UNIT 1

Systems Components and their representation

1.1 SYSTEM

When a number of system components or elements are connected in a sequence to

perform a specific function, the group thus formed is a system.
1.1.1 Control System :
In a system, when the output quantity is controlled by varying the input quantity, then it
is called control system. The output quantity is called controlled variable or response and
input quantity is called command signal or excitation.
1.1.2 Feed Forward (or) Open Loop System :
Control system in which the output quantity has no effect upon the input quantity is
called open loop system. i.e. the output is not feedback to the input.

Open Loop
Input Systems Output

Fig. 1.1
1.1.3 Feedback (or) Closed Loop System
Control System in which the output has an effect upon the input quantity in such a
manner as to maintain the desired output value are called closed loop systems.
Error Detector
Ref + Output
controller OLCS
input -
OLCS - Open
loop control
system
Feedback

Fig. 1.2
The provision of feedback automatically corrects the changes, in output due to
disturbances. Hence closed loop system is also called automatic control system.
1.1.4 Advantages of open loop control system
(1) Simple and economical
1.2 Control Systems Engg.

(2) Easier to construct

(3) Stable
Disadvantages :
(1) Inaccurate and unreliable
(2) The changes in the output due to external disturbances are not corrected
automaticallly.
1.1.5 Advantages of closed loop control system
(1) Accurate
(2) Less affected by noise
(3) Sensitivity of the systems may be made small to make the system more stable.
Disadvantages :
(1) Complex and costlier
(2) Oscillations are more
(3) Reduces overall gain
(4) Less stable
Examples of Control Systems :
Temperature Control System
Open Loop System

Electric Inter- Digital

Furnance Sensor ADC display
face

AC
Relay
Control Unit
Supply

Fig. 1.3

The output in the system is the desired temperature. The temperature of the system is
raised by heat generated by the heating element. The output temperature depends on the time
during which the supply to heater remains ON.
 Systems components and their representation 1.3

The ON and OFF of the supply is governed by the time setting of the relay. The
temperature is measured by a sensor, which gives an analog voltage corresponding to the
temperature of the furnace. The analog signal is converted to digital signal by an Analog to
Digital Converter. The digital signal is given to the digital display device to display the
temperature. In this system if there is any change in output temperature then the time setting
of the relay is not altered automatically.
Closed Loop System
The electric furnace shown below is a closed loop system. The output of the system is
the desired temperature and it depends on the time during which the supply to heater remains
ON.

Electric Digital
Sensor ADC Inter- Controller control
Furnance face circuit
Heating element

Relay
Control Unit Amplifier ADC Reference
Input

AC Supply
Fig. 1.4
The switching ON and OFF of the relay is controlled by a controller which is a digital
system or computer. The desired temperature is input to the system through keyboard or as a
signal corresponding to desired temperature via parts. The actual temperature is sensored by
sensor and converted to digital signal by the ADC. The computer reads the actual temperature
and compares with desired temperature.
If it finds any differences then it sends signal to switch ON or OFF the relay through
DAC and amplifier. Thus the system automatically corrects and changes in output. Hence it
is a closed loop system.
1.2 MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF CONTROL SYSTEM
The mathematical model of a control system constitutes a set of differential equations.
The mathematical model of a system is linear if it obeys the principle of superposition and
homogenity.
1.4 Control Systems Engg.

This principle implies that if a system model has responses y1(t) and y2(t) to any inputs
x1(t) and x2(t) respectively, then the system response to the linear combination of these inputs
a1x1(t) + a2x2(t) is given by linear combination of the individual outputs a1y1(t) + a2y2(t), where
a1 and a2 are constants

a x t
1 1
x1 t a1
x t H y t a x t a x t
1 1 + 1 1 2 2

H
+ y t
3
x t H y t x t a2
2 2 2
a x t
2 2
Fig. 1.5
For linearity, y3(t) = a1y1(t) + a2y2(t)
Transfer Function :
The transfer function of a system is defined as the ratio of laplace transform of output to
the laplace transform of input with zero initial conditions.

Laplace transform of Output

Transfer Function  Zero I.C.
Laplace transform of Input

Mechanical Translational Systems :

The model of mechanical translational systems can be obtained by using three basic
elements mass, spring and dash pot.
Newtons Second Law of Motion :
It states that the sum of applied forces is equal to the sum of opposing forces on a body.
1.3 MECHANICAL TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEMS
Consider an ideal mass element, Let a force ‘f’ be applied.
x
f M

Fig. 1.6

The opposing force offered is, f m  acceleration of the body..

d2 x d2 x
f   f M
m
dt 2 m
dt 2
 Systems components and their representation 1.5

Consider an ideal frictional element. The opposing force offered by dash pot is
proportional to velocity.
x

f
B
Fig. 1.7

dx dx
f   f B , B Viscous friction coefficient Nsec/m.
B dt B dt
Consider an ideal elastic element spring. The opposing force offered by spring is
proportionall to displacement f K  x.
x

f K
Fig. 1.8

f  kx , K stiffness of spring, N/m.

K

Problem 1 : Write the differential equations governing the mechanical system shown
below and determine the transfer function.

K1 x B x
1 2
M1 M2 f(t)

B1 B2
Fig. 1.9
Mass 1 :

d2 x  1 2  B
d x x dx
M
1
dt 2
1
B
dt 1
1
dt 1 1  1 2  0
K x  K  x  x

fm1
fk1
M1
fB f(t)
fB1

fk Fig. 1.10
1.6 Control Systems Engg.

Taking Laplace Transform (LT),

M S2 X (S) B SX (S) BS  X  SX  S  K X (S) K  X SX  S   0

1 1 1 1  1  1 1  1 2 

1  1 1 1   
X (S)  M S2  B B S K K   X(S)  BSK   0 
B K
S
X (S)  X (S) 
1 2

M S2  B  B S K  K
1 1   1 
Node 2

d2 x dx d
M
2
dt 2
2
B
2 dt
2
B 
dt 2 1

2 1 
x  x  K x  x  f (t) 
Taking LT,

M S2 X (S)  B SX (S)  BS  X (S)X (S)   K  X (S)X (S)   F  S

2 2 2 2  2 1   2 1 

2  2 2  1  S  
X (S)  M S2  B B SK  X (S)  B K   F(S)

Sub, X1 (S)

 BSK  BSK  X(S)


X (S)  M S2  B  B S K   
2  2 2  M S2  B  B S K  K
1  1   1 
   
 M S2  B  B S K M S2  B  B S K K  BS K 2
X (S) 
2 2 1 1 1        FS

2

2
M S  B B S K  K
1 1 1     

X (S)
2

1   1 
M S2  B  B S K K
1

  2 
F(S)  M S2  B B  S K  K    M S2  B  B  S K   BSK 2
 1 1 1 2 
 Systems components and their representation 1.7

y (S)
Problem 2 : Determine the transfer function 2 of the system shown below..
F  S
Node 1 :

B
K1
f(t)
y1
M1

K2

y2
M2

Fig. 1.11
2
d y dy
M
1
dt 2
1
B
dt
1
K y  K
1 1 2  y1y2   f  t 
Taking LT

M d 2 y  s  BSy  s  k y  s k  y  s  y  s    F(s)

1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 

1  1 1 2  
2 2 
y  s   M s 2 BS K K  K y  s   F  s  ------------(1)

Node 2 :

d2 y
M
1
dt 2
2
K
2  y2 y1   0
Taking LT,

M S2 y  s K
2 2  y2  s y1 s   0
2

 M2 S2 K 2  y2 s K 2 y1 s   0
K y  s    M S2  K  y  s 
2 1 2 2 2
1.8 Control Systems Engg.

y s  
 M S2  K 
2 2
y s 
1 2 -----------(2)
K
2

Sub (1) in (2)

 M S2  K 
y s  2
2  K
2 

 1 1 2  2 2 
M S2 BS K  K   y  s  K  F  S 
 2 
y s  K
2 2

F  S

 2 2 1 S
 M S  K M S  B  K  K K 2
2
1 2 
 2
2
 
Problem 3 : Write the equations of motion in S domain for the system shown below.
Determine the transfer function of the system.
x x
K 1

M f(t)

B2 B1

Fig. 1.12
Node 1 :
d
B
2 dt 1 
 x  x  Kx  0
1 
Taking LT, B S  x  S x  S   Kx  S  0
2  1  1

x S  B S K  B S x  S  0
1  2  2
x  S  B S K   B S x S
1  2  2
BS
x S  2 x  S
1 B SK
2

Node 2 :

d2 x d dx
M
dt 2
B
2 dt
x x  B
1 
1 dt
 f t

Taking LT,

MS2 x  S B S  x S x S   B S x S  F  S

2  1  1
 Systems components and their representation 1.9

x  S  MS2  B S B S  x  S  B S  F  S
 2 1  1  2 
 BS 
1 2  
 B2SK  2

x  S  MS2 S B B   2 x  S  B S F  S


 2 2 
x  S 
 
  MS S B1  B2  B2S K  B2S    
B SK   F  S
 2 
 

x  S

 B2SK 
F  S 2
 MS2 S B1B2   B2SK  B2S
x  S x  S
1 2
Problem 4 : Determine the transfer function and , for the system shown
F  S F  S
below.

x x
K1 1 2 K2
B12
M1 M2

B1 B2

Fig. 1.13
Node 1 :

d2 x dx dt
M
1
dt 2
1
B
1 dt
1
B
12 
dt 1 2

x  x  k x  f t
1 1

2
Taking LT, M1S x1  S B1S x1  S B12S  x1  s  x2  s   K1 x1  s   F  S

1 1 12 1 12 2 
x  S M S2  B B SK  B x  s   F S
 1 ----------(1)

Node 2 :

d2 x dx d
M
2
dt 2
2
B
2 dt
2
B
12 dt 2 1 
x x k x  0
2 2 
x  s   M S2  B SB SK   x  s  B S  0
2  2 2 12 2 1 12
1.10 Control Systems Engg.

