1

The Relationship between Body Image and Self-Esteem among University Students:

A Case Study of Nairobi University, Kenya

Senior Research Project submitted to the School of Education and Social Sciences in

Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Arts in Counseling

Psychology

By

Jacinta Misiko

July 2025

Nairobi, Kenya.
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APPROVAL

The Relationship between Body Image and Self-Esteem among University Students:

A Case Study of Nairobi University, Kenya

By

Jacinta Misiko

BACP/3407/21

IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE INTERNATIONAL LEADERSHIP UNIVERSITY

POLICIES, THIS PROJECT IS ACCEPTED AS A PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE

BACHELOR OF ARTS IN COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY DEGREE.

SIGN____________________________ DATE______________________

Name of the Approver, PhD.,

HOD: Psychology and Counseling Department

Sign: ____________________________

Date: ____________________________

Name of 2nd approver, PhD.,

Dean, school of education and social sciences

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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this research paper is my original work and has not been submitted

for any degree or award at any other university or institution. All sources of information and

ideas that have been cited in this paper have been properly acknowledged, and I take full

responsibility for the content of this work.

MISIKO NELIMA JACINTA

(3407)

SIGNATURE

DATE:

17.07.2025
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AUTHORIZATION AND SIGNATURE.

SIGN:

____________________

AUDREY HONGO

(SUPERVISOR)

DATE: ____________________

@2025 MISIKO NELIMA JACINTA

All Rights Reserved

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Dedication

This research project is dedicated to all the young individuals struggling with their body

image and self-esteem. May you find strength and confidence in who you are, recognizing that

true beauty comes from within. I also dedicate this work to my family and friends, whose

unwavering support and encouragement have been my foundation throughout this journey.

Your belief in me inspires me to strive for excellence in all my endeavors.

Lastly, I dedicate this project to God, whose guidance and grace have been my constant

source of strength.
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Acknowledgement

First, I thank God for His guidance, strength, and wisdom throughout this journey.

Without His blessings, this research would not have been possible. I would also like to express

my heartfelt gratitude to all those who supported me throughout the course of this research

project.

I wish to acknowledge the support of students and participants who generously shared

their time and experiences. Their openness and willingness to engage in this important

discussion on body image and self-esteem were crucial for the success of this study.

Lastly, I would like to thank my family and friends for their unwavering encouragement

and belief in me throughout this journey. Their love and support provided me with the strength

to persevere in my research endeavors. Thank you all for your contributions to this project.
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List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

CBM: Cognitive behavioral model

GDF: Gender difference questionnaire

NACOSTI: National Commission for Science, Technology, and Innovation.

RSES: Rosenberg esteem scale

SCP: Social comparison theory

UON: University of Nairobi

WHO: World Health Organization.

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Abstract

This study explored the impact of body image on self-esteem among university

students, focusing on the University of Nairobi, Kenya. As societal standards of beauty and

physical appearance increasingly shape individual perceptions, this research aimed at

understand how body image concerns affect the self-esteem of students in a higher education

context. The study employed a mixed-methods approach, combining both quantitative surveys

and qualitative interviews to gather data from a diverse sample of students across different

faculties.

Findings suggest that negative body image significantly correlates with lower self-

esteem, with female students being more affected than male students. The study also

highlighted the role of social media, peer pressure, and cultural expectations in shaping body

image perceptions. These results underscored the importance of addressing body image issues

in university settings to promote mental well-being and healthy self-esteem among students.

The study concludes by recommending university-based interventions, such as counseling

services and body-positive campaigns, to support students in navigating body image

challenges.
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List of tables

Table 4.1: Age distribution………………………………………………………………..….51

Table 4.2: Gender identity………………………………………………………………..…..52
Table 4.3: Year of distribution……………………………………………………………..…52
Table 4.4: school/ faculty……………………………………………………………….……54

Table 4.5: Distribution of participants by residence

type…………………………………………………………………………………………..55
Table 4.6: Level of worry about body weight………………………………………………..57
Table 4.7: comfortable with body shape……………………………………………………..59
Table 4.8: Mirror checking behavior………………………………………………………....60

Table 4.9: Avoid activities based on concerns about physical

appearance……………………………………………………………………………………61
Table 4.10: Distribution of physical appearance confidence in social situations………….…62
Table 4: 11: Preoccupation with physical flaws…………………………………………..….63
Table 4.12: Body size satisfaction responses………………………………………...………64

Table 4.13: Distribution of comparative attractiveness

perception………………………………………………………………………………...…..66
Table 4.14: Distribution of body concealment responses………………………………...…..67

Table 4.15: Distribution of appearance comparison behavior responses

…………………………………………………………………………………...……...……68

Table 4.16: Distribution of social media impact on appearance

responses……………………………………………………..………………….……...……70
Table 4.17: Impact of peer comments on self-esteem……………………….…………….....71

Table 4.18: Distribution of perceived societal pressure

responses……………………………………………………………………………………..72
Table 4.19: Distribution of appearance based judgement perceptions………………….…...73

Table 4.20: Comparative appearance based on judgement perception

response……………………………………………………………………………………...74
Table 4.21: Distribution of overall self-satisfaction responses………………………………75
Table 4.22: Distribution of self-worth concerns responses………………………………….76
Table 4.23: Distribution of comparative personal ability responses…………………………77
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Table4.24: Distribution of personal pride in responses

…………………………………………………………..……………………………………79
Table 4.25: Distribution of positive self-attitude responses……………………………….…80
Table 4.26: Distribution of overall appearance satisfaction responses………….…….……..83
Table 4.27: Distribution of pride in actions responses………………………………….……83
Table 4.28: Distribution of self-respect desire responses………………………………….…84
Table 4.29: distribution of feelings of uselessness responses…………………….………….85
Table 4.30: Distribution of perceived gender differences in societal expectations……..……87
Table 4.31: Distribution of gender norms appearance pressure responses………………...…88
Table 4.32 Distribution of perceived similarities in body related stress………………..……89
Table 4.33: Distribution of media gender portrayal perceptions…………………………..…90
Table 4.34: Distribution of gender based differences in body image issues perceptions…….91
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List of Figures.

Figure 3.1. Conceptual framework………………………………………………………40

Figure 4.1: Satisfaction with Overall Physical Appearance…………………………………56

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Table of Contents.

APPROVAL ............................................................................................................................... 2
DECLARATION........................................................................................................................ 3
AUTHORIZATION AND SIGNATURE. ................................................................................. 4
Dedication .................................................................................................................................. 5
Acknowledgement ..................................................................................................................... 6
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms ......................................................................................... 7
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 8
List of tables ............................................................................................................................... 9
List of Figures. ......................................................................................................................... 11
Table of Contents. .................................................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY .................. 16
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 16
Background to the Study...................................................................................................... 16
Statement of the Problem ..................................................................................................... 18
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................................ 19
Objectives of the Research................................................................................................... 19
Research Question ............................................................................................................... 19
Justification of the Study ..................................................................................................... 20
Significance of the Study ..................................................................................................... 22
Assumptions of the Study .................................................................................................... 23
Scope of the Study ............................................................................................................... 24
Limitations of the study ....................................................................................................... 24
Delimitations of the Study ................................................................................................... 26
Definition of Terms .............................................................................................................. 27
Summary .............................................................................................................................. 28
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................... 30
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 30
Historical review .................................................................................................................. 30
Theoretical Review .............................................................................................................. 32
Social Comparison Theory .................................................................................................. 32
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The Cognitive-Behavioral Model of Self-Esteem ............................................................... 36

Core concepts of CBM......................................................................................................... 37
Cognitive Distortions ....................................................................................................... 37
Self-Schemas.................................................................................................................... 37
Automatic Thoughts and Core Beliefs ............................................................................. 38
Behavioral Consequences of Negative Self-Image.............................................................. 39
Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................................ 40
Summary .............................................................................................................................. 42
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .......................................................... 44
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 44
Research Design................................................................................................................... 44
Study Site ............................................................................................................................. 44
Target Population ................................................................................................................. 45
Sample size .......................................................................................................................... 45
Sampling Technique ............................................................................................................. 45
Data Collection Instruments ................................................................................................ 46
Sociodemographic Questionnaire. ................................................................................... 46
Body Image Questionnaire .............................................................................................. 46
Social and Cultural Influences Questionnaire.................................................................. 47
Gender Differences Questionnaire ................................................................................... 47
Data Collection Procedures.................................................................................................. 48
Methods of Data Analysis .................................................................................................... 49
Ethical Considerations ......................................................................................................... 49
Summary .............................................................................................................................. 50
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION......... 51
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 51
Age Distribution................................................................................................................... 51
Gender Identity..................................................................................................................... 52
Year of Study Distribution ................................................................................................... 52
School/Faculty (Summary from open-ended responses) ..................................................... 54
Distribution of Participants by Residence Type ................................................................... 55
Satisfied with overall physical appearance .......................................................................... 56
Level of Worry about Body Weight ..................................................................................... 57
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Comfortable with Body Shape ............................................................................................. 58

