticisms of Marxism:
Over-deterministic: Like functionalism, it's criticized for seeing individuals as entirely shaped
by their class position, ignoring free will and individual choices.
"Cultural Zombies": Portrays the working class as unaware and brainwashed, ignoring
evidence that workers may be aware of inequality but still benefit from capitalism, or actively
resist it.
Neo-Marxist developments (e.g., Gramsci): Suggest that the superstructure (like media and
religion) can sometimes act independently of the economic base and can empower the
working class to resist.
Key Terms:
Capitalism: An economic system where private owners control production for profit.
Infrastructure (Base): The economic system of society.
Superstructure: Social institutions (family, education, media, religion) that transmit ideology.
Bourgeoisie: The capitalist class who own the means of production.
Proletariat: The working class who sell their labor power.
Means of production: Resources needed for manufacturing (factories, machines, etc.).
Labour power: The physical and mental effort workers contribute.
Social relations of production: The relationship between employers and workers.
Surplus value: The profit made by capitalists from exploiting workers' labor.
Bourgeois ideology: Ideas promoted by the ruling class to justify inequality.
False class consciousness: The proletariat's lack of awareness of their exploitation.
Status Inequality: Max Weber
Core Idea: Max Weber agreed that economic factors are important but argued that Marx
overemphasized them. He proposed that inequality arises from differences in status and power,
not just social class.
Key Thinker:
Max Weber (1864-1920):
1. Class: Economic position based on market situation (wealth, income).
Reason for research: To offer a more nuanced understanding of social stratification than
Marx, incorporating non-economic factors like status and power.
Findings: Identified three dimensions of stratification:
2. Status: Social honor or prestige attached to a person or group (e.g., based on lifestyle,
education, occupation).
3. Party (Power): The ability to influence collective action through organizations or political
parties.
He argued that inequality can stem from gender, ethnicity, religion, nationalism, and authority
(legal or charismatic), not just economic factors.
Research Type: Theoretical, historical analysis, comparative.
Stance: Critical of Marx's purely economic focus. Believed that while economic inequality
exists, status and power also create significant social divisions and conflict. He would be
against a sole reliance on economic factors to explain inequality and for a multi-dimensional
approach.
Key Terms:
Status: Social standing or prestige.
Authority: The legitimate power to give orders and enforce obedience (e.g., legal, traditional,
charismatic).
Charismatic personality: Someone with a compelling personality that inspires devotion.
Feminist Theory
Core Idea: Societies are characterized by patriarchy, meaning male domination and female
subordination, leading to gender inequality across all social institutions.
Key Thinkers/Concepts:
Patriarchy: A system where men hold primary power and predominate in roles of political
leadership, moral authority, social privilege, and control of property.
Gender Inequality: Differences in wealth, pay, political power, job opportunities, and the
division of domestic labor between men and women.
Ethnocentrism in Feminism: Criticism that Western feminism sometimes imposes its own
cultural solutions on women in non-Western societies, ignoring diverse cultural contexts.
Intersectional Feminism (Kimberlé Crenshaw, 1989): Argues that women's experiences of
oppression are shaped by the intersection of multiple forms of inequality, such as race, class,
sexuality, and ethnicity, not just gender. For example, a Black woman's experience of
patriarchy might be different from a white, middle-class woman's due to the interaction with
racism and classism.
Reason for research (Crenshaw): To highlight how legal and social systems often fail to
recognize the unique experiences of oppression faced by women of color due to the
intersection of race and gender.
Findings: Demonstrated that discrimination can occur not just on the basis of race or
gender alone, but at the intersection of these identities. This leads to unique forms of
disadvantage.
Research Type: Legal analysis, theoretical, critical race theory.
Stance: For recognizing and addressing the complex, multi-layered nature of oppression
faced by marginalized groups, particularly women of color.
Criticisms of Feminism:
Ethnocentrism: As mentioned, Western-centric solutions can be problematic.
Internal Disputes: Debates exist within feminism, for example, regarding the inclusion of
transgender individuals.
Key Terms:
Patriarchy: Male domination of society.
Gender inequality: Inequalities between men and women in various spheres.
Ethnocentrism: Judging other cultures by the standards of one's own.
Intersectionality: The interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, class, and
gender as they apply to a given individual or group, regarded as creating overlapping and
interdependent systems of discrimination or disadvantage.