2 2 12 2 1 
x  s   M S2 S B B K   x  s  B S  0
 2 12 
B S
x s  12 x s 
---------(2)
2 2
M S S B B
2  2 12  K
2
1

Sub x2  s  in 0,

  B S x  s  
 12  1

x  S  M S2  B  B S K  B S     F  S
1  1 1 12 1 12 
 2
2
M S S B  B  K 
2 12 2  
 2
2
 2

 M1S  B1 B12 SK1 M 2S S B2  B12  K 2  B12S
x  S 
     
  F  S
1


M S2  B  B S K
2 2 12 2   


x  S
1

 SK 2 M S2  B  B
2  2 12
F  S 2
 M S2  B  B  SK   M S2 S  B B  K   B S
 1 1 12 1  2 2 12 2 12

x  S B S
2  12
IIIely 2
F  S
 2 2 12 2 1 1 12 1
 M S2  B  B S K   M S2  B  B S K   B S
12    
1.4 MECHANICAL ROTATIONAL SYSTEMS
The model of rotational systems can be obtained by using three elements, moment of
inertia of mass [J], dash pot with rotational frictional coefficient [B] and torsional spring with
stiffness [K].

d 2 d
f J 2
; f B ; f  K
J b dt k
dt
Problem 5 : Write the differential equations governing the mechanical rotational system
shown. Obtain the transfer function of the system.

J1 J2
K B
T  
1 2
Fig. 1.14
 Systems components and their representation 1.11

Node 1 :
d 2
J
1
dt 2
1 
 K    T

Taking LT,

J S2   SK   S S   T  S

1 1  1 

 S  J S2  K  K S  T  S -----------(1)

1 1 

Node 2 :

d 2 d
J
2
dt 2
B
dt
 1
 K   0

Taking LT1

J S2   S  B  S K   S  S   0
2 S  1 

  S  J S2  B S K  K   S  0
 2 2  1

K   S    S  J S2  B SK 
1  2 2 

 J S2  B SK 
  S    S   2 2 
1 K

Sub   S in (1)
1

 J S2 B SK 
  S  2 2   J S2  B   K  S  T S
   
K  2 

 
 J S2  B S K J S2  K 2
  S  2 2 1    T S
 K 
 
1.12 Control Systems Engg.

  S K

T  S  J2S B2SK  J1S2 K K2
2

Problem 6 : Write the differential equations governing the mechanical rotational system
  S
shown below and determine the transfer function
T S
K
B
J1 J2
T 1 B12 

Fig. 1.15
Node 1 :

d 2 d
J
1
dt 2
1
B
12 dt 1 
  K    T
1   
Taking LT,

J S2   S B S    S  S   K    S  S   T  S

1 1 12  1   1 

 S  J S2 SB  K    S SB  K   T  S

1 1 12   12 
Node 2 :

d 2 d d
J
2
dt 2
B
12
1
dt
 
B B  K  0
dt 12 1   
Taking LT,

2 12 1 12 
J S2   S  B S  (S) B  B S    SK   S (S)  0
 1  
12  1 12 1
  S  J S2  B B SK  K (S)   SB  (S)  0
 2
 J S2 S B  B K 
 (S)  
2 12  S
 
 
1
B SK  12 
Sub  (S) in (1)
1
 Systems components and their representation 1.13

 J S S BB K  S SB

2

 J1S SB12 
2
K
2 12

 K   S  T  S
 B12SK  12

 2 
 2 2
 
 J1S SB12  K J 2S S B B12  K  B12S K
  S 
   
  T  S


B S K
12   


  S B S K
  12
T  S 2
 J1S2 SB12 K   J 2S2 S BB12 K  B12SK 
1.5 ELECTRICAL ANALOGOUS OF MECHANICAL TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEMS
System remain analogous as long as the differential equations governing the systems or
transfer functions of identical form. The electric analogue of any other kind of system is of
great importance since it is easier to construct electrical models and analyse them.
The two types of analogies are
(1) Force - Voltage Analogy
(2) Force - Current Analogy
1.5.1 Force - Voltage Analogy :
Mechanical system Electrical System
(1) Input - Force (1) Input - Voltage
(2) Output - Velocity (2) Output - Current

(3) - B (3) Resistance -

(4) M - M (4) Inductance -

K
(5) - K (5) Capacitance -

1.5.2 Force - Current Analogy :

Mechanical system Electrical System
(1) Input - Force (1) Input - Current
(2) Output - Velocity (2) Output - Voltage

(3) - B (3) Resistance -

1.14 Control Systems Engg.

(4) M - M (4) Capacitance -

(5) - K (5) Inductance -

Problem 7 : Write the differential equations governing the mechanical system shown
below, Draw the force - voltage and force - current electrical analogous
circuits and verify by writing mesh and node equations.
x x
1 2
V1 K1 V2 K2

f(t) M1 M2
B12 B2

B1
Fig. 1.16
d 2 xy dx dx
M
1
dt 2
B
1
1
dt
B
12 
dt 1 2
 
x  x  K x  x f  t 
1 1 2 
d2 x dx d
M
2
dt 2
2
B
2 dt
2
B
12 
dt 2 1 1 2 1 
x  x K x  x K x  0
2 2 
Force - Voltage Circuit :
L1 R1 L2

R12
~ R2
V(t) C1
i1
i2 C2

Fig. 1.17
Mesh Equation :

di
L
1
1
dt
R i R
11 12  i1i2  C1  i1i2  dt  v  t 
1

di 1 1
L
2 dt
2
R i 
2 2 C  i2dt  R12  i1 i2   C   i1 i2  dt  0
2 1
 Systems components and their representation 1.15

Force - Current Analogy :

R12
V1 V2

L1
C1 R1 C2 R2 L2
i(t)

Fig. 1.18
Node equation :
dv 1 1
C
1 dt
1

R
v 
1 R
 v1v2   L1   v1v2  dt  i  t 
1 12 1

dv v 1 1 1
C
2 dt
2

R
2

L  v2 dt  L   v2 v1  dt  R  v2 v1   0
2 2 1 12

Problem 8 : Write the differential equations governing the mechanical system shown in
figure. Drawn the force voltage and force current electrical analogous
circuits and verify by writing mesh and node equations.
Node 1 :

B1
K1 f(t)

M1
x1
K2 f2(t)

M2
x
B3 2
K3

M3
x
3
Fig. 1.19

d 2 xy dx
M
1
dt 2
B
1
1
dt
K x K
1 1 2  x1  x2   f  t 
1.16 Control Systems Engg.

Node 2 :

d2 x d
M
2
dt 2
2
B
3 dt 2  3 2 2 3 3 2 
 x  x K x K x  f  t 

 K x K x
2 1 3 2

Node 3 :

d2 x d
M
3
dt 2
3
B
3 dt 3 
 x  x K x  x  0
2 3 3 2   
dv
1  M1
dt
1
 B v  K  v dt  K
1 1 1 1 2   v1 v2  dt  f1  t 
dv
 2  M 2
dt
2
B v v  K
3  2 3  2   v2 v1  dt  K3   v3 v2  dt  f2  t 

dv
 3  M 3
dt
3

 B v v  K
3 3 2  3   v3 v2  dt  0
Force - Voltage Analogy :
R1 e2 L2
- +
C1
L1 R3
C2 L3
+ C3
e1(t) i1 i2 i3
-

Fig. 1.20

Mesh Equation :

di 1 1
L
1
1
dt
Ri 
11 C  i dt 
1 C   i1 i2  dt   e1  t 
1 2

di 1 1
L
2 dt
2
 2 3
 R i i 
3 C   i2 i3  dt  C   i2 i1  dt   e2  t 
3 2
 Systems components and their representation 1.17

Force Current Analogy :

R3
L2
V1 V2
V3

L3
i(t) R1 L1 C2 C3
C1
i2(t)