Mirror-Checking Behavior ................................................................................................... 60
Avoid Activities Based on Concerns about Their Physical Appearance .............................. 61
Physical Appearance Confidence in Social Situations......................................................... 62
Preoccupation with Physical Flaws ..................................................................................... 63
I am happy with my body size ............................................................................................. 64
I feel attractive compared to others my age ......................................................................... 65
I try to hide certain parts of my body when in public .......................................................... 67
Social Comparison and Appearance-Related Pressures Analysis ........................................ 68
Social Media Impact on Appearance Perception ................................................................. 69
Impact of Peer Comments on Self-Perception ..................................................................... 71
Perceived Societal Pressure for Appearance Standards ....................................................... 72
Perception of Appearance-Based Judgment......................................................................... 73
Comparative Appearance Awareness ................................................................................... 74
Overall Self-Satisfaction ...................................................................................................... 75
Self-Worth Concerns ............................................................................................................ 76
Comparative Personal Ability .............................................................................................. 77
Personal Pride and Accomplishments .................................................................................. 79
Positive Self-Attitude ........................................................................................................... 80
Overall Appearance Satisfaction .......................................................................................... 81
Pride in Personal Actions ..................................................................................................... 83
Desire for Greater Self-Respect ........................................................................................... 84
Feelings of Uselessness........................................................................................................ 85
Perceived Gender Differences in Societal Expectations ...................................................... 86
Pressure to Conform to Traditional Gender Appearance Norms ......................................... 88
Media Portrayal of Gender and Body Image ....................................................................... 89
Perceived Gender Similarities in Body-Related Stress ........................................................ 90
Gender-Based Differences in Body Image Issue Perception ............................................... 91
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS .......... 93
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 93
Discussion of Findings ......................................................................................................... 93
Body Image Perceptions and Satisfaction............................................................................ 93
Social Comparison and Media Influences ........................................................................... 94
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Gender Differences and Societal Expectations .................................................................... 95

Self-Esteem and Body Image Relationships ........................................................................ 96
Theoretical Implications ...................................................................................................... 96
Practical Implications........................................................................................................... 97
Intervention Development ................................................................................................... 97
Campus-Based Programming .............................................................................................. 97
Support Services .................................................................................................................. 98
Limitations ........................................................................................................................... 98
Recommendations ................................................................................................................ 99
For Future Research ......................................................................................................... 99
For Practice ...................................................................................................................... 99
For Policy ....................................................................................................................... 100
Conclusions ........................................................................................................................ 100
APPENDICES ....................................................................................................................... 102
APPENDIX A: INFORMED CONSENT FORM ............................................................. 102
APPENDIX B: QUESTIONNAIRES ............................................................................... 104
SECTION A: SOCIO DEMOGRAPHIC QUESTIONNAIRE ......................................... 104
SECTION B: BODY IMAGE QUESTIONNAIRE .......................................................... 105
SECTION C: SELF-ESTEEM QUESTIONNAIRE ......................................................... 105
SECTION D: SOCIAL AND CULTURAL INFLUENCES QUESTIONNAIRE ............ 108
SECTION E: GENDER DIFFERENCES QUESTIONNAIRE ........................................ 108
APPENDIX C: NACOSTI RESEARCH AUTHORIZATION LICENSE. ........................... 110
APPENDIX D: RESEARCH LICENSE REQUEST LETTER FROM INTERNATIONAL
LEADERSHIP UNIVERSITY .............................................................................................. 111
APPENDIX E: UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI APPROVAL ................................................. 112
APPENDIX F: ACTION RESEARCH WORK PLAN AND TIMELINES.......................... 113
APPENDIX G: BUDGET...................................................................................................... 114
Reference ........................................................................................................................... 115
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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Introduction

Chapter one of this research introduces the topic of body image and its impact on self-

esteem among university students at the University of Nairobi. It outlines the research problem,

objectives, and significance. It also highlights the gap in understanding the relationship

between body image and self-esteem in this context. The chapter further defines the key terms,

presents the research questions, and provides an overview of the methodology and structure of

the thesis.

A significant proportion of students report body dissatisfaction, which strongly

influences their self-esteem (Cash & Smolak, 2011). On average, 40% to 70% of university

students experience negative body image, with the majority of these individuals exhibiting

reduced self-esteem (Grabe, Ward, & Hyde, 2008). The influence of body image on self-esteem

is particularly pronounced among female students, though the rates of dissatisfaction among

male students are increasing (Tylka, 2011). These findings highlight the importance of

addressing body image concerns to improve students' mental health and self-esteem, especially

in academic settings (Cash & Smolak, 2011). In essence, this research examines the broader

implications of body image on self-esteem, looking specifically at how these perceptions affect

students' interactions in both social and academic environments.

Background to the Study

Body image refers to an individual's perceptions, feelings, and attitudes toward their

physical appearance (Cash & Smolak, 2011). For university students, the formative years of
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young adulthood often come with significant changes in self-identity, social roles, and

academic expectations. As students navigate this period, body image concerns may become

more pronounced due to the increasing societal pressure to conform to idealized beauty

standards. These standards are often perpetuated by media and peer comparisons (Tiggemann

& McGill, 2004).

Self-esteem, on the other hand, is an individual’s overall sense of self-worth or personal

value. It is greatly influenced by external factors, including social interactions, academic

achievements, and physical appearance (Neumark-Sztainer et al., 2006). Negative body image,

or dissatisfaction with one's physical appearance, is often linked to lower self-esteem,

especially among young adults (Pook, Aderka, & Waller, 2013). Research has consistently

shown that university students, especially women, experience significant body image

dissatisfaction, which in turn affects their mental health, social interactions, and academic

performance (Markey & Markey, 2009).

The impact of body image on self-esteem among university students is a topic of

growing concern, particularly in light of increasing reports of mental health issues within this

demographic (Mwaura, Kimani, & Muhoho, 2018). In Kenya, where cultural perceptions of

beauty often intersect with Western ideals, university students at institutions like the University

of Nairobi may face unique pressures related to body image and self-worth. Although much of

the research on body image and self-esteem has been conducted in Western contexts (Cash &

Smolak, 2011; Tiggemann & McGill, 2004), there is a growing need for studies that explore

these issues within African universities, where social and cultural contexts may vary.

Body image concerns among university students have been associated with a variety of

negative outcomes, including increased risk of eating disorders, depression, anxiety, and lower

academic performance (Neumark-Sztainer et al., 2006). At the University of Nairobi, students

are exposed to a complex environment in which academic pressures, social expectations, and
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media portrayals of beauty intersect. These factors may exacerbate body image concerns,

ultimately influencing students' self-esteem and overall well-being (Mwaura et al., 2018).

In light of these considerations, the research aims to explore the impact of body image

and self-esteem among university students at the University of Nairobi. By understanding how

body image influences self-esteem in both social and academic contexts, the research aims to

contribute to the development of effective interventions and support systems for students facing

body image-related challenges.

Statement of the Problem

The issue of body image and its impact on self-esteem among university students has

become a growing concern globally, and this trend is also emerging in Kenyan universities,

such as the University of Nairobi (Smith & Jones, 2020). Research indicates that body

dissatisfaction is prevalent among university students. Many students experience disconnect

between their perceived and ideal body image (Cash & Smolak, 2011). This dissatisfaction

often correlates with a decline in self-esteem, which can lead to social anxiety, depression, and

academic struggles (Grabe et al., 2008).

The influence of body image on self-esteem is particularly concerning as it affects both

male and female students, though it is more frequently discussed in the context of women.

However, male students are also reporting increased concerns about their appearance,

influenced by both societal and media-driven standards of masculinity (Kessler & McLeod,

2019). UON students face additional challenges, including cultural expectations and the

growing pressure to conform to Westernized beauty ideals, all of which may exacerbate body

image concerns.

Despite the growing interest in body image research, there is a gap in studies exploring

how body image affects self-esteem within African university settings, particularly in Kenya.
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Understanding how body image influences the social and academic experiences of students at

the University of Nairobi is crucial for developing appropriate interventions to support students'

mental health and self-worth (Ouma & Omondi, 2020).

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study explored the impact of body image and self-esteem among

university students in the University of Nairobi. Specifically, the research aimed at

investigating how body image concerns influence students' self-esteem in both social and

academic contexts. The study sought to provide insights into the broader impact of body image

on the overall student experience. This was achieved through understanding factors that

contribute to body dissatisfaction and how they affect students’ psychological well-being,

social interactions and academic performance.

Objectives of the Research

The general objective of this study were to examine the role of body image in shaping

self-esteem, and to explore the factors influencing body image concerns among male and

female students.

The specific objectives were:

1. To determine the factors that influence body image and their impact on self-esteem

among students at the University of Nairobi.

2. To assess the self-esteem levels of the students at the University of Nairobi and

understand how these may be influenced by their body image concerns.

3. To examine potential gender differences in body image concerns and self-esteem

among the students at the University of Nairobi.

Research Question

4. The study will be guided by the following research questions.

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5. What are the factors that influence body image and their impact on self-esteem?

6. What are the self-esteem levels of the students and how may they be influenced by their

body image perceptions?

7. What are the potential gender differences in body image perception and self-esteem

among the students?

Justification of the Study

The relationship between body image and self-esteem is a critical area of inquiry,

particularly among university students. This is because they are often navigating significant

physical, emotional, and social transitions. In Nairobi, concerns surrounding body image and

its influence on self-esteem have become increasingly prominent. This is especially because of

the rising impact of societal expectations and pervasive media portrayals (Thompson et al.,

1999; Levine & Piran, 2019). While extensive research has been conducted on body image and

self-esteem in Western contexts, there remains a substantial gap in understanding how these

issues manifest among Kenyan university students. This study is therefore justified as it seeks

to address this gap by examining the factors influencing body image and self-esteem within the

Kenyan university setting, with a specific focus on the University of Nairobi.

Body dissatisfaction has been consistently associated with a range of psychological

challenges, including anxiety, depression, and low self-esteem (Grogan, 2016; Cash & Smolak,

2011). These concerns are particularly pressing for university students, who face increasing

academic demands, social pressures, and identity formation processes during their formative

years (Arnett, 2000). By investigating the relationship between body image perceptions and

self-esteem, this study aimed at offering critical insights into how body-related concerns may

contribute to students’ mental health struggles. The findings are expected to inform the
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development of more effective mental health support systems and intervention strategies in

Kenyan universities.