Major Sociological Theories (Interactionist
Perspectives)
These theories focus on how individuals create meaning through social interaction and how
these interactions shape society.
Symbolic Interactionism
Core Idea: Society is made up of symbols (words, gestures, objects) that have shared meanings.
We develop our sense of self and understand the world by interacting with others and
interpreting these symbols.
Key Thinkers:
George Herbert Mead (1863-1931):
Reason for research: To understand how the "self" (our sense of identity) develops
through social interaction, particularly in childhood.
Findings: Argued that the self develops through stages: imitation, play (role-taking), and
games (understanding multiple roles). We develop a "generalized other" – the internalized
attitudes and expectations of society. Our sense of self is shaped by how we believe
others see us ("looking-glass self").
Research Type: Theoretical, philosophical, developmental psychology insights applied to
sociology.
Stance: For the interactionist perspective, emphasizing the social construction of the self
and society through symbolic interaction.
Herbert Blumer (1900-1987):
1. Humans act toward things based on the meanings those things have for them.
Reason for research: To systematize and apply Mead's ideas to sociology, emphasizing the
subjective meanings individuals attach to symbols.
Findings: Outlined three core premises of symbolic interactionism:
2. The meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of, the social interaction one has
with others.
3. These meanings are handled in, and modified through, an interpretive process used by the
person in dealing with the things they encounter.
Research Type: Theoretical, qualitative methodology.
Stance: For the interactionist perspective, emphasizing the interpretive and active role
individuals play in creating social reality.
Key Concepts:
Symbol: Anything that stands for or represents something else (e.g., words, gestures).
Self: Our sense of who we are, developed through social interaction.
Interaction: The process of engaging with others and interpreting their symbolic behaviour.
Social meanings: The interpretations individuals attach to symbols and actions.
Labelling Theory
Core Idea: Powerful individuals or groups can apply labels to others, and these labels can shape
how the labeled person sees themselves and behaves, often leading to a "self-fulfilling prophecy."
Example: A teacher labels a student as a "failure." The teacher might then interact with the
student differently, giving less attention or praise. The student, internalizing this label, might start
acting like a failure, eventually confirming the teacher's initial prediction.
Key Concepts:
Labelling theory: The idea that labels applied by powerful actors influence behaviour and
identity.
Self-fulfilling prophecy: A prediction that, by being made, causes itself to become true.
The Dramaturgical Approach
Core Idea: Social life is like a theatre, with individuals acting out roles and managing the
impressions others have of them ("impression management") by putting on a "front."
Key Thinker:
Erving Goffman (1990):
Reason for research: To understand how individuals present themselves in social
situations and manage others' perceptions of them.
Findings: Proposed that social interaction involves "front stage" (where we perform roles)
and "back stage" (where we can drop the act). We engage in "impression management" to
create desired perceptions. This process can be stressful as we constantly navigate
different social "scenes."
Research Type: Micro-sociological observation, theoretical.
Stance: For the interactionist perspective, highlighting the active, performative nature of
social actors in constructing reality.
Key Terms:
Dramaturgical approach: Viewing social interaction as a theatrical performance.
Social actors: Individuals who actively perform roles in social situations.
Front: The way we present ourselves in a given social situation.
Impression management: The process of influencing how others perceive us.
Social Exchange Theory
Core Idea: Social relationships are based on exchanges of rewards and costs. People rationally
weigh the benefits and drawbacks of interactions to maximize rewards and minimize costs.
Key Thinkers:
George Homans (1961):
Reason for research: To apply principles of behavioural psychology to social interaction,
viewing it as a series of exchanges.
Findings: Proposed that individuals are motivated by rewards and avoid punishments.
Social interaction involves assessing costs and rewards, leading to predictable patterns of
behaviour.
Research Type: Theoretical, based on psychological principles.
Stance: For an interactionist view where individuals make rational calculations in social
exchanges.
Linda Molm (1997):
Reason for research: To examine the role of coercion in social exchange.
Findings: Found that coercion (using threats or punishments) is often less effective than
other forms of exchange, as it can breed resentment and retaliation. Exclusion can be a
more powerful tool.
Research Type: Experimental and theoretical.
Stance: For social exchange theory, adding nuance about the effectiveness of different
exchange tactics.
Peter Blau (1986):
Reason for research: To explore how power dynamics influence social exchange
processes at both micro and macro levels.