Fig. 1.21

Node equations :
dv v 1 1
C
1 dt
1

R
1

L  v1dt  L   v1 v2  dt  i1  t 
1 1 2

dv 1 1 1
C
2 dt
2
R
v v 
2 3 L
   v1 v3  dt  L   v2 v1  dt  i2  t 
3 3 2

dv v v 1
  v3 v2  dt  0
3 3 2
C  
3 dt R L
3 3

Problem 9 : Write the differential equations governing the mechanical system shown.
Draw the force voltage and force current electrical analogous circuits and
verify.
K23
H2 H3
B2 B23 B3

Lx1
M1

2

Fig. 1.22

Equations :
d 2 xy dxy d d
M
1
dt 2
B
1 dt
K x  B
1 1 2 dt
x  x B
1 2 3 
dt 1 3

x x  0   ----------(1)

d2 x d d
M
2
dt 2
2
B
2 dt

 x  x B
2 1 23 dt 2  3 23 2 
x  x K x  x  0
3    ----------(2)
1.18 Control Systems Engg.

d2 x d d
M
3
dt 2
3
B
3 dt
x x  B
3 1 
23 dt 3 2 23 3 2
x  x K x  x  0    ----------(3)

Force - Voltage Analogy :

L3

i3 R23

R3 C23
L1 L2
R2
R1

i1 i2
C1

Fig. 1.23

Mesh equation :
di 1
L
1
1
dt
Ri 
11  
i dt R i i dt  R i i dt  R i i  0
C 1 2 2 1 3 1 3 23 2 3    
1

Force - Current Analogy :

R3

L23
L2 V3
V1 V2
R2
R23
L1 R1 C2 C3
C1
L3

Fig. 1.24

Node equations :
dv v1 1 1
C
1 dt
1

R

L  v1dt  R  v1v2   R1  v1v3   0
1 1 2 3
 Systems components and their representation 1.19

dv 1 1 1
C
2 dt
2 
R

v v 
2 1 L
   v2 v3  dt  R  v 2  v3   0
2 23 23

dv 1 1 1
C
3 dt
3

R

v v 
3 1 L
   v3 v2  dt  R  v3  v 2   0
3 23 23

1.6 ELECTRICAL ANALOGOUS OF MECHANICAL ROTATIONAL SYSTEM

The two types of analogy are
(1) Torque - Voltage analogy
(2) Torque - Current analogy
1.6.1 Torque - Voltage analogy :
Mechanical system Electrical System
(1) Input - Torque (1) Input - Voltage
(2) Output - Angular velocity (2) Output - Current
(3) Dashpot (B) (3) Resistance
(4) Movement of Inertia (J) (4) Inductance
(5) Spring (K) (5) Capacitance
1.6.2 Torque - Current Analogy
Mechanical system Electrical System
(1) Input - Torque (1) Input - Current
(2) Output - Current (2) Output - Voltage
(3) Dashpot (B) (3) Resistance
(4) Movement of Inertia (J) (4) Capacitance
(5) Spring (K) (5) Inductance
Problem 10 : Write the differential equations governing
The mechanical rotational system shown. Draw the torque - voltage and torque current
electrical analogous circuits and verify by writing mesh and node equations.
K1 K2
J1 J2

B1 B2
Fig. 1.25
1.20 Control Systems Engg.

d 2 d
J
1
dt 2
1 B
1 dt
1 K  
1 1 2 T ------------(1)

d 2 d
J
2
dt 2
2 B
2 dt
2 K  
1  2 1   K 2 2  0 ------------(2)

d
1  J1
dt
1 B  K
1 1 1   1  2   T
d
 2  J2
dt
2 B  K
2 2 1   2  1   K 2  2dt  0
Torque - Voltage Analogous ckt :
R1 L2

R2
L1 C1

C2
e(t) i1 i2

Fig. 1.26

dv v 1
C
1 dt
1 
R
1 
L   v1v2  dt  i  t 
1

dv v 1 1
C
2 dt
2 
R
2 
L  v2dt  L   v2 v1  dt  0
2 2 1
Torque - Current analogous :
L1
V1 V2

i(t) R1 C2 R2 L2
C1

Fig. 1.27
 Systems components and their representation 1.21

1.7 TRANSFER FUNCTION OF ARMATURE CONTROLLED DC MOTOR

The speed of DC motor is directly proportional to armature voltage and inversely
proportional to flux in the field winding. In armature controlled dc motor the desired speed is
obtained by varying the armature voltage. This speed control system is an electro-mechanical
control system.
The electrical system consists of the armature and the field circuit but only the armature
circuit is considered because the field is excited by a constant voltage. The mechanical system
consist of the rotating part of the motor and load connected to the shaft of the motor.
Example : Obtain the analogous electrical network for the system given below :

K2

M3
x3
K1 D2

M2
x2

M1
x1
F
Fig. 1.28

The equilibrium equations are,

FM
d2 x
1
D
 1 2
d x x
----------(1)
1 2 1 dt
dt


d x x M d2 x  2 3
d x x
1 2 3
2 1 2
0D 2
 K x x D ----------(2)
1 dt 2 2 dt
dt
 3 2  M
d x x d2 x
0  K x x
1  3 2   D2 dt 3
dt 2
3
K x
2 3
----------(3)
Using force - voltage analogy,

1 dx dq d 2 x di
M L, D  R, K  , X q,  i, 2  , F V
C dt dt dt dt
1.22 Control Systems Engg.

di
V  L
1 dt
1
 R i i
1 1  2  ----------(4)

di 1
1  2 1
0  R i i  L
2 dt
2

C   i2 i3  dt  R 2  i2 i3  ----------(5)
1

1 di 1
  i3 i2  dt  R 2  i3 i 2   L3
3
0   i3 dt ----------(6)
C dt C
1 2
Simulating the above equations, the analogous electrical network is shown in the Fig.2
L1 L2 L3

R2
R1 C2
V
i1 i2 C1 i3

Fig. 1.29

Problem 12 : Write the set of equilibrium equations for the given mechanical system
and obtain electrical analogous circuits using (1) F - V analogy
(2) F - I analogy

x1 x
2

K1 M1 K2 M2 K3

B1 B2
Fig. 1.30

The equilibrium equations are

d2 x dx
FM
1
dt 2
1
B
1
1
dt
 K x K
1 1 2  x1 x2  ----------(1)

d2 x dx
2  2 1
2 2
0K x x  M 2
B K v ----------(2)
2 2 dt 3 2
dt
 Systems components and their representation 1.23

(i) F - V analogy :

Use the analogous quantities as

1  dq  di
M L, BR, K  , X q, X  i x   idt, X 
C dt  dt

di 1 1
VL
1 dt
1 Ri 
11 C  i1dt  C   i1 i2  dt ----------(3)
1 2

1 di 1
0
C  2 1 
i i dt  L
2 dt
2
R i 
2 2 C  i2 dt ----------(4)
2 3

The analogous system based on loop basis is shown in the Fig. 2(a)

(ii) F - I analogy :

Use the analogous quantities as,

1 1  d  dv
M C, B , K  , X , X  V, X   Vdt, X 
R L dt dt

dV 1 1 1
IC
1 dt
1

R
v 
1 L  v1dt,  L   v1 v 2  dt ----------(3)
1 1 2

1 dv 1 1
0
L   v 2 v1  dt  C2 dt
2

R
v 
2 L  v2dt, ----------(4)
2 2 3

The analogous system based on node basis is shown in the fig. 2(b).

 1 
C  
1 K 
L1 R1  1 L2 R2

 1   1 
V C   C  
2K 
 2 3 K 
i1 i2  3

Fig. 1.31 (a) F-V analogy

1.24 Control Systems Engg.

 1 
 1  L  
R1   2K 
B  V1  2 V2
 1
 1 
R  
2B 
 2 
 1 
L    1 
C1 1 K  C2 L  
 1 3 K 
 3

Fig. 1.31 (b) F - I analogy

Problem 13 : Write down the differential equations governing the mechanical rotational
system shown in Fig. 1. Draw the torque - current electrical analogous
circuit and verify by writing node equations.

K1 K2
J1 J2
T

B1 B2
Fig. 1.32
The differential equations are

d 2 d
TJ
1
dt 2
1
B
1 dt
1
 K  
1  1 2 ----------(1)

d 2 d
1 1
2 2
0  K    J 2
 K  ----------(2)
2 2 dt 2 2
dt

The torque - current electrical analogous circuit is shown in Fig. 2.

 Systems components and their representation 1.25

 1 
L  
1 K 
 1
V1 V2
 1 
R2  
B 
 1   2 
R  
1 B 
 1
I C1  1 
C2 L  
2K 
 2

Fig. 1.33

The node equations for this torque - current analogous electrical circuit are,

dv v 1
IC
1 dt
1

R
1

L   v1v2  dt ----------(3)
1 1

1 v v dv 1
0
L   v1 v2  dt  R2 C
2 R
2

dt
2

L  v2dt ----------(4)
2 2 2 2

Using in the equations (3) & (4),

d 2 1 d1 1
IC
1
dt 2
1 
R dt

L
 
1 2   ----------(5)
1 1

1 d 2 1 d2 1
0
L     dt  C
2 1 2
dt 2
2 
R dt
 
L 2 ----------(6)
1 2 2

Comparing equations (1) & (2) with the equations (5) & (6), the various analogous
quantities are,

1 1 
T  I, J C, B , K  , ,  v
R' L'
This is according to T - I analogy hence the circuit shown in Fig. 2 represents torque -
current electrical analogous network.
1.26 Control Systems Engg.