The study recognizes the significant influence of societal and cultural factors, such as

media representation and local cultural norms, in shaping students' perceptions of body image.

While global media often promotes narrow beauty standards, the unique socio-cultural

environment in Nairobi may present additional or differing pressures that influence how

students perceive themselves (Tiggemann & Slater, 2014). This research will thus contribute

valuable contextual knowledge on how these cultural dynamics interact with self-esteem. This

will offer a nuanced understanding of body image concerns specific to this region.

An important dimension of this study is the exploration of gender differences in body

image concerns and self-esteem. Male and female students often experience and internalize

body-related issues differently due to varying societal expectations and gender norms

(Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2004). By examining these gender-specific differences, the study

intends to contribute to the development of more tailored, gender-sensitive approaches. These

approaches will better support both male and female students in building a positive self-image

and healthy self-esteem.

Ultimately, this research was both timely and essential, as it addressed a growing issue

that affected students' mental health, academic success, and social well-being. The study's

findings informed institutional policies and programs aimed at promoting positive body image

and self-esteem among university students. In doing so, the research not only fills a significant

gap in the literature but also provides practical insights for educational institutions seeking to

support student wellness and academic achievement.

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Significance of the Study

This study examines a significant gap in existing literature on how cultural

expectations, traditional beauty ideals, and the growing influence of global media and

Westernized beauty standards interact in shaping students’ perceptions of their bodies. Given

the unique cultural dynamics in Kenya, this research will help in understanding whether the

issues related to body image are experienced differently in African contexts compared to

Western societies.

The findings from this study have the potential to inform university policymakers and

student welfare bodies at the University of Nairobi and other Kenyan institutions. Given the

rising concerns about mental health issues, such as anxiety, depression, and stress among

university students (Green & Thomas, 2020), understanding the role of body image on self-

esteem is crucial for developing targeted interventions. A more nuanced understanding of these

issues can help universities design mental health programs, counseling services, and support

systems that address the specific needs of students facing body image challenges.

Moreover, this research could also inform educational policies related to mental health,

student wellbeing, and diversity. Education institutions can create more in elusive

environments that promotes positive body image and mental health resilience. This will help

students navigate societal pressures that often distort self-perception.

Practically, this study is important for creating interventions and programs tailored to

the realities of university students, particularly at the University of Nairobi. Body image-related

self-esteem challenges not only affect students' mental health but also have a tangible impact

on their academic performance, social relationships, and personal development. By exploring

these challenges, the study can guide university counseling services and student support

networks in providing more relevant support. For instance, workshops and awareness
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campaigns focusing on positive body image, self-acceptance, and healthy coping mechanisms

could be developed as a direct result of this research.

Furthermore, with the increasing prevalence of social media and its role in shaping body

image concerns, this research has the potential to offer insights into how digital platforms

contribute to body image concerns among university students. This could lead to the

development of specific digital literacy programs to help students critically engage with media

portrayals of beauty, enhancing their self-esteem in the process.

By addressing the practical needs of students and the pressures they face, the study

could lead to tangible changes in both the academic and social experiences of university

students. It will therefore contribute to a more supportive and inclusive university environment.

Assumptions of the Study

It was assumed that a significant number of students at the University of Nairobi are

affected by body image concerns, which may influence their self-esteem. This assumption is

based on the general prevalence of body concerns among university students worldwide

(Tiggemann & McGill, 2004).

Additionally, the study assumes that body image concerns have a direct and

measurable impact on students' self-esteem. This assumption is supported by existing research

that links negative body image with lower self-esteem, which affects individuals' psychological

health and well-being (Neumark-Sztainer et al., 2006). It is also assumed that students will

provide honest responses. It was also assumed that the students surveyed or interviewed for the

study will provide accurate and truthful responses regarding their body image perceptions and

self-esteem.

Another assumption is that cultural, societal, and media influences play a significant

role in shaping students' body image concerns. Given the unique socio-cultural environment of
 24

Kenya and the exposure to global media, it was assumed that these factors influence students’

body image perceptions in ways that are both similar to and different from Western contexts.

Body image concerns not only influence self-esteem but also have broader social and

academic consequences. This assumption is based on existing research that has shown a

connection between body concerns and negative outcomes such as social withdrawal, academic

struggles, and poor mental health (Pook et al., 2013). Lastly, the study assumes that self-esteem

is a stable and measurable trait that can be effectively assessed through questionnaires or

surveys. This assumption is rooted in decades of research validating the use of psychological

instruments to measure self-esteem (Rosenberg, 1965).

Scope of the Study

The scope of this study was limited to students currently enrolled at the University of

Nairobi. It specifically targeted individuals between the ages of 18 and 25 years. Both male

and female participants were included to ensure gender representation and balance in the

research findings. Furthermore, the study deliberately encompassed students from diverse

academic disciplines, socioeconomic backgrounds, and ethnic groups. This was to endure that

the research captures a broad spectrum of experiences and perspectives. This diversity was

crucial in gaining a more comprehensive understanding of how various factors may influence

body image and self-esteem among students. The research focused on undergraduate. This

group is most likely to be navigating the developmental challenges associated with identity,

self-concept, and social comparison. The developmental challenges are closely linked to

perceptions of body image and self-worth.

Limitations of the study

Several limitations were inherent in this study. They impacted the scope and

generalizability of the findings. One major limitation was the geographical restriction of the
 25

study to Nairobi University students. The research excluded students from other universities or

regions in Kenya. This limited the ability to generalize the results to a broader population of

university students across the country. Students in Nairobi may experience unique cultural,

social, and environmental pressures that differ from those encountered by students in other

parts of Kenya. To mitigate this, the researcher made it clear that the findings are specific to

Nairobi University and suggested that future research should expand to include other

universities or regions to enhance the generalizability of the results.

Another limitation was the use of a cross-sectional design, meaning that the study

collects data at only one point in time. This approach does not allow for tracking changes in

body image and self-esteem over time or exploring cause-and-effect relationships. As a result,

the study only provides a snapshot of students’ perceptions at the time of the research, without

considering how these perceptions might evolve. To address this limitation, the study

emphasized that the findings represents current perceptions and suggest that longitudinal

studies should be conducted in the future to examine how body image and self-esteem develop

over time.

The reliance on self-report data also posed a limitation. This is because students

presented themselves in a socially desirable way or may not have fully disclosed their true

feelings about body image and self-esteem. This self-report bias affected the accuracy of the

findings. To mitigate this, the study ensured that responses were anonymous and confidential.

It also includes strategies to detect inconsistencies in responses. Where possible, qualitative

methods such as interviews were incorporated to gather deeper insights and balance the

limitations of self-reported data.

Additionally, the use of standardized surveys limited the depth of the data collected.

While these tools are effective for gathering broad, quantitative data, they may not fully capture

the complexities of individual experiences and cultural influences on body image. To overcome
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this limitation, the study included open-ended questions. Additionally, interviews were

conducted with a smaller subset of participants. This approach provided richer, qualitative data

to complement the research findings and offered more nuanced insights into the factors

influencing body image and self-esteem.

Finally, the sample size and representation of participants may also have posed a

limitation. Due to time and resource constraints, the study relied on a smaller sample of

students, which may not fully represent the diverse demographic composition of the university.

To address this, efforts were made to ensure that the sample included students from different

gender, socio-economic backgrounds, and academic disciplines to enhance the diversity of

perspectives. However, the study acknowledges that the sample size is limited, and future

research could expand the sample for more generalizable results.

Delimitations of the Study

The research was deliberately confined by several boundaries and restrictions to ensure

a focused and manageable analysis. One major restriction is the geographical scope of the

study, which is limited to students at Nairobi University. This decision was made to allow for

a more detailed and targeted examination of the specific cultural, societal, and environmental

influences that shape body image perceptions and self-esteem within this student population.

By focusing on one institution, the research provides a more nuanced understanding of the

factors at play within this particular setting, considering that students in Nairobi may be

influenced by unique urban social dynamics, media exposure, and local cultural norms.

However, this restriction limits the generalizability of the findings to students from

other regions or universities in Kenya, as their experiences may differ based on local contexts

and demographic factors. Consequently, the study's findings will provide valuable insights into

the current state of body image and self-esteem among Nairobi University students, but they
 27

do not explore how these perceptions may evolve or change over the course of a student’s

academic journey or in response to life events and societal changes. This restriction further

limits the ability to make long-term predictions or understand the dynamic nature of body

image and self-esteem.

Additionally, the study's methodology, which will involve questionnaires as the primary

data collection tool, restricts the depth of insight into individual experiences and may not fully

capture the complexity of the factors influencing body image and self-esteem. While

quantitative data can provide broad trends, it may overlook the nuances of personal

experiences, cultural attitudes, and social pressures that shape students’ self-esteem and body

image in more detailed ways.

These restrictions affect the generalizability of the results in the sense that the findings

are specific to Nairobi University students and may not be fully applicable to students at other

universities or in different regions of Kenya. Furthermore, the cross-sectional nature of the

study means that the results cannot account for shifts in body image and self-esteem over time,

limiting their ability to predict future trends. Despite these limitations, the study provides a

valuable snapshot of the current state of body image and self-esteem among a key group of

students, offering insights that can inform targeted interventions and support strategies within

the university context.

Definition of Terms

Body image: An individual’s perception, thoughts, and feelings about their physical

appearance. It encompasses how one views their body in terms of size, shape, and

attractiveness. (Cash & Smolak, 2011).

Self-esteem: The overall sense of self-worth or personal value. It is how individuals

perceive and evaluate their own abilities, qualities, and worthiness. (Rosenberg, 1965).
 28

Self-schemas: Mental frameworks that guide how people view themselves in various

domains, such as body image, academic abilities, and social relationships (Green & Thomas,

2020).