Findings: Argued that power is central to social exchange. Those with more power can
dictate terms or withhold rewards, shaping the exchange. Power dynamics extend from
individual interactions to interactions between individuals and social structures.
Research Type: Theoretical.
Stance: For social exchange theory, emphasizing the role of power in shaping exchanges.
Key Concepts:
Social exchange theory: Explains social order through negotiated exchanges of value.
Social capital: The value derived from social networks and relationships.
Cultural capital: Non-financial assets (knowledge, skills, education) that promote social
mobility.
Coercion: Using force or threats to influence behaviour.
Postmodernist Theory
Core Idea: Postmodernism argues that modern societies have transformed into a new
"postmodern" stage, characterized by a rejection of grand theories ("meta-narratives"), a focus on
consumerism, globalization, and the construction of identity from a wide range of choices.
Key Thinkers:
Jean-François Lyotard (1984):
Reason for research: To define and explain the characteristics of postmodern society.
Findings: Defined postmodernism as "incredulity toward meta-narratives." Argued that in
postmodern societies, grand, unifying explanations are rejected in favour of "relativism,"
where all viewpoints are seen as having value, leading to a "post-truth" society where facts
are less influential than emotions or beliefs.
Research Type: Philosophical, theoretical.
Stance: For the idea of a distinct postmodern era, characterized by the breakdown of
meta-narratives and the rise of relativism.
Dominic Strinati (2004):
Reason for research: To analyze the characteristics of postmodern culture, particularly
consumerism.
Findings: Argued that consumerism has a "liberating effect" as the market offers a vast
array of choices for identity construction, exemplified by "conspicuous
consumption" (displaying wealth through luxury goods).
Research Type: Theoretical, cultural analysis.
Stance: For the postmodernist view of consumerism and choice shaping identity.
A. Fuat Firat & Alladi Venkatesh (1995):
Reason for research: To examine the role of consumerism in postmodern identity
formation.
Findings: Argued that consumerism empowers individuals by providing diverse choices
for constructing their identity, moving away from traditional, imposed identities.
Research Type: Theoretical, cultural analysis.
Stance: For the postmodernist perspective on consumerism and identity.
Key Characteristics of Postmodern Societies:
1. Post-industrial Economies: Shift from manufacturing to service-based economies.
2. Globalization: Increased interdependence and interconnectedness due to technology and
trade.
3. Rejection of Meta-narratives: Skepticism towards grand explanations; embrace of relativism
and "post-truth."
4. Individualism and Constructed Identity: Identity is seen as a personal project, chosen from a
marketplace of ideas and symbols, heavily influenced by consumerism and media.
Criticisms of Postmodernism:
"High Modernity" (Ulrich Beck): Argues that societies are not fundamentally different but are
experiencing "high modernity" with increased "manufactured risks" (environmental damage)
due to consumerism.
"Liquid Modernity" (Zygmunt Bauman): Rejects "postmodern" as vague, seeing modern
societies as undergoing constant change and uncertainty.
"Late Modernity" (Anthony Giddens): Argues that changes are extensions of modern forces,
not a new era. Emphasizes globalization and reflexivity.
Marxist Critique: Claims capitalism continues to be the dominant force, now globalized, and
that "late capitalism" involves new forms of exploitation.
Key Terms:
Post-industrial: An economy focused on services rather than manufacturing.
Consumption: Spending money on goods and services.
Consumerism: A preoccupation with acquiring consumer goods.
Conspicuous consumption: Lavish spending on luxuries to enhance social status.
Nation-states: Sovereign states with defined borders and national identity.
Meta-narratives: Grand theories providing universal explanations.
Relativism: The belief that all viewpoints are valid.
Post-truth: A situation where objective facts are less influential than appeals to emotion and
personal belief.
Individualism: A focus on personal interests and self-reliance.
Narcissism: Excessive self-admiration and selfishness.
New Age religion/Self-religions: Spiritual practices focused on personal fulfillment and self-
discovery.
High modernity: Later stages of modern societies marked by manufactured risks and
individualisation.
Manufactured risks: Risks created by industrial and consumer activity (e.g., pollution).
Liquid modernity: Societies characterized by constant change and uncertainty.
Late modernity: Later stages of modern society influenced by globalization and reflexivity.
Reflexivity: The ability to examine and adjust one's own actions and identity.
Late capitalism: The current stage of capitalism, characterized by globalization and new
forms of exploitation.
Monopoly/Oligopoly: Market control by one or a few firms.