Problem 14 : Draw the analogous electrical network for the mechanical system in the
Fig.1 using force - voltage analogy.

x
3
K2 B2

M2
x
2

M1
x1
F
Fig. 1.34
Using F - V analogy,

1
M  L, B R, K 
C'

 dq
X  q, X   i, X   idt,
dt
 di
X
dt
The equations are,

f M
d2x
1
B

d x x
1 2 
1 2 dt
dt

0B

d x x
2 1 M d2x
2
B
dx
2
K x
dt 2 2 2 dt 2 2
dt

di
V  L
1 dt
1
1
R i i
2 
di
1
0R i i 2  L2 dt2  R 2 i2  C1  i2 dt
2
 1.27 Control Systems Engg.

Hence F - V analogous network is as shown in the Fig. 2

Fig.1.35

1.8 BLOCK DIAGRAM

A block diagram is a pictorial representation of the functions performed by each
component and of the flow of signals. The elements of a block diagram are block, branch
point and summing point.
Input Transfer Output
function
G(s)

Fig. 1.39

All systems variables are linked to each other through functional blocks. The block is
a symbol for the mathematical operation on the input signal to the block that produces the
output.
The arrowhead pointing towards the block indicates the input and the arrowhead leading
away from the block represents the output.
Summing Point

a + a-b
-

b
Fig. 1.40

Summing points are used to add two or more signals in the system.
Branch Point

Fig. 1.41
 Systems components and their representation 1.28

It is the point from which the signal from a block goes concurrently to other blocks or
summing points. Also called take off point.
Block Diagram Reduction Technique
1. Combining the blocks in cascode :

G1 G2  G1 G2
2. Combining Parallel Blocks

G2
G1  G1 G2

3. Moving the summing point ahead of the block :

G2 G1 G 2
+

G1 G1
A+

4. Moving the summing point before the block :

G2 G2 / G1
+
+ 
G1 G1
+ +
5. Moving the take off point ahead of the block : (TRDLM)

G1 G1

G2 G 2 / G1

6. Moving the take off point before the block :

G1 G1

G2 G1 G2
1.29 Control Systems Engg.

7. Interchanging summing point :

G1 G1
+
+
+ 
+
G2 G2

8. Elimination of feedback loop :

R R - CH (R-CH)G C R G C
G
 1  GH
+ CH C
H

Proof :

C   R CH  G C 1GH   RG

C G
C  RG  CGH 
R 1GH
CCGH  RG
Problem 15 : Reduce the block diagram shown below and find C/R.

G3

R + + C
G1 G2
-

H
Step 1 :

G3 / G1
+ C
R
G1 G2
-

H
 Systems components and their representation 1.30

R G C
1
G2+ G3 / G1
- H

R G1 G C
G  3
1  G1H1 2 G1

R  G   G H G  C
1
   2 1 3
1  G H   G1 
 1 1  


C G1 G 2 H1 G 3


R 
1G H G
1 1  1

Problem 16 : Using block diagram reduction technique find closed loop transfer function
of the system whose block diagram is shown.

G4

+ + + +
G1 G2 G3
- - -

H2

H1

Step 1

G4

+ + + +
G1 G2 G3
- - -

H2

H1 G2
Step 2

G4

R + + + + C
G1 G2 G3
- - - +

H2

H1 G2

Step 3
R + + + C
G1 G2 G3 + G4
- - -

H2

H1 G 2

Step 4
R + + + C
G1 G2 G3 + G4
- - -

H2
H1G 2
G 2 G 3 G 4

Step 5

R + + G 2 G 3 G 4 C
G1
- - 1G G H G H
2 3 2 4 2

HG
1 2
G 2 G 3 G 4
Step 6

R + + G1G 2G 3  G1G 4 C
- - 1 G G H  G H
2 3 2 4 2

H1G 2
G 2 G 3 G 4

Step 7

GG G GG
1 2 3 1 4
1G G H  G H
TF  2 3 2 4 2
 G G G G G  H G 
1 1 2 3 1 4  1 2 
 1G G H G H  G G G 
 2 3 2 4 2  2 3 4

G G G G G
1 2 3 1 4


1G2G3H2 G4H2 
G  G G G   H G 
1 2 3 4 1 2
1
1G2G3H2   G4H4   G2G3 G 4 
G G G G G
 1 2 3 1 4
1G G H G H G G H
2 3 2 4 2 1 2 1

R + GG G GG C
1 2 3 1 4
- 1  G 2G 3H 2  G 4 H 2  G1G 2 H1

G G G G G
1 2 3 1 4
1G G H G H G G H
C  2 3 2 4 2 1 2 1
R  G G G G G 
1 1 2 3 1 4  (1)
 1G G H G G H G H 
 2 3 2 1 2 1 4 2
1.33 Control Systems Engg.

G G G G G
C  1 2 3 1 4
R 1G G H G G H G H G G G G G
2 3 2 1 2 1 4 2 1 2 3 1 4

C S
Problem 17 : Determine the overall transfer function for the system shown.
R S
H2

R + + + C
G1 G2 G3 G4
- - -

H1

Step 1 :

H G
2 4

R + + + C
G1 G2 G3 G4
- - -

H1

Step 2 :

H G
2 4

R + + + C
G1 G2 G3 G4
- - -

H1

Step 3 :

H G
2 4

R + + G G C
G1 G2 3 4
- - 1  G 3G 4 H1
 Systems components and their representation 1.34

Step 4 :

H G
2 4

R + + G G G C
G1 2 3 4
- - 1 G G H
3 4 1

G G G 1G G H
TF 2 3 4 3 4 1
 G G G  H 
1 2 3 4  2 
 1G G H   G 
 3 4 1  4 

G G G
 2 3 4
1G G H
2 3 2

Step 5 :

R + G G G C
G1 2 3 4
- 1  G 2G3H 2

R + G1G 2G 3G 4 C
- 1 G G H
2 3 2

Step 6 :

G G G 1G G H
C  2 3 4 2 3 2
R G G G G 
1 1 2 3 4  1
 1G G H 
 2 3 2 

GG G G
C  1 2 3 4
R 1G G H G G G G
2 3 2 1 2 3 4
1.35 Control Systems Engg.

Problem 18 : For the system represented by the block diagram shown evaluate the closed
loop transfer function where the input R is (i) at station I. (ii) at station II.

H3
Station II
R
+ + + + C
G1 G2 G3
- - - -

H2
H1

Case I : Station II is zero.

H3
R
+ + + C
G1 G2 G3
- - -

H2
H1

Step 1 :

H G
3 3
R
+ + + C
G1 G2 G3
- - -

H2
H1

Step 2 :

H G
3 3
R
+ + G C
G1 G2 3
- - 1 G H
3 2

H1
 Systems components and their representation 1.36

Step 3 :

H G
3 3
R
+ + G 2G 3 C
G1
- - 1 G H
3 2

Step 4 :

G G 1G H G G
TF  2 3 3 2  2 3
 G G   H  1G H G H
3 2 2 3
1 2 3   3
 1G H   G 3 
 3 2

R
+ G G C
G1 2 3
- 1 G H  G H
3 2 2 3

Step 5 :

R
+ GG G C
1 2 3
- 1 G H  G H
3 2 2 3

Step 6 :

G G G 1G H G H
C  1 2 3 3 2 2 3
R  GG G 
1 1 2 3  1
 1G H G H 
 3 2 2 3

GG G
C  1 2 3
R 1G H G H G G G
3 2 2 3 1 2 3
1.37 Control Systems Engg.

Case (ii) - Station I is zero

H G
3 3
R
+ + + C
G1 G2 G3
- - +

H2
H1
Step 2 :

H3
R
+ + + C
G2 G3
- - +
H2
-G1 H1

Step 3 :

H3
R
+ + + C
G2 G3
- + +
H G
2 2

-G1 H1

Step 4 :

R
+ G + C
2
G3
- 1 G H +
2 3

H G
2 2

-G1 H1
 Systems components and their representation 1.38

Step 5 :

R
G2 + C
G3
1 G H +
2 3

 G1H1 H 2 G 2

R
+ C
G3
+

 G  H 
 2   G H  2 
1  G H   1 1 G 
 2 3 2

G
C  3
R  G  G G H H 
1 2  1 2 1 2 G
 1G H   G  3
 2 3  2 


G 1G H
3  2 3 
1G H G G H G H G
2 3 1 2 1 3 2 3

C 
G 1G H
3  2 3 
R 1G H G G G H  H G
2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
1.39 Control Systems Engg.