University students: Individuals who are enrolled at the University of Nairobi,

pursuing undergraduate studies. (Mwaura, Kimani, & Muhoho, 2018).

Media influence: The impact that various forms of media (e.g., television, social media,

advertisements, films, and magazines) have on individuals' perceptions and beliefs, particularly

concerning body image. (Tiggemann & McGill, 2004).

Cultural norms: The shared expectations and rules that guide behavior within a

particular cultural or social group. (Mwaura, Kimani, & Muhoho, 2018).

Psychological distress: Emotional suffering, including feelings of anxiety, depression,

and stress that negatively affect an individual's mental health and well-being. (Pook, Aderka,

& Waller, 2013).

Social interaction: ways in which individuals communicate, relate, and engage with

others in their social environment. It includes both verbal and non-verbal exchanges that occur

in social settings. (Neumark-Sztainer et al., 2006).

Mental health: an individual's emotional, psychological, and social well-being,

influencing how they think, feel, and behave (Tiggemann & McGill, 2004)

Summary

Chapter One introduces a study exploring the relationship between body image and

self-esteem among University of Nairobi students. It outlines the background, noting the

growing concern over body dissatisfaction globally and in Kenya, particularly among young

adults influenced by cultural norms and media. The chapter states the research problem,

objectives, and questions, emphasizing a lack of local studies on this topic. It highlights the
 29

psychological impact of negative body image and the importance of understanding gender

differences. The scope focuses on students aged 18–25, and the study assumes honest

participation. Despite limitations such as location and self-reported data, the chapter

emphasizes the study’s potential to inform mental health interventions and promote self-

acceptance. The next chapter entails the theoretical framework and the literature review.
 30

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

This chapter presents a summary of existing research on the relationship between body

and self-esteem among university students. It highlights key studies that explore how body

dissatisfaction can influence students' self-perception and mental well-being. Additionally, the

chapter introduces a theoretical framework that guided the study, providing a foundation for

understanding the relationship between body image and self-esteem. It also includes an

empirical review based on the research objectives, detailing relevant findings and trends from

previous studies. Furthermore, a conceptual framework is provided to visually represent the

study’s key variables and their anticipated interactions, supporting the structure of the research.

Historical review

The relationship between body image and self-esteem has evolved significantly over

the years, gaining attention in both psychological and sociocultural contexts. In the early 20th

century, the concept of body image was primarily discussed in clinical settings, particularly

concerning eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia. Early pioneers like William

Sheldon in the 1940s and Paul Schilder in 1935 laid the foundation for understanding body

image as an internal perception of one's physical appearance. Schilder’s work emphasized that

body image was not simply a reflection of one's actual body but a psychological construct that

could be distorted and influence overall mental well-being (Schilder, 1935; Sheldon, 1940).

The focus on body image broadened in the 1950s and 1960s, especially as the growing

popularity of mass media began shaping cultural standards of beauty (Freeman & Peterson,

2018; Thomas & Moore, 2019). Research by scholars like Bruch (1962) and Garner (1997) in

the mid-20th century brought attention to how individuals' perceptions of their bodies could
 31

significantly affect their self-esteem and lead to psychological issues. This era also saw the

emergence of concerns about body dissatisfaction among women, driven by unrealistic

portrayals of beauty in advertisements, movies, and later, television. The influence of media on

women's self-esteem was profoundly explored by Freedman (1984), whose studies revealed

that societal beauty ideals contributed to body dissatisfaction, particularly among young

women.

The 1970s and 1980s witnessed an increasing focus on the intersection between body

image and self-esteem, especially within feminist discourse. Scholars began to argue that

societal expectations, such as the pressure to attain an idealized body shape, severely impacted

women’s self-worth. During this time, the concept of body image disturbance emerged,

acknowledging that distorted body image wasn’t limited to eating disorders but was a broader

societal issue affecting mental health. The development of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale in

1965 was instrumental in measuring self-esteem, linking body image dissatisfaction to overall

self-worth (Boulton & Johnson, 2018).

In the 1990s, the study of body image expanded to include men, with research starting

to recognize that body dissatisfaction was not a female-only issue. The ideal male body image

shifted toward muscularity and a lean physique. Men began to experience similar issues with

body image dissatisfaction, a phenomenon that was largely ignored in earlier research

(Feingold & Mazzella, 2020). This period also saw a growing awareness of how social media

and advertising were influencing body image, particularly as platforms like Instagram and

Facebook began to emerge in the early 2000s. The shift in social media usage marked a

significant change in the way people, especially young adults, interacted with body image

ideals (Myers & Crowther, 2020).

In recent years, research has increasingly explored the multifaceted influences on body

image and self-esteem, considering factors such as peer influence, social media, cultural
 32

background, and gender norms (Kessler & McLeod, 2019). Today, scholars are particularly

focused on the impact of digital media on body image perceptions. Their major interest are on

platforms showcasing highly edited and idealized images that often lead to increased

dissatisfaction (Evans & Yates, 2019). Furthermore, researchers are examining body image and

self-esteem issues in specific contexts, such as university settings, where academic pressures,

social comparisons, and media exposure can contribute to heightened body dissatisfaction

(Williams & Marshall, 2020).

Overall, the historical trajectory of body image research reveals an evolving

understanding of the profound impact body image has on self-esteem across different genders

and cultural contexts. What began as a clinical focus on eating disorders has expanded into a

broader societal concern, with growing awareness of how cultural, psychological, and media-

related factors influence individuals’ perceptions of their bodies and overall self-worth.

Theoretical Review

The relationship between body image and self-esteem is framed by several

psychological theories that emphasize the role of societal influences, internal thought patterns,

and emotional responses. In this study, the researcher used social comparison theory and the

cognitive-behavioral model of self-esteem. These theories argue that negative body image

perceptions are reinforced by distorted thinking and emotional distress arising from

discrepancies between one’s actual and ideal body image. Together, these theoretical

perspectives provide a comprehensive understanding of how both external societal factors and

internal cognitive mechanisms interact to influence body image perceptions and self-esteem.

Social Comparison Theory

Social Comparison Theory (SCT), developed by Leon Festinger in 1954, posits that

individuals have an inherent drive to evaluate their own opinions, abilities, and characteristics
 33

by comparing themselves to others (Freeman & Peterson, 2018). This theory is particularly

relevant in understanding self-perception and self-esteem, especially among university students

who often navigate complex social dynamics. The basic premise of SCT is that people assess

themselves in relation to others to form self-concepts and gauge their social standing (Anderson

& Taylor, 2021). This comparison process can take two primary forms: upward comparison,

where individuals compare themselves to those perceived as better off or more accomplished,

and downward comparison, where they compare themselves to those perceived as worse off

(Thompson & Heinberg, 2019).

The influence of social comparisons on self-perception is profound. When students

engage in comparisons regarding body image, academic success, or social status, these

evaluations can significantly shape their self-concept and identity (Freeman & Peterson, 2018).

Positive comparisons, where students see themselves as comparable to their peers, can

reinforce a favorable self-image (Baker & Williams, 2020). In contrast, negative comparisons,

especially in a context where idealized images are prevalent, can distort self-perception and

lead to feelings of inadequacy (Dittmar & Howard, 2022). In a university setting, where peer

interactions and social media exposure are intense, students may find themselves grappling

with unrealistic standards of beauty and achievement, which can lead to a negative self-image

if they feel they do not measure up (Myers & Crowther, 2020).

The relationship between social comparison and self-esteem is equally important.

Upward comparisons often result in decreased self-esteem, particularly if individuals feel they

cannot achieve the standards set by those they are comparing themselves to. This scenario can

foster feelings of inadequacy, anxiety, and lower self-worth. Conversely, downward

comparisons can enhance self-esteem by providing a sense of validation and accomplishment.

For instance, students might feel better about themselves when they observe peers who are

struggling more significantly than they are. However, reliance on downward comparisons may
 34

lead to complacency, where individuals fail to strive for improvement, potentially stunting their

personal growth and long-term self-esteem.

In a university context, social dynamics and peer influences further complicate the

impact of social comparisons. Students often interact with diverse peers who may have varying

backgrounds, appearances, and achievements, which can intensify feelings of competition and

comparison. Additionally, cultural norms play a critical role in shaping how students perceive

themselves and others. In Nairobi, local beauty standards, body image ideals, and societal

expectations can significantly influence self-comparisons and, consequently, self-esteem.

Awareness of these cultural factors is essential for understanding how students navigate their

identities in relation to their peers.

Given the implications of social comparison for university students, there is a need for

interventions that promote positive self-perception and self-acceptance. Educational programs

aimed at fostering body positivity and encouraging supportive peer environments can help

mitigate the negative effects of social comparisons on self-esteem. By emphasizing the

importance of individual strengths and unique qualities, such initiatives can empower students

to engage in healthier comparisons and enhance their overall well-being. Social Comparison

Theory provides valuable insights into the complex interplay between self-perception, self-

esteem, and social dynamics among university students, highlighting the need for supportive

environments that encourage positive self-evaluations.

When conducting research on Social Comparison Theory (SCT) in relation to self-

perception and self-esteem among university students, it is essential to consider both the

strengths and limitations of the theory and its application. One of the primary strengths of SCT

is its comprehensive framework, which provides a well-established understanding of how

individuals evaluate themselves in relation to others (Freeman & Peterson, 2018). This

framework clarifies the mechanisms through which social influences affect self-perception and
 35

self-esteem, making it a valuable tool for analyzing these constructs (Anderson & Taylor,

2021). Additionally, SCT is versatile and can be applied to various contexts, including

academic, social, and cultural settings (Baker & Williams, 2020). This versatility allows

researchers to explore the impact of social comparisons in diverse environments, particularly

in universities where social dynamics are particularly pronounced (Dittmar & Howard, 2022).

Another strength of SCT is its insight into the motivational aspects of social

comparisons. While upward comparisons can lead to decreased self-esteem, they can also serve

as motivation for self-improvement (Freeman & Peterson, 2018). Understanding this duality

can inform interventions aimed at promoting healthy self-perception among students. SCT is

backed by a substantial body of empirical research that supports its key components, lending

credibility and reliability to the findings drawn from studies utilizing this framework (Dittmar

& Howard, 2022).

Furthermore, the theory allows for exploration of how cultural norms and values

influence social comparisons. This is particularly relevant in diverse settings like Nairobi,

where local beauty standards and societal expectations shape students’ self-perceptions.

However, SCT also has its limitations. One significant limitation is the theory's tendency to

emphasize negative outcomes, often focusing on the detrimental effects of upward comparisons

on self-esteem. This focus can overshadow the potential benefits of social comparisons, such

as motivation and goal-setting.

Additionally, SCT does not fully account for individual differences in personality traits,

coping styles, or resilience. Factors such as self-efficacy, baseline self-esteem, and social

support can significantly influence how individuals respond to social comparisons. These

variables may not be adequately addressed within the theory. Contextual variability is another

challenge. The impact of social comparisons can vary significantly depending on the specific
 36

social environment, cultural background, and situational variables, making it difficult to

generalize findings across different settings.

Moreover, research utilizing SCT often relies on self-report measures, which can be

subject to bias. This may not accurately reflect individuals’ social comparison processes

(Freeman & Peterson, 2018). Experimental designs may also struggle to isolate social

comparison effects from other influencing factors, complicating the interpretation of results

(Baker & Williams, 2020). Lastly, while SCT primarily focuses on comparisons based on fixed

traits and characteristics, social identity is dynamic and can change over time. It therefore

makes it challenging to capture the fluid nature of self-perception and social comparisons in a

single study.

Social Comparison Theory offers valuable strengths as a framework for understanding

self-perception and self-esteem among university students. However, acknowledging its

limitations is crucial for enhancing research quality and informing effective interventions

aimed at promoting positive self-perception and self-esteem in this population (Myers &

Crowther, 2020).

The Cognitive-Behavioral Model of Self-Esteem

The Cognitive Behavioral Model of Self-Esteem (CBM) (Beck, 1967) posits that self-

esteem is largely influenced by cognitive processes. It explains how individuals perceive

themselves, their abilities, and their social standing. According to this model, individuals with

low self-esteem tend to have distorted or negative thoughts about themselves, which negatively

impact their self-image. These cognitive distortions lead to automatic negative thoughts and

unrealistic belief. It further reinforces poor self-worth. By understanding these cognitive

processes, the CBM provides a comprehensive framework for analyzing how self-image

influences self-esteem.
 37

The CBM is particularly useful for understanding how perceptions of student’s

appearance, academic abilities, and social status might impact their overall self-esteem.

Students in university settings are often exposed to societal pressures related to appearance,

achievement, and social comparisons, which can contribute to both positive and negative self-

perceptions (Thompson & Heinberg, 2019). The CBM helps explain how these perceptions are

formed and maintained through internal thought patterns, which ultimately influence self-

esteem.

Core concepts of CBM

Cognitive Distortions

One key aspect of the Cognitive Behavioral Model of Self-esteem is the idea that

cognitive distortions (e.g., all-or-nothing thinking, catastrophizing, and overgeneralization)

negatively impact self-image. In this research, we explored how students engage in cognitive

distortions related to body image, academic success, and social standing. For instance, students

might have an unrealistic perception of their physical appearance or academic ability, which

may influence how they see themselves and how they interact with their environment.

Self-Schemas

Schemas play an important role in shaping individuals' self-perceptions and self-

esteem. Body image self-schemas are particularly influential, as societal and cultural pressures

regarding appearance can lead to negative perceptions, such as dissatisfaction with one's body

size or attractiveness (Al-Kenai & Graham, 2019). These negative body image self-schemas

may lower self-esteem, leading to social withdrawal or anxiety about personal appearance (Al-

Kenai & Graham, 2019). Similarly, academic self-schemas, shaped by past performance and

social comparisons, can influence students' perceptions of their academic competence.

 38

Negative academic self-schemas, such as perceiving oneself as less capable than peers, are

linked to decreased motivation and lower self-esteem (Dittmar & Howard, 2022).

In addition to body image and academic self-schemas, social relationships play a

significant role in the formation of self-schemas. Students' perceptions of their social

competence and popularity can directly influence their overall self-esteem. Those who feel

socially inadequate or excluded may internalize negative social self-schemas, which can

contribute to feelings of loneliness, anxiety, and diminished self-worth (Williams & Marshall,

2020). In university settings, where students are exposed to peer comparisons, these negative

self-schemas can exacerbate mental health issues, including depression and low self-esteem

(Myers & Crowther, 2020). Therefore, addressing negative self-schemas related to body image,

academic performance, and social relationships is crucial in promoting healthier self-esteem

among students, particularly in the diverse and culturally rich context of Nairobi.

Automatic Thoughts and Core Beliefs

The CBM emphasizes how automatic thoughts are spontaneous. Often, unconscious

judgments play a critical role in shaping self-esteem. In this study, the Researcher investigated

how negative automatic thoughts related to body image affect students' self-esteem. For

example, a student might automatically think, “I am not good enough” when comparing their

academic performance to their peers, leading to a decreased sense of self-worth. Core beliefs,

such as “I am unworthy” or “I am not attractive enough,” are deeply ingrained perceptions that

significantly impact self-esteem. This study explored how students’ core beliefs about their

appearance and academic abilities correlate with their self-esteem and influence their overall

self-image.
 39

Behavioral Consequences of Negative Self-Image

The Cognitive Behavioral Model suggests that individuals with negative self-esteem

might engage in maladaptive behaviors like avoiding social situations to protect themselves

from feelings of inadequacy. This research examined how students’ negative self-image like

poor body image leads to avoidance behaviors and self-sabotaging actions.

Building on the Cognitive Behavioral Model, this research also explored the potential

for interventions that address cognitive distortions and negative self-schemas to improve self-

esteem among students. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) techniques, such as cognitive

restructuring and mindfulness practices, could be applied to challenge negative thoughts and

promote healthier self-image. This study considered the applicability of such interventions for

improving self-esteem in university students in Nairobi.

The Cognitive Behavioral Model provides an excellent framework for understanding

how external pressures are internalized. This is achieved through cognitive distortions and

negative self-schemas. By applying the CBM, this study aimed at exploring how student’s self-

image, shaped by cognitive and cultural factors, impacts their self-esteem. Understanding these

processes allowed for more targeted interventions to promote positive self-esteem and improve

overall well-being among students.

The CBM offers a valuable theoretical framework for understanding the complex

relationship between self-image and self-esteem among university students. This research

explored how cognitive processes such as distorted thinking, self-schemas, and core beliefs

contribute to the self-perception and self-esteem of students. By examining these cognitive

mechanisms, this study aimed at providing insights into how students’ self-image influences

their self-esteem and offer potential interventions to improve self-worth in the university

context.
 40

Conceptual Framework

This conceptual framework visually represents the complex interactions between body

image, self-esteem, and various influencing factors among students at Nairobi University. It

sets the foundation for the research by outlining how the researcher intends to explore these

relationships and the key variables involved

Figure 3.1. Conceptual framework.

This conceptual framework explores the relationship between body image and self-

esteem. It uses two foundational psychological theories, Social Comparison Theory by

Festinger (1954) and the Cognitive-Behavioral Model by Beck (1967). The framework

provides a comprehensive understanding of how students’ perceptions of their physical

appearance influence their self-worth. It shows that their perception is shaped by both external

comparisons and internal cognitive processes. At the core of the framework is body image,

which functions as the independent variable. It encompasses individuals’ perceptions of their

 41

physical appearance, attitudes toward body size, shape, and weight. It also shows their

satisfaction or dissatisfaction with their body and adherence to cultural beauty standards.

Students are exposed to diverse and often conflicting beauty ideals. They range from global

media portrayals to local cultural expectations, which significantly shape how they view their

bodies.

Self-esteem, the dependent variable, represents an individual’s overall evaluation of

self-worth. It includes dimensions such as overall self-esteem, academic self-concept, social

self-esteem, and physical self-evaluation. The framework posits that body image influences

self-esteem through various cognitive processes. These mediating factors include self-schemas

about appearance, automatic thoughts, core beliefs regarding attractiveness, and cognitive

distortions such as all-or-nothing thinking or overgeneralization. These internal processes

determine how students interpret their body image and ultimately shape their self-esteem.

To explain these interactions, the framework integrates Social Comparison Theory. It

highlights how students evaluate their appearance through comparisons with peers, media

figures, and societal norms. Upward comparisons (with those perceived as more attractive)

often lead to dissatisfaction, while downward comparisons may provide temporary

reassurance. These comparisons, in turn, activate cognitive processes outlined in the Cognitive-

Behavioral Model, which describes how self-schemas and beliefs influence emotional and

behavioral outcomes. Thus, the framework presents a flow from external comparisons to

internal processing, ultimately affecting self-esteem levels.

The relationship between body image and self-esteem is also influenced by several

moderating factors. Cultural and contextual influences, including Nairobi-specific beauty

ideals, university peer culture, and the pervasiveness of social media, shape how students

perceive and value their bodies. Additionally, individual differences such as gender, academic

discipline, personality traits, and coping mechanisms further moderate this relationship. For
 42

instance, female students may experience more intense pressure to conform to societal beauty

norms, while students in appearance-focused academic programs may have heightened body

awareness. Personality factors like perfectionism or low self-compassion may amplify negative

body image, and coping strategies, adaptive or maladaptive determine whether students can

buffer the impact on self-esteem.