C S
Problem 19 : Obtain the closed loop transfer function of the system whose block
R S

diagram is shown.

H2

R + - + C
G1 G2 G3
+ - +

H1

G4

GG G
 1 2 3 G
1G H G G H G G H 4
2 1 2 3 2 1 2 1

CS
Problem 20 : Determine the transfer function of the system shown in the fig. 1.
R S
G3

+ + + + C
G1 G4 G2
R - +

H1

H2

Fig. 1.
The blocks G2 and G3 are in parallel so combining them as (G2+G3) we get,
Blocks in series
R C
G1 G4 G2 + G3
- +

H1

H2
 Systems components and their representation 1.40

Minor feedback loop

R C
G1G4 G2 + G3
- +

H1

H2

Blocks in series

R G1G 4 C
G 2 + G3
- 1G1G 4 H1

H2

R GG G G C
1 4 2 3
-
1G G H
1 4 1

H2

GG
1 4  G 2 G 3 
C S 1G G H
  1 4 1
R S
1
GG
1 4  G 2 G 3  H 2
1G G H
1 4 1

C  S

 G 2 G 3 
GG
1 4
R  S 1G G H G G  G G  H
1 4 1 1 4 2 3 2
1.41 Control Systems Engg.

Problem 21 : Reduce the block diagram and obtain its closed loop T.F. C(S)/R(S).

R(s) C
G1 G2
- -

H1 H2

Solution :
No blocks are connected in series or parallel. Blocks having transfer functions G2 and
H2 from Minor feedback loop so eliminating that loop we get,

G
2
R(s) G1 C(s)
- 1 G H
2 2

H1

Always try to shift take off point towards right is output side and summing point towards
left is input side.

R(s) C(s)
G1 G2
- -

H1 H2

- G
2
R(s) C(s)
- 1 G H
2 2

H 1 G H
1 2 2
1 G H
2 2
 Systems components and their representation 1.42

GG
1 2
1  G 2 H 2  G1G 2

GG
1 2
1  G 2 H2
R(s) GG C(s)
- 1 2
1
1  G 2H 2

H1 1  G 2 H 2
G2

Minor feedback loop

GG
1 2
1  G 2 H 2  G1G 2 C(s)
R(s)
1
G1G 2


H1 1  G 2 H 2 
1  G 2H 2  G1G 2  G
2

Simplifying,

C  S GG
 1 2
R  S 1G G G H G H G G H H
1 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 2

Problem 22 : Reduce the block diagram to its simple form and hence obtain C  S  R  S  .

G3

R(s) + + + C(s)
G1 G2 G4
- + -

H1 H1
1.43 Control Systems Engg.

The blocks G4 & H1 form minor feedback loop,

G3

R(s) + + + G C(s)
4
G1 G2
- + 1G H
4 1

H2

Shifting take off point as shown,


G2

R(s) G C(s)
+ 4
G1 G2
- - A 1  G 4 H1
B

H2

The signal form take off point A reading to summing point B is without any block is
gain of that branch joining A to B is one. So introduce block of transfer function ‘1’ in
between A and B to avoid further confusion as shown below,

Blocks in parallel


G2
Minor feedback
loop
R(s) + G4 C(s)
G1 G2 1
- - A 1  G 4 H1
B
H2
 Systems components and their representation 1.44

After simplification
G G
2 3
G
2

R(s) GG G G C(s)
1 2 3 4
1
- 1 G G H G 1 G H
1 2 2 2 4 1

R(s) GG G G C(s)
1 4 2 3
- 1  G1G 2H 2 1  G 4 H1 
Minor
feedback
loop

GG G G
1 4 2 3
R(s) 1  G1 G 2 H2 1  G 4 H1  C(s)

G G G  G 
1 4 2 3
1
1  G1G 2H 2 1  G 4H1 

C  S

GG
1 4  G 2 G 3 
R  S 1G G H G H G G G H H G G
1 2 2 4 1 1 2 4 1 2 1 4  G 2 G 3 
Problem 23 : Obtain C  S  R  S  using block diagram reduction rules

R(s) C(s)
G1 G2 G3
- -

H3 H2 H1
1.45 Control Systems Engg.

Separating out the feedbacks at different summing points, we can rearrange the above
block diagram as below,

R(s) C(s)
G1 G2 G3
- -
Minor
H2 H1 feedback
looop
H1

H3 H2 H1

Blocks in series

R(s) G C(s)
3
G1 G2
- - 1 G H H
3 1 2

H1

H1 H 2 H 3

R(s) G G C(s)
G1 2 3
- - 1 G H H
3 1 2
Minor
H1 feedback
loop

H 1 H 2 H3
 Systems components and their representation 1.46

G 2G 3
1 G H H  G G H
3 1 2 2 3 1

G G
2 3
R(s) 1 G H H C(s)
3 1 2
G1 G 2G3
-
1 H
1  G 3H1H 2 1

H1 H2 H 3

R(s) G 2G3 C(s)

- 1 G H H G G H
3 1 2 2 3 1
Minor feedback
loop
H 1 H2 H3

GG G
1 2 3
R(s) 1  G 3H1H 2  G 2 G 3H1 C(s)
G1G 2 G 3 H1H 2 H 3
1
1  G 3H1H 2  G 2 G 3H1

C(s) GG G
  1 2 3
R(s) 1  G H H  G G H  G G G H H H
3 1 2 2 3 1 1 2 3 1 2 3

1.9 SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH

A signal flow graph is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous linear algebraic
equations.

Node : A node is a point representing a variable or signal.

1.47 Control Systems Engg.

Branch : A branch is directed line segment joining two nodes.

Transmittance : The gain acquired by the signal when it travels from one node to another
is called transmittance.
Input Node : It is the node that has all outgoing branches. Also known as source.
Output Node : It is a node that has only incoming branches. Also known as sink.
Mixed Node : It is a node that has both incoming and outgoing branches.
Path : A path is a traversal of connected branches in the direction of the branch
arrows. The path should not cross a node more than once.
Forward Path : It is a path from an input node to an output node that does not cross any
node more than once.
Individual
Loop : It is a closed path starting from a node and after passing through a certain
part arrives at the same node without crossing any node more than once.
Loop gain : It is the product of branch gains of a loop.
Non -
touching loops : If the loops does not have a common node then they are said to be non-
touching loops.

Mason’s Gain Formula :

C  S 1 n
It states that, transfer function R S    PK  K
  k1

where,

K No. of forward paths

P  Kth forward path gain

K

  1 - [Sum of individual loop gains not touching the Kth forward path] + [sum of
K
product of two non touching loops not touching the Kth forward path] -.....

  1 - [Sum of individual loop gains] + [sum of product of two non touching loops]
- [Sum of product of three non touching loops] + .......
 Systems components and their representation 1.48

Problem 24 : Find the overall trasfer function of the system whose signal flow graph is
shown.

-H2

G1 G2 G3 G4 G5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-H1 -H3

K=2

P1 = G1 G2 G3 G4 G5   1   0  1
1

P2 = G4 G5 G6   1   G H   1  G H
2  2 1 2 1

Loop 1 : Loop 2 : Loop 3 :

-H2 G5
G2 6 7
3 4

-H1 3 G 4 G3 5 -H3
2

  1    G H  G G H  G H   G G H H  G G G H H 
 2 1 2 3 2 5 3  2 5 1 3 2 3 5 2 3

1 G H  G G H  G H  G G H H  G G G H H
2 1 2 3 2 5 3 1 5 1 3 2 3 5 2 3

1 2 P  P 
 TF   P   1 1 2 2
 k1 K K 


G G G G G 1  G G G 1  G H
1 2 3 4 5 4 5 6  2 1 
1 G H  G G H  G H  G G H H  G G G H H
2 1 2 3 2 5 3 2 5 1 3 2 3 5 2 3

C  S GG G G G G G G G G G G H
 1 2 3 4 5 4 5 6 2 4 5 6 1
R  S 1  G H  G G H  G H  G G H H  G G G H H
2 1 2 3 2 5 3 2 5 1 3 2 3 5 2 3
1.49 Control Systems Engg.