Ultimately, self-esteem influences various behavioral outcomes, such as levels of social

engagement or withdrawal, academic performance, and self-care practices. Students with

positive self-esteem are more likely to participate in social activities, perform better

academically, and maintain healthier routines. Conversely, low self-esteem can result in

isolation, poor academic outcomes, and neglect of personal well-being.

This framework, by integrating both social and cognitive perspectives, offers a robust

explanation of the dynamics between body image and self-esteem among university students

in Nairobi. It highlights the importance of addressing both the external pressures students face

and the internal thought patterns they develop in response. Furthermore, it guides intervention

efforts by suggesting that effective strategies should target social comparison processes and

help students challenge negative cognitive distortions. In doing so, the framework supports a

holistic approach to promoting mental well-being and self-esteem in the university context.

Summary

This chapter explores the relationship between body image and self-esteem among

university students, highlighting key research trends and theoretical frameworks. It traces the

evolution of body image studies from early clinical focus to current concerns influenced by

media, cultural norms, and social comparisons. The chapter introduces Social Comparison

Theory and the Cognitive-Behavioral Model of Self-Esteem to explain how societal influences

and cognitive patterns shape students’ self-perception. It also presents a conceptual framework
 43

that outlines the connections between body image, cognitive distortions, and self-esteem,

forming the basis for the study’s analysis. The next chapter will entail the research

methodology.
 44

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Introduction

This chapter presents the research methodologies that were employed in the study. It

includes an explanation of the research design, sampling methods, data collection procedures,

data analysis techniques, and the ethical considerations involved in the research.

Research Design

The research adopted a quantitative descriptive correlational research design to

examine the relationship between body image and self-esteem among students. This design

allowed for a detailed exploration of how students perceive their body image and the impact of

these perceptions on their self-esteem. A descriptive approach provided a comprehensive

overview of students' current body image concerns and self-esteem levels, while a correlational

method will identify whether there is a significant relationship between the two variables. The

study will be cross-sectional, collecting data at one point in time to capture a snapshot of these

factors.

Study Site

The study will be conducted at the University of Nairobi, a prominent institution located

in Nairobi, Kenya. The university, known for its diverse student population, will provide an

ideal setting for this research on the impact of body image on self-esteem. The campus is home

to students from various cultural, socio-economic, and academic backgrounds, making it a

representative sample for understanding the factors influencing body image perceptions and

self-esteem.
 45

Target Population

A population is the entire group of individuals or items that share specific

characteristics and are the focus of the study (Mugenda &Mugenda 2003). The target

population for this study will consist of undergraduate students aged 18-25 years at the

University of Nairobi. This age group represents a critical period in young adults' development,

where body image concerns and self-esteem are particularly influential (Adams & Harper,

2022). The population encompasses students from diverse socio-economic, ethnic, and cultural

backgrounds to capture a wide range of perspectives on body image and self-esteem. Both male

and female students will be included to explore any gender-specific variations, particularly in

the context of Kenyan societal norms.

Sample size

The sample size refers to the number of participants selected from the target population

who participated in the study. The sample size is 85 students, both male and female aged 18

years old to 25 years old. The population will include 42 male students and 43 female students.

According to (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003), a sample size of 85 is appropriate for research

with a population that is relatively large, such as the current study.

Sampling Technique

A sampling technique refers to the method or procedure used to select a subset from a

larger population for the purpose of conducting research (Onwuegbuzie & Collins, 2019). The

researcher will employ simple random sampling as the sampling technique. This method is

chosen to ensure that every student at the university will have an equal chance of being selected

to participate in the study. By using simple random sampling, the researcher aims to minimize

bias and increase the likelihood that the sample will be representative of the broader student
 46

population. This approach will allow for a diverse range of students from different faculties,

year groups, and backgrounds to be included, thereby enhancing the generalizability of the

findings.

Data Collection Instruments

In the research, questionnaires will be utilized as the primary data collection

instruments to gather comprehensive and relevant information from students. The tools

include the Socio-demographic Questionnaire, Body Image Questionnaire, the Self-

Esteem Questionnaire, the Body Image Impact on Self-Esteem Questionnaire, the Gender

Differences Questionnaire, and optional open-ended questions.

Sociodemographic Questionnaire.

The Sociodemographic Questionnaire used in this study collected essential

background information to contextualize participant responses and explore potential

associations with other measured variables. This structured instrument gathered data on

key demographic indicators such as age, gender, year of study and faculty. While this

Sociodemographic questionnaire is typically descriptive in nature, it contributed

significantly to the validity of research by allowing for the control of confounding

variables and enabling subgroup analyses. Although it has not typically undergone

psychometric testing in the same way as psychological scales, reliability is supported

through the use of straightforward response options.

Body Image Questionnaire

This tool assesses body satisfaction, physical self-perception, and appearance-

related concerns. It was adapted from the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations

Questionnaire (MBSRQ) by Cash (2000), a widely validated instrument. The MBSRQ is

 47

reliable, with high internal consistency values. It has demonstrated content, construct,

and convergent validity, being strongly associated with psychological constructs like self-

esteem and body dissatisfaction.

The self-esteem Questionnaire.

The Self-Esteem Questionnaire in this study was based on the widely recognized

and validated Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), developed by Morris Rosenberg in

1965. It is a 10-item self-report instrument designed to measure global self-worth by

assessing both positive and negative feelings about the self. Students rate each item on a

4-point Likert scale ranging from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree.” The RSES is

valued for its simplicity and broad applicability across different cultures, age groups, and

settings (Hutz, 2003). It has demonstrated high internal consistency (Gray-Little,

Williams, & Hancock, 1997). The scale also exhibits strong test-retest reliability and has

been validated across multiple languages and populations, supporting its cross-cultural

robustness.

Social and Cultural Influences Questionnaire

This tool evaluates the perceived influence of social agents and media (e.g., peers,

family, romantic partners, university setting) on students’ body image. It is based on the

Tripartite Influence Model by Thompson et al. (1999), which identifies media, peers, and

family as key sources of sociocultural pressure. Instruments measuring this construct

consistently report reliability coefficients above .80 and their validity is supported by

correlations with internalization of beauty standards and body image dissatisfaction.

Gender Differences Questionnaire

The Gender Differences Questionnaire (GDQ) is a tool designed to assess

perceptions and experiences related to gender norms, societal expectations, and media

portrayals of body image. This questionnaire aims to explore how individuals perceive
 48

gender-related pressures and their impact on self-esteem and body image. While the GDQ

has not undergone formal psychometric, its reliability is supported by its alignment with

established constructs in gender studies and body image research. For instance, the

Gender-Related Attributes Survey (GERAS), a validated instrument assessing gender-

related attributes, has demonstrated good internal consistency and reliability across

multiple studies (Beere, 1990; Pöhlmann et al., 2017). The GDQ's items are conceptually

grounded in similar constructs, suggesting potential reliability in capturing gender

differences.

Data Collection Procedures

The study was conducted systematically to ensure accuracy and ethical integrity. First,

approval from the International Leadership University was obtained since it is where the

researcher affiliated. The researcher then sought official authorization from the University of

Nairobi (UON), where the students were engaged as the target population. This included

securing a letter of permission from the university’s administration, through the deputy vice

chancellor of research and innovation Students to gain access to classrooms, clubs, or student

groups where student’s recruitment will have occurred.

Once all approvals and permits were secured, the researcher prepared for the actual data

collection phase. Structured questionnaires consisting of both standardized tools such as the

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and researcher-designed items on body image concerns were

administered to a sample of 85 students. Stratified random sampling was used to ensure

diversity in age, gender, and academic level within the sample. Before the questionnaires were

issued, students were given an informed consent form explaining the purpose of the study, their

rights as participants, the voluntary nature of their involvement, and measures to protect their

privacy and confidentiality. Only those who signed the consent form were included in the study.
 49

The questionnaires were administered either in physical form (printed papers) or

through Google Forms. The researcher ensured that responses were anonymous and securely

stored, with access restricted only to the research team. After data collection, the researcher

conducted data cleaning and organization, followed by analysis using appropriate statistical

tools. The findings were then used to draw conclusions and make recommendations related to

the influence of body image concerns on self-esteem among university students.

Methods of Data Analysis

The data collected from the close-ended survey questions was analyzed using Excel.

Excel is effective for managing and analyzing survey data, providing tools for calculating

averages, percentages, and visualizing data trends. This helped to examine the relationship

between body image and self-esteem. Open-ended responses from the questionnaires

underwent thematic analysis to identify common themes and patterns in students’ responses.

Thematic analysis allowed for a deeper understanding of the psychological and emotional

aspects of body image and self-esteem. Additionally, thematic analysis is an effective method

for exploring subjective data and provides rich insights into personal experiences (Braun &

Clarke, 2006). It allowed the researcher to identify key themes and categories that reflect

students’ perceptions and feelings about body image.

Ethical Considerations

Before starting the study, ethical approval was sought from the International Leadership

University, where the researcher is affiliated. Then, from the National Commission for Science,

Technology, and Innovation (NACOSTI), to ensure compliance with national research

guidelines. Additionally, permission was obtained from the University of Nairobi to gain access

to the student population and conduct the study on campus. Informed consent was obtained

from all the students, clearly explaining the study’s purpose, procedures, and any potential risks
 50

or benefits. Students were informed that their involvement is entirely voluntary, and they have

the right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. To protect the students'

privacy, confidentiality and anonymity was maintained by ensuring that all data collected was

anonymized, with personal identifiers removed from the questionnaires.

The study also took steps to minimize harm, as topics related to body image concerns

and self-esteem can be sensitive. Therefore, any emotional distress experienced during the

study was addressed by providing access to support resources, such as counseling services.