CS
Problem 25 : Find the overall gain for the signal flow graph.
R S

-H1
G5
G1 G2 G3 G4
1 2 3 4 5
-H2 G6
-H3

K=2

P1 = G1 G2 G3 G4   1   0  1
1

P2 = G1 G2 G6   1  G   1  G
2  5 5

Loop 1 : Loop 2 : Loop 3 :

2 3 4 5 -H1
G2 G2 G3 G4
2 3

-H2 -H3 2 G2 3 G3 4

Loop 4 : Loop 5 :

2 G2 3 5
G6
G5
-H3
4

  1   G H  G G G H  G G H  G  G G H    G G H  G G G H 
 2 2 2 3 4 3 2 3 1 5 2 6 3  2 5 2 2 5 6 3


C  S

P  P 
1 1 2 2

G G G G  G G G 1 G
1 2 3 4 1 2 6  5 
R  S  1G H G G G H G G H G G G H G G G H G G H
2 2 2 3 4 3 2 3 1 2 5 6 3 5 2 6 3 2 5 2
 Systems components and their representation 1.50

Problem 26 : Find the overall gain for the signal flow graph.
-H2

G1 G2 G3 G4 G5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-H1
-1

K=1

P1 = G1 G2 G3 G4  1 0 1
1

Loop 1 : Loop 2 : Loop 3 :

-H2 4 5 6 2 3 4 5 6
G3 G4 G1 G2 G3 G4

3 G2 4 G3 5 -H1 -1

  1   G G H  G G H  G G G G 
 2 3 2 3 4 1 1 2 3 4

P
 TF  1 1


GG G G
 1 2 3 4
1 G G H  G G H  G G G G
2 3 2 3 4 1 1 2 3 4

Problem 27 : The signal flow graph for a feedback control system is shown. Determine
the closed loop transfer function C  S  R  S  .
G6

G1 G2 G3 G4 G5
1 2 3 4 5 6
-H1 H2 H3
K=2
P1 = G1 G2 G3 G4 G5   1  [0]  1
1

P2 = G1 G2 G5 G6   1  [0]  1
2
1.51 Control Systems Engg.

Loop 1 : Loop 2 : Loop 3 :

G2 G3 G4
2 3 3 4 4 5

H1 H2 H3

Loop 4 :
G6

3 4 5
G3 G4

H2 H3

  1  G H  G H  G H  G H H   G G H H 
 2 1 3 2 4 3 6 2 3  2 4 1 3

G G G G G 1  G G G G 1
TF  1 2 3 4 5 1 2 5 6
1 G H  G H  G H  G H H  G G H H
2 1 3 2 4 3 6 2 3 2 4 1 3

Problem 28 : Convert the given block diagram to signal how graph and determine
CS R S .

G3

R + - C
G1 4 G2
1 2 3 +5 6
-

H1

G3

1 1 G1 G2 1
1 2 3 4 5 6

-H
 Systems components and their representation 1.52

K=2
P1 = G1 G2   1  [0]  1
1

P2 = -G3   1  [0]  1
2
Loop - G1 H
1 5
G3 G1

-H1

  1   G H   1  G H
 1  1

P  P 
TF  1 1 2 2


GG G
TF  1 2 3
1 G H
1

Problem 29 : Using Mason’s gain formula, determine the ratio C/R for the system
represented by the following block diagram (Fig. 1).

G2
D

R + + + + C
G1 G3 G4
- -

H1

H2
Fig. 1
The signal flow graph with D = 0 is as shown in the Fig. 2.

1 1
R C
2 G1 3 G3 4 G4 5

-1+1
-H2
Fig. 2
1.53 Control Systems Engg.

T GG G , T G G G
1 1 3 4 2 2 3 4

L  G H , L G G G H
1 3 2 1 3 4 2

L  G G G H
3 2 3 4 2

  1  L  L  L 
 1 2 3

   1
1 2

C GG G G G G
  1 3 4 2 3 4 1
R 1 G H  G G G H  G G G H
3 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 4 2

D
G2

1 1 G1 1 G4 1 C
R
2 3 4 5

-1+1

-H2
Fig. 3
The signal flow graph with R = 0 is as shown in the Fig. 3.
T1 = G4
L1 = -G3H1, L2 = -G4H2G1G3
L3 = -G4H2G2G3

  1  L  L  L 
 1 2 3

 1 L  L non - touching to T1

1 1 1

C

G 1 G H
4 3 1
2
 
D 1 G H  G H G G  G G G H
3 1 4 2 1 3 2 3 4 2

C
R G G G  G G G   D G 1  G H 
 1 3 4 2 3 4  4 3 1   
1 G H  G G G H  G G G H
3 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 4 2
 Systems components and their representation 1.54

Problem 30 : Convert the block diagram representation of a system as shown in the Fig.
C S
1 into a signal flow graph. Hence find the transfer function R S of the
 
closed loop system from the signal flow graph.

G4

R(s) + + + + C(s)
G1 G2 G3
- - - +
H2

H1

Fig. 1

The signal flow graph is as shown in which each summing and take - off point is shown
by an independent node.
G4

R(s) 1 1 G1 G2 G3 1 1 C(s)
2 3 4 5

-H1 -H2

-1
Fig. 2

The various forward path gains are

T GG G T GG G
1 1 2 3 2 1 2 4

The various feedback loop gains are,

L  G G H
1 1 2 1

L  G G H ,
2 2 3 2

L  G G H ,
3 2 4 2

L  G G G ,
4 1 2 3
1.55 Control Systems Engg.

No combination of non - touching loops


 1  [ ]

For both the forward paths , all the loops are touching.

   1
1 2
According to Mason’s gain formula,


1.10 SERVOMOTORS
The Servo system is one in which the output is some mechanical variable like position,
velocity or acceleration. Such systems are generally automatic control systems which work
on the error signals. The error signals are amplified to drive the motors used in such systems.
These motors used in servo systems are called servomotors. These motors used in servo systems
are called servomotors. These motors are used to convert electrical signal applied into the
angular velocity or movement of shaft

Requirements of Good Servomotor:

(1) Linear relationship between electrical control signal and the rotor speed
over a wide range.
(2) Inertia of the rotor should be as low as possible.
(3) Its response should be as fast as possible
(4) Should be easily reversible.
(5) Should have linear torque - speed characteristics.
(6) Its operation should be stable without any oscillations.
 Systems components and their representation 1.56

Types of servomotors: Depending upon the nature of electric supply, it is classified

into,
(1) AC Servomotors - Armature Controlled
(2) DC Servomotors - Field Controlled

1.10.1 DC Servomotor
All dc servomotors are essentially separately excited type. This ensures linear torque -
speed characteristics.

The control of dc servomotor can be from field side or from armature side. Depending
upon this, these are classified as field controlled dc servomotor and armature controlled dc
servomotor.

1.11 FIELD CONTROLLED DC SERVOMOTOR

In this motor, the controlled signal obtained from the servo amplifier is applied to the
field winding. With the help of constant current source, the armature current is maintained as
constant.

Rf

If Ra La Iaconstant

Vf Lf M

J,B
Load
1.57 Control Systems Engg.

This type of motor has large Lf R f ratio where Lf is the reactance and Rf is the resistance
of field winding. Due to this the time constant of the motor is high. This means it cannot give
rapid response to the quick changing control signals. Hence this is not used in practice.
Features of field controlled DC Servomotor
(1) Preferred for small rated motors
(2) It has large time constant
(3) Open Loop System
(4) Control Circuit is simple to design
Note :
For transfer function of field controlled dc servomotor  refer the transfer function of
field controlled dc motor.
1.12 ARMATURE CONTROLLED DC SERVOMOTOR
In this type of motor, the input voltage ‘Va’ is applied to the armature with a resistance
of Ra and inductance La. The field winding is supplied with constant current If. Thus armature
input voltage controls the motor shaft output.

Rf
Ia
If Ra La

Lf M Va

Load

The constant field can be supplied with the help of permanent magnets. In such case no
field coils are necessary.
Features of Armature Controlled DC Servomotor :
(1) Suitable for large rated motors
(2) It has small time constant hence its response is fast.
(3) Closed loop system
(4) The back emf provides internal damping which makes motor operation more
stable.
(5) The efficiency and overall performance is better than field controlled motor.
 Systems components and their representation 1.58

Note :
Transfer function of armature controlled dc motor is same for servomotor too.
Characteristics of DC Servomotors
The characteristics of dc servomotors are mainly similar to the torque - speed
characteristics of ac servomotor. The characteristics are shown below.

Torqe
E E E E
a4 a3 a2 a1

Ea4
Ea3
Ea2
Ea1

Speed

Applications of dc servomotor : -
(1) Air Craft control systems
(2) Electromechanical actuators
(3) Process controllers
(4) Robotics
(5) Machine tools etc.
1.13 AC SERVOMOTOR

Most of the servomotors used in low power servomechanism are ac servomotors. The
ac servomotor is basically two phase induction motor. The output power of ac servomotor
varies from fraction of watt to few hundred watts. The operating frequency is 50Hz to
400 Hz.

Construction :

It is mainly divided into two parts namely stator and rotor. The stator carries two
windings, uniformly distributed and displaced by 900, in space, one winding is called main
winding or fixed winding or reference winding. This is excited by a constant voltage as
supply. The other winding is called control winding.
1.59 Control Systems Engg.

DC

Control
winding Reference
0 winding
90

Control
Voltage

Rotor

It is excited by variable control voltage, which is obtained from a servoamplifier. This

voltage is 900 out of phase with respect to the voltage applied to the reference winding. This
is necessary to obtain rotating magnetic field.
Rotor :
The rotor is generally of two types. The one is usual squirrel cage rotor. This has small
diameter and large length. Aluminium conductors are used to keep weight small. Its resistance
is very high to keep torque speed characteristics as linear as possible. Air gap is kept very
small which reduces magnetising current. This cage type of rotor is shown below.

Aluminum bars

Shaft

Squirrel Cage Rotor

The other type of rotor is drag cup type. There are two air gaps in such construction.
Such a construction reduces inertia considerably and hence such type of rotor is used in very
low power applications. The aluminium is used for the cup construction.
Stator

Drag
cup
Laminated
Core
Driving
shaft

Drag cup type rotor

 Systems components and their representation 1.60

Torque - Speed Characteristics

The torque speed characteristics of a two phase induction motor, mainly depends on the
ratio of reactance to resistance. For small X to R ratio motor, the characteristics is much more
linear while it is non linear for large X to R ratio as shown below.

Torqe
E E E E
24 23 22 21
Large X
R E24
Torqe
E23
Small X E22
R
E21

Speed Speed

In practice, design of the motor is so as to get almost linear torque - speed characteristics.
The torque varies almost linearly with speed. All the characteristics are equally spaced for
equal increments of control voltage. It is generally operated with low speeds.
Features of AC Servomotor :
1. Light in weight
2. Robust Construction
3. Reliable and Stable Operation
4. Smooth and noise free operation
5. Large torque to weight ratio
6. Large R to A ratio
7. Small X to R ratio
8. No brushes or slip rings hence maintenance free.
9. Simple driving circuits.
Applications
1. Instrument Servomechanisms
2. Remote positioning devices
3. Process Control Systems
4. Self balancing recorders
5. Computers
1.61 Control Systems Engg.

6. Tracking and guidance systems

7. Robotics
8. Machine tools
1.13.1 Transfer Function of AC Servomotor
(1) A servomotor rarely operates at high speeds. Hence for a given value of control
voltage, T  N characteristics are perfectly linear..

(2) In order that T  N characteristics are directly proportional to voltage applied to

its control phase, we assume T  N characteristics are straight lines and equally
spaced.
Torque at any speed is,

d
T K E m m ,
m tm zt
------------(1)
dt

d
m
where is speed of motor..
dt

E is back emf
zt

K , m constants.
tm

If bad consists inertia Jm and friction Bm, we can write,

T
m
 s   J m s 2  m  s   Bm s  m  s  -----------(2)

Laplace transform of (1)

T
m
 s   K tm E2  s   ms m  s  -----------(3)

Equating (2) and (3),

K E  s   ms 
tm 2 m
 s   J m s 2  m  s   Bm s  m  s 
K E
tm 2
 s   m  s  s 2 Jm  Bms  ms 

 s
m
K
tm
 2
E  s  s Jm  B s  ms
2 m
 Systems components and their representation 1.62

K
 tm

s s J B
m m
m 
K
 tm
 s Jm 
s B  m
 m 1 
 B  m

 m 

K
where K  tm
m B m
m

J
J  m
and m B m
m

1.14 SYNCHROS

The synchro is a inductive device which works on the principle of a rotating transformer.
The trade names for synchros are Selsyn, Autosyn and Telesyn.

Synchros are electromechanical devices or electromagnetic transducers which produces

an output voltage depending upon angular position of the rotor.

A synchro system is formed by interconnection of the devices called the synchro

transmitter and the synchro control transformer, They are also called as synchro pair. The
synchro pair measures and compares two angular displacements and its output voltage is
approximately linear with angular difference of the axis of both the shafts. They can be used
in the following two ways :

1. To control the angular position of load from a remote place/long distance

2. For automatic correction of changes due to disturbance in the angular

position of the load

1.14.1 Synchro Transmitter

Construction :

The constructional features, electric circuit and a schematic symbol of synchro transmitter
is shown below.
1.63 Control Systems Engg.

Stator

Rotor


(a) Construction

S1

R1
S2
R2

S3
Staff input 

(b) Schematic Symbol

S2

Rotor winding
Slip rings

R1
AC supply Stator winding
R2

S1

S3
(c) Synchro transmitter
The two major parts of synchro transmitter are stator and rotor. The stator is identical
to the stator of three phase alternator. It is made of laminated silicon steel and slotted on the
inner periphery to accommodate a balanced three phase winding. The stator winding is
concentric type with the axis of three coils 1200 apart. The stator winding is star connected.
 Systems components and their representation 1.64

The rotor is of dumb bell construction with a single winding. The ems of the rotor
winding are terminated on two slip rings. A single phase ac excitation voltage is applied to
the rotor through the slip rings.
Working Principle :
When the rotor is excited by ac voltage, the rotor current flows, and a magnetic field is
produced. The rotor magnetic field induces an emf in the stator coils by transformer action.
The effective voltage induced in any stator coil depends upon the angular position of the
coil’s axis with respect to the rotor axis.
Let er - Instantaneous value of ac voltage applied to the rotor
es1, es2, es3 - Instantaneous value of emf induced in stator coils s1, s2,
s3 respectively w.r.t neutral.
Er - Maximum value of rotor excitation voltage
W - Angular frequency of rotor excitation voltage
Kt - Turns ratio of stator and rotor windings
Kc - Coupling coefficient
 - Angular displacement of rotor w.r.t reference
The instantaneous value of excitation voltage,
e  E  sin wt ------------(1)
r r
Let the rotor rotates in anti clockwise direction. When the rotor rotates by an angle, 
emfs are induced in stator coils. The frequency of induced emf is same as that of rotor frequency.
The magnitude of induced emfs are proportional to the turns ratio and coupling coefficient.
The turns ratio, K is a constant, but coupling coefficient, KC is a function of rotor angular
position.
Induced emf in stator coil = Kt Kc Kr sin wt.
Let es2 be reference vector. When   0, the flux linkage of coil s2 is maximum and
when   900 , the flux linkage of coil s2 is zero. Hence the flux linkage of coil s2 is function
of cos . The flux linkage of coil s3 will be maximum after a rotation of 1200 in anticlockwise
direction and that of s1 after a rotation of 2400. Coupling coefficient Kc for coil K cos  240  .
1
Hence the emfs of stator coils with respect to neutral can be expressed as,
e  K K cos  E sin t  K E Cos  sin t
s2 t 1 r r

  r  
e  K K cos 1200 E sin t  KE Cos 1200 sin t
s3 t 1 r

e  K K cos  2400  E sin t  KE Cos  2400  sin t

s1 t 1 r r
1.65 Control Systems Engg.

where K = KtK1
By KVL, the coil to coil emf can be expressed as,

e
s1s2
e e
s1 s3 r  
 3 K E sin 02400 sin t

e e e  3 K E sin  02400  sin t

s2s3 s2 s3 r

e  e  e  3 K E sin  sin t
s3s1 s3 s1 r

When   0, we can say that maximum emf is induced in coil s2. It is observed that the
coil - to - coil voltage es3s1 is zero. This position of the rotor is defined as the electrical zero
of the transmitter. The electrical zero position is is used as reference for specifying the angular
position of the rotor.

The input to the synchro transmitter is the angular position of its rotor shaft and the
output is a set of three stator coil to coil voltages. By measuring and identifying the set of
voltages at the stator terminals, it is possible to identify the angular position of the rotor.

1.14.2 Synchro Control Transformer

Construction

The constructional features of synchro control transformer is similar to that of synchro

transmitter, except the shape of rotor. The rotor of control transformer is made cylindrical so
that the air gap is practically uniform. This feature of the control transformer minimizes the
changes in the rotor impedance with the rotation of the shaft.

Stator S1

R1
S2
Rotor
R2

S3
 

(a) Construction (b) Symbol of a synchro control txr.

 Systems components and their representation 1.66

S2

R1

R2

S3

S1
Working :
The generated emf of the synchro transmitter is applied as input to the stator coils of
control transformer. The rotor shaft is connected to the load whose position has to be maintained
at the desired value. Depending on the current position of the rotor and the applied emf on the
stator, an emf is induced on the rotor winding. This emf can be measured and used to drive a
motor so that the position of the load is corrected.
1.15 MULTIVARIABLE CONTROL SYSTEMS
A Multivariable Control System has more than are input or more than one output
variables. To control these variables a number variables are available for manipulation by the
controller function. This type of control systems are complex and very difficult to control if
there are cross couplings in the process output variables. There are mainly two problems of
controlling a multivariable process if these cross couplings are not counteracted by the
multivariable controller.
Examples of Multivariable Control Systems :
1. A Robot manipulator where the positions of the manipulators (arms) shall be
controlled.
2. A chemical reactor where the temperature and its concentration are to be controlled.
3. A head liquid tank where both the level of the tank and the temperature are to be
controlled.
In a multivariable control systems, A change in one setpoint will cause a response in
each of the process output variables, not only in the output variables corresponding to the
setpoint.
1.67 Control Systems Engg.

1.15.1 Multivariable Transfer Function

d n

T e v z y
 C  P 

-I

P and C are matrices and all signals are vectors.