Finally, the research was conducted with respect for students’ cultural sensitivities. This was

ensured by making questions and approaches conducive to the cultural backgrounds at the

University of Nairobi. These ethical measures ensured that the study was carried out in a

responsible and respectful manner, safeguarding the well-being and rights of all students.

Summary

This chapter has presented the research methodology for examining the relationship

between body image and self-esteem among University of Nairobi students. It employs a

quantitative descriptive correlational design, using a sample of 85 students aged 18-25, selected

through simple random sampling. Data will be collected through various questionnaires

focusing on Sociodemographic factors, body image perceptions, self-esteem, and gender

differences. Ethical considerations such as informed consent, confidentiality, and providing

support for emotional distress will be strictly adhered to. Data analysis will involve Excel for

quantitative data and thematic analysis for qualitative responses. The research aims to ensure

a comprehensive understanding of how body image influences self-esteem in a university

setting.
 51

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION

Introduction

This chapter presents the analysis of data collected from 85 respondents through

structured questionnaires. The data are categorized under key themes: socio-demographics,

body image perceptions, social comparisons, cognitive patterns, self-esteem, behavioral

tendencies, social and cultural influences, and gender differences. The results are presented in

tables with corresponding explanations.

Age Distribution

The age distribution shows a typical university population, with most participants

(41.2%) falling within the 21–23 age range. This group represents students in the middle years

of their academic journey, a period often associated with significant social and psychological

development. The presence of older students (27+) may indicate mature entrants, students

returning after a break, or those in extended programs.

Table 4.1

Age Range (Years) Frequency Percentage

18–20 20 23.5%

21–23 35 41.2%

24–26 18 21.2%

27+ 12 14.1%

Total 85 100%
 52

Gender Identity.

The gender distribution shows a fairly balanced sample, with females slightly

outnumbering males. Notably, there is representation from non-binary students and those who

prefer not to disclose gender, reflecting a degree of inclusivity.

Table 4.2

Gender Frequency Percentage

Male 37 43.5%

Female 43 50.6%

Non-binary 3 3.5%

Prefer not to say 2 2.4%

Total 85 100%

The spread across years of study is relatively even, with slightly more students in their

fourth year. This suggests that the participants represent various academic stages, allowing for

broader perspectives on how university life affects body image.

Year of Study Distribution

The distribution of participants across academic years was examined to understand the

representativeness of the sample across different stages of university education. Table 4.3

presents the frequency and percentage distribution of participants by their current year of study.

Table 4.3 Distribution of Participants by Year of Study

Year of Study Frequency Percentage

First Year 18 21.2%

Second Year 22 25.9%

 53

Year of Study Frequency Percentage

Third Year 17 20.0%

Fourth Year 24 28.2%

Fifth Year or More 4 4.7%

Total 85 100.0%

The findings reveal a relatively balanced distribution of participants across the primary

undergraduate years, with slight variations in representation. Fourth-year students comprised

the largest proportion of the sample, with 24 participants (28.2%) representing this academic

level. Second-year students constituted the second-largest group, with 22 participants (25.9%)

from this year of study.

First-year students represented 18 participants (21.2%) of the sample, while third-year

students comprised 17 participants (20.0%). The distribution across these four primary

undergraduate years demonstrates fairly even representation, with percentages ranging from

20.0% to 28.2%.

Students in their fifth year or beyond represented the smallest proportion of the sample,

with only 4 participants (4.7%) falling into this category. This lower representation is consistent

with typical university enrollment patterns, where fewer students extend their studies beyond

the standard four-year undergraduate program.

The distribution demonstrates a relatively even spread across the traditional

undergraduate years (first through fourth year), with a combined 95.3% (n = 81) of participants

falling within these categories. The modal year of study was fourth year (n = 24, 28.2%), which

may reflect higher response rates among students approaching graduation or potentially

indicate sampling characteristics related to course enrollment patterns.

This distribution suggests that the sample captures perspectives from students at various

stages of their university experience, from those newly entering the academic environment to
 54

those preparing to graduate. The balanced representation across academic years enhances the

generalizability of findings across different phases of university education and may allow for

potential analyses of how study variables might vary by academic progression level.

School/Faculty (Summary from open-ended responses)

The highest number of respondents comes from the Psychology and Counseling

department (30.6%), possibly due to heightened interest in the study’s theme. This group may

also have more awareness of psychological constructs like body image and self-esteem.

Business, education, and theology faculties are also well represented, offering a

multidisciplinary view.

Table 4.4

School/Faculty Frequency Percentage

Psychology/Counseling 26 30.6%

Business/Commerce 18 21.2%

Education 15 17.6%

Theology/Religious Studies 10 11.8%

Science/ICT 9 10.6%

Other 7 8.2%

Total 85 100%

It was important to interview students from different faculties as the background

influence body image perceptions. For instance, students in media-related courses may be more

conscious of visual appearance, while those in counseling may have more tools to process

image-related stress. This distribution was helpful for analyzing whether academic training
 55

plays a role in how students perceive and manage body image issues. Going forward, it may

be useful to conduct faculty-specific focus groups to explore these nuances in more depth.

Distribution of Participants by Residence Type

The data indicate that the majority of participants resided on-campus, while a

substantial proportion lived off-campus within Nairobi. A smaller segment resided off-campus

outside Nairobi. The combined off-campus population (both within and outside Nairobi)

represented 54.1% of the total sample, slightly exceeding the on-campus population.

Table 4.5

Distribution of Participants by Residence Type

Residence Type Frequency Percentage

On-campus 39 45.9%

Off-campus (within Nairobi) 34 40.0%

Off-campus (outside Nairobi) 12 14.1%

Total 85 100.0%

These residence patterns suggest a diverse geographical representation among

participants, with the sample including both students living in university-provided

accommodation and those residing in private housing arrangements. The relatively high

proportion of off-campus residents within Nairobi (40.0%) may reflect housing preferences,

availability, or economic considerations that influence students' residential choices. The

smaller percentage of participants residing outside Nairobi (14.1%) likely represents commuter

students or those with specific geographical constraints.

 56

Satisfied with overall physical appearance

Figure 4.1 presents participants' responses regarding their satisfaction with their overall

physical appearance, measured on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from strongly agree to

strongly disagree. This measure provides insight into participants' body image perceptions and

self-satisfaction levels.

Figure 4.1

Satisfaction with Overall Physical Appearance

Count

24 13

18

24

1 2 3 4 5

The data reveal a generally positive distribution of physical appearance

satisfaction among participants. The majority of respondents (n = 48, 56.4%) reported

being satisfied or very satisfied with their overall physical appearance, with equal

proportions expressing high satisfaction (n = 24, 28.2%) and moderate satisfaction (n =

24, 28.2%). Approximately one-fifth of participants (n = 18, 21.2%) maintained a neutral

stance regarding their physical appearance satisfaction. In contrast, fewer participants

expressed dissatisfaction, with 15.3% (n = 13) reporting dissatisfaction and 7.1% (n = 6)

indicating very high levels of dissatisfaction with their physical appearance.

 57

The distribution shows a right-skewed pattern, with responses clustering toward

the higher satisfaction levels. The combined satisfied responses (ratings 4 and 5)

substantially outnumbered the combined dissatisfied responses (ratings 1 and 2) by a ratio

of approximately 2.5 to 1. This pattern suggests that the majority of participants in this

sample maintain relatively positive body image perceptions. The mean satisfaction score

was 3.55 indicating that the average participant response fell between neutral and satisfied

on the scale. These findings provide important baseline data for understanding

participants' self-perception and body image, which may be relevant to [insert relevant

study variables or research questions.

Level of Worry about Body Weight

Table 4.6 displays participants' responses concerning their level of worry about body

weight, assessed using a 5-point Likert scale. This measure captures weight-related anxiety and

preoccupation, which are important indicators of body image concerns and potential eating-

related behaviors.

Table 4.6

Distribution of Responses: Worry About Body Weight (N = 85)

Response Count Percentage

1 (Never Worry) 5 5.9%

2 (Rarely Worry) 9 10.6%

3 (Sometimes Worry) 21 24.7%

4 (Often Worry) 23 27.1%

5 (Always Worry) 27 31.8%

Total 85 100.0%
 58

The findings indicate that weight-related worry is prevalent among participants, with

the majority expressing moderate to high levels of concern. The largest proportion of

respondents (n = 27, 31.8%) reported always worrying about their body weight, while 27.1%

(n = 23) indicated they often worry about weight. Combined, these high-worry categories

represent 58.9% of the total sample (n = 50).

Nearly one-quarter of participants (n = 21, 24.7%) reported sometimes worrying about

their body weight, indicating occasional weight-related concerns. In contrast, relatively few

participants reported minimal weight worry, with 10.6% (n = 9) rarely worrying and only 5.9%

(n = 5) never worrying about their body weight. The distribution demonstrates a clear right-

skewed pattern, with responses concentrated in the higher worry categories. The combined

high-worry responses (ratings 4 and 5) exceeded the combined low-worry responses (ratings 1

and 2) by a ratio of approximately 3.6 to 1, highlighting the predominance of weight-related

concerns in this population.

The mean worry score was 3.69 (SD = 1.18), indicating that the average participant's

response fell between "sometimes worry" and "often worry" on the scale. These findings

suggest that weight preoccupation is a significant concern for the majority of participants and

may have implications for body image satisfaction, eating behaviors, and overall psychological

well-being within this sample.

Comfortable with Body Shape

Table 4.7 presents the distribution of responses regarding participants' comfort levels

with their body shape. Responses were measured on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (very

uncomfortable) to 5 (very comfortable).