Z  PCR  PD  PC  N Z 

 IPC  Z  PCR  PD  PCN

1 1 1
Z   I PC  PCR  I PC  PD I PC  PCN

is the Transfer Function of a (MIMO) system.

 Two Marks Question and Answers

TWO MARKS QUESTION AND ANSWERS

1. What is control system?

A system consists of a number of components connected together to perform a specific
function. In a system when the output quantity is controlled by varying the input quantity then
the system is called control system.
2. What are the two major types of control system?
The two major types of control system are open loop and closed loop system.
3. Define open loop control system.
The control system in which the output quantity has no effect upon the input quantity
are called open loop control system. This means that the output is not feedback to the input for
correction.
4. Define closed loop control system.
The control system in which the output has an effect upon the input quantity so as to
maintain the desired output values are called closed loop control system.
5. What are the components of feedback control system?
The components of feedback control system are plant, feedback path elements, error
detector and controller.
6. Define transfer function.
The T.F of a system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of output to Laplace
transform of input with zero initial conditions.
7. What are the basic elements used for modeling mechanical translational system?
Mass, spring and dashpot.
8. What are the basic elements used for modeling mechanical rotational system?
Moment of inertia J, f dashpot with rotational frictional coefficient B and torsion spring
with stiffness K
9. Name two types of electrical analogous for mechanical system.
The two types of analogies for the mechanical system are force voltage and force current
analogy.
10. What is Block Diagram?
A Block Diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions performed by
each component of the system and shows the flow of signals. The basic elements of block
diagram are blocks, branch point and summing point.
 Control Systems Engg.

11. What is the basis for framing the rules of block diagram reduction technique?
The rules for block diagram reduction technique are framed such that any modification
made on the diagram does not alter the input output relation.
12. What is a signal flow graph?
A signal flow graph is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous algebraic equations
.By taking L.T the time domain differential equations governing a control system can be
transferred to a set of algebraic equations in s-domain.
13. What is transmittance?
The transmittance is the gain acquired by the signal when it travels from one node to
another node in signal flow graph.
14. What is sink and source?
Source is the input node in the signal flow graph and it has only outgoing branches.
Sink is an output node in the signal flow graph and it has only incoming branches.
15. Define non touching loop.
The loops are said to be non touching if they do not have common nodes.
16. Write Masons Gain formula.
Masons Gain formula states that the overall gain of the system is T = 1/  k Pk k-No. Of
forward paths in the signal flow graph.
Pk- Forward path gain of kth forward path  k =1-[sum of individual loop gains] + [sum
of gain products of all possible combinations of two non touching loops]-[sum of gain products
of all possible combinations of three non touching loops] +…k - For that part of the graph
which is not touching kth forward path.
17. Write the analogous electrical elements in force voltage analogy for the elements of
mechanical translational system.
Force-voltage e Velocity v-current i
Displacement x-charge q Frictional coeff B-Resistance R Mass M- Inductance L
Stiffness K-Inverse of capacitance 1/C
18. Write the analogous electrical elements in force current analogy for the Elements
of mechanical translational system.
Force-current i Velocity v-voltage v Displacement x-flux
Frictional coefficient B-conductance 1/R Mass M- capacitance C
Stiffness K-Inverse of inductance 1/L
19. Write the force balance equation of an ideal mass element.
 Two Marks Question and Answers

F = M d2x /dt2
20. Write the force balance equation of ideal dashpot element.
F = B dx /dt
21. Write the force balance equation of ideal spring element.
F = Kx
22. What is servomechanism?
The servomechanism is a feedback control system in which the output is mechanical position
(or time derivatives of position velocity and acceleration)
23. Why negative feedback is invariably preferred in closed loop system?
The negative feedback results in better stability in steady state and rejects any disturbance
signals.

***********
Questions

PART – A
1. What is control system?
2. What are the characteristics of negative feedback?
3. Differentiate open and closed loop control system?
4. List the major advantages and disadvantages of open-loop control systems.
5. State the advantages of closed loop system over open loop system.
6. Why negative feedback is preferred in control systems?
7. Write the force balance equation of ideal dashpot and ideal spring
8. Draw the electrical analog of a thermometer
9. What are the basic elements in control systems?
10. Write the analogous electrical elements in force current analogy for the elements of
mechanical translational system.
11. Write the analogous electrical elements in force voltage analogy for the elements of
mechanical translational system.
12. Define Synchros
13. What are the applications of synchros?
14. What is electrical zero position of a synchro transmitter
15. What are the advantages of AC servomotor?
16. Write Mason’s gain Formula?
17. What are the difference between a Synchro transmitter and a Synchro control
transformer?
18. What is block diagram? State its components
19. What is servomechanism?
20. What is a signal flow graph?
21. Define transfer function.
22. What are the basic elements used for modelling mechanical translational system?
 Questions

PART – B
1. Write the differential equations for the mechanical system shown in fig. obtain an
analogous electric circuit based on force-current analogy. (16)

2. Write the torque equation of the rotational system shown below and derive the expression
for the transfer function. (8)

3. Write the differential equations governing the system and draw the force current and
force voltage analogous circuit. (16)
Questions

4. Write the differential equations governing the mechanical translational system as shown
in figure. Draw the force-voltage and force-current electrical analogous circuits and verify
by mesh and node equations. (16)

5. Explain open loop and closed loop control systems with examples (8)
6. Write the differential equations governing the mechanical translational system shown in
figure below. Draw the electrical equivalent analogy circuits. (16)

7. Write the differential equations governing the mechanical system shown in figure as
below. Draw the force-voltage and force-current electrical analogous circuits. (16)
 Questions

8. For the mechanical system shown in figure.

a. Draw the mechanical network diagram and hence write the differential equations
describing the behavior of the system (6)
b. Draw the force – voltage and force – current analogous electrical circuits (4)

9. Compare open and closed loop control systems (4)

10. Write the differential equations governing the mechanical rotational system as shown in
Figure. Draw the both electrical analogous circuits (12)
Questions

11. (i) What are open loop and closed loop control systems? State and explain the 3 objectives
of control system analysis and design. (10)
(ii) Construct a block diagram for the simple electrical network shown in Figure and
hence obtain the signal flow graph (6)

12. Write the differential equations governing the mechanical system shown in figure. Draw
the force current and force voltage analogy and verify it by writing mesh and nodal
equations (16)

13. Determine the transfer function y2(s)/F(s) for the systems shown below
 Questions

14. In the system shown below, R,L and C are electrical parameters while K, M and B are
mechanical parameters.

Find the transfer function for the system, where E1(t) is Input voltage while x(t) is the
output displacement. (16)
15. Obtain the transfer function of the following electrical network. (6)

16. Consider the signal flow graph shown in fig. obtain the closed loop transfer function
by the use of Mason’s gain formula. (16)
Questions

17. Determine the overall transfer function of the system represented by the block diagram.(8)

18. Derive the expression for the transfer function of Armature controlled DC motor.(8)
19. With its operating principle derive the transfer function of AC servo motor in control
system (12)
20. (i) Derive the transfer function of AC servomotor (8)
(ii) Construct a block diagram for the simple electrical network shown in Figure and
hence obtain the signal flow graph and the transfer function (8)

21. Draw the signal flow graph for the following system and obtain the transfer function
Using Mason Gain formula (8)
 Questions

22. Obtain the transfer function using Mason’s Gain formula for the system given. (16)

23. (i) The signal flow graph for a feedback control system is shown in figure. Determine
the closed loop transfer function. (12)

(ii) State any four block diagram reduction rules. (4)

24. Derive the transfer function of an armature controlled DC servomotor (8)
25. (i) Convert the given block diagram shown in Figure to signal flow graph for and
determine the closed loop transfer function C(s) / R(s) (12)

(ii) Differentiate DC and AC servo motor (4)

Questions

26. (i) Derive the transfer function of a field controlled DC servomotor (6)
(ii) Describe the various block diagram reduction rules with examples (10)
27. Obtain the transfer function for the given system shown in Figure using Block diagram
reduction technique and verify by using signal flow graph (16)

C ( s)
28. Using Mason’s Gain formula, obtain for the system shown below (16)
R(s)

29. (i) A block diagram is shown as below.

 Questions

C ( s)
Construct the equivalent Signal Flow Graph ad obtain using Mason’s formula(8)
R(s)
(ii) Construct the signal flow graph for the following set of simultaneous equations.
=

Obtain the overall transfer function using Mason’s gain formula. (8)
30. (i) Reduced the given block diagram as show below using the block diagram reduction
method. (8)

(ii) Convert the above found block diagram into a signal flow graph and reduce the same
using the Mason’s gain formula. (8)
31. Find the transfer function y2(s)/f(s)
Questions

32. Find the overall gain C(s)/R(s) for the signal flow graph for the system given below

33. (i) For the signal flow graph shown below, find C(s) / R(s) by using Mason’s gain formula.
(10)

(ii) Find the transfer function C(s) / R(s) of block diagram shown below (6)