 59

Table 4.7

Comfortable with Body Shape

Response Count Percentage

1 4 4.7

2 10 11.8

3 22 25.9

4 25 29.4

5 24 28.2

Total 85 100.0

Note. Response scale: 1 = Very uncomfortable, 2 = somewhat uncomfortable, 3 =

Neutral, 4 = Comfortable, 5 = Very comfortable.

The results indicate that the majority of participants reported moderate to high levels of

comfort with their body shape. The most frequent response was 4 (comfortable), selected by

25 participants (29.4% of the sample). This was followed closely by responses of 5 (very

comfortable) with 24 participants (28.2%) and 3 (neutral) with 22 participants (25.9%). In

contrast, fewer participants reported discomfort with their body shape. Ten participants (11.8%)

selected response 2 (somewhat uncomfortable), while only 4 participants (4.7%) indicated the

lowest level of comfort by selecting response 1 (very uncomfortable).

The distribution demonstrates a positively skewed pattern, with 71 participants (83.5%)

reporting neutral to high comfort levels (responses 3-5) compared to 14 participants (16.5%)

reporting some degree of discomfort (responses 1-2). When examining positive responses

specifically, 49 participants (57.6%) indicated they were comfortable or very comfortable with

their body shape (responses 4-5). These findings suggest that body shape dissatisfaction was
 60

relatively uncommon in this sample, with the majority of participants maintaining neutral to

positive perceptions of their physical appearance. The low frequency of responses at the lower

end of the scale indicates that severe body image concerns were present in less than one-fifth

of the study population.

Mirror-Checking Behavior

The frequency of mirror-checking behavior among participants was assessed using a 5-

point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (very frequently). Table 4.8 presents the

distribution of responses for the item "Check appearance in mirrors."

Table 4.8

Distribution of Mirror-Checking Behavior Responses

Response Frequency Percentage

1 3 3.5%

2 9 10.5%

3 21 24.4%

4 29 33.7%

5 23 26.7%

Total 85 100.0%

Note. Response scale: 1 = Never, 2 = Rarely, 3 = Sometimes, 4 = Often, 5 = Very

frequently.

The results indicate that the majority of participants (60.4%, n = 52) reported checking

their appearance in mirrors frequently, with responses of 4 (often) or 5 (very frequently).

Specifically, 29 participants (33.7%) indicated they "often" check their appearance in mirrors,

while 23 participants (26.7%) reported doing so "very frequently." Conversely, a smaller

proportion of participants reported infrequent mirror checking behavior. Only 3 participants

 61

(3.5%) indicated they "never" check their appearance in mirrors, and 9 participants (10.5%)

reported "rarely" engaging in this behavior. Twenty-one participants (24.4%) fell in the middle

category, indicating they "sometimes" check their appearance in mirrors.

The distribution shows a right-skewed pattern, suggesting that mirror checking

behavior is relatively common among the study participants, with the modal response being

"often" (n = 29, 33.7%). The mean response was 3.71 (SD = 1.08), indicating that, on average,

participants reported checking their appearance in mirrors between "sometimes" and "often."

Avoid Activities Based on Concerns about Their Physical Appearance

This table examines respondents' tendency to avoid activities based on concerns about

their physical appearance. The following table presents the distribution of responses on a 5-

point Likert scale, where 1 represents "Strongly Disagree" and 5 represents "Strongly Agree"

with the statement about avoiding activities due to looks.

Table 4.9

Avoid Activities Based on Concerns about Their Physical Appearance

Response Scale Count Percentage

1 (Strongly Disagree) 1 1.2%

2 (Disagree) 5 5.9%

3 (Neutral) 14 16.5%

4 (Agree) 27 31.8%

5 (Strongly Agree) 22 25.9%

The majority of respondents (57.7%) indicate they avoid activities due to concerns

about their appearance, with only 7.1% disagreeing with this statement. This suggests that body
 62

image concerns significantly influence behavior, potentially limiting social participation,

physical activity, and overall quality of life for a substantial portion of individuals

Physical Appearance Confidence in Social Situations

Participants' confidence regarding their physical appearance in social situations was

measured using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

Table 4.10 displays the distribution of responses for the statement "I feel confident about my

physical appearance in social situations."

Table 4.10

Distribution of Physical Appearance Confidence in Social Situations

Response Option Frequency Percentage

Strongly Disagree 5 5.9%

Disagree 12 14.1%

Neutral 18 21.2%

Agree 31 36.5%

Strongly Agree 19 22.4%

Total 85 100.0%

The findings reveal that the majority of participants (58.9%, n = 50) expressed

confidence about their physical appearance in social situations, with responses indicating

agreement or strong agreement with the statement. Specifically, 31 participants (36.5%) agreed

with the statement, representing the largest single response category, while 19 participants

(22.4%) strongly agreed. In contrast, a smaller proportion of participants expressed lack of

confidence in their physical appearance during social interactions. Twelve participants (14.1%)

disagreed with the statement, and 5 participants (5.9%) strongly disagreed, representing a

combined 20.0% (n = 17) of the sample who reported low confidence levels.
 63

Eighteen participants (21.2%) remained neutral on this item, neither agreeing nor

disagreeing with the statement about feeling confident regarding their physical appearance in

social situations. The distribution demonstrates a positively skewed pattern, with the modal

response being "agree" (n = 31, 36.5%). The mean response was 3.55 (SD = 1.15), indicating

that participants, on average, leaned toward agreement with feeling confident about their

physical appearance in social situations, falling between the "neutral" and "agree" categories

on the response scale.

Preoccupation with Physical Flaws

Participants' tendency to focus on perceived physical flaws was assessed using a 5-point

Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Table 4.11 presents the

distribution of responses for the statement "I spend a lot of time thinking about my physical

flaws."

Table 4.11

Distribution of Physical Flaws Preoccupation Responses

Response Option Frequency Percentage

Strongly Disagree 6 7.1%

Disagree 14 16.5%

Neutral 17 20.0%

Agree 30 35.3%

Strongly Agree 18 21.2%

Total 85 100.0%

The results indicate that more than half of the participants (56.5%, n = 48) reported

spending considerable time thinking about their physical flaws, with responses indicating

agreement or strong agreement with the statement. The largest single response category was
 64

"agree" with 30 participants (35.3%), followed by "strongly agree" with 18 participants

(21.2%).

Conversely, fewer participants reported not engaging in this type of self-focused

thinking about physical imperfections. Fourteen participants (16.5%) disagreed with the

statement, while 6 participants (7.1%) strongly disagreed, representing a combined 23.6% (n =

20) of the sample who indicated they do not spend significant time thinking about their physical

flaws. Seventeen participants (20.0%) remained neutral on this measure, neither agreeing nor

disagreeing with the statement about spending time thinking about physical flaws.

The distribution shows a positively skewed pattern, with the modal response being

"agree" (n = 30, 35.3%). The mean response was 3.47 (SD = 1.21), indicating that participants,

on average, leaned toward agreement with spending time thinking about their physical flaws,

falling between the "neutral" and "agree" categories. This suggests a general tendency among

participants toward preoccupation with perceived physical imperfections.

I am happy with my body size

Participants' satisfaction with their body size was evaluated using a 5-point Likert scale

ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Table 4.12 shows the distribution of

responses for the statement "I am happy with my body size."

Table 4.12

Distribution of Body Size Satisfaction Responses

Response Option Frequency Percentage

Strongly Disagree 4 4.7%

Disagree 11 12.9%

Neutral 20 23.5%
 65

Response Option Frequency Percentage

Agree 32 37.6%

Strongly Agree 18 21.2%

Total 85 100.0%

The findings demonstrate that the majority of participants (58.8%, n = 50) expressed

satisfaction with their body size, with responses indicating agreement or strong agreement with

the statement. The largest response category was "agree" with 32 participants (37.6%),

followed by "strongly agree" with 18 participants (21.2%). A smaller proportion of participants

indicated dissatisfaction with their body size. Eleven participants (12.9%) disagreed with the

statement, while 4 participants (4.7%) strongly disagreed, representing a combined 17.6% (n =

15) of the sample who reported being unhappy with their body size.

Twenty participants (23.5%) maintained a neutral stance on this measure, neither

expressing satisfaction nor dissatisfaction with their body size. The distribution exhibits a

positively skewed pattern, with the modal response being "agree" (n = 32, 37.6%). The mean

response was 3.58 (SD = 1.10), indicating that participants, on average, leaned toward

satisfaction with their body size, positioning between the "neutral" and "agree" categories on

the response scale. This suggests that the majority of participants in the study reported positive

feelings regarding their body size, though nearly a quarter remained ambivalent about this

aspect of their physical appearance.

I feel attractive compared to others my age

Participants' perception of their attractiveness relative to their peers was assessed using

a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Table 4.13

displays the distribution of responses for the statement "I feel attractive compared to others my

age."
 66

Table 4.13

Distribution of Comparative Attractiveness Perception Responses

Response Option Frequency Percentage

Strongly Disagree 6 7.1%

Disagree 13 15.3%

Neutral 22 25.9%

Agree 29 34.1%

Strongly Agree 15 17.6%

Total 85 100.0%

The results indicate that slightly more than half of the participants (51.7%, n = 44) felt

attractive compared to others their age, with responses showing agreement or strong agreement

with the statement. The largest single response category was "agree" with 29 participants

(34.1%), while 15 participants (17.6%) strongly agreed with the statement. Conversely, 19

participants (22.4%) expressed disagreement with feeling attractive compared to their age

peers. Specifically, 13 participants (15.3%) disagreed with the statement, and 6 participants

(7.1%) strongly disagreed.

A notable proportion of participants (25.9%, n = 22) remained neutral on this measure,

representing the second-largest response category. This substantial neutral response suggests

that a considerable number of participants neither felt more nor less attractive than their age-

matched peers. The distribution shows a slight positive skew, with the modal response being

"agree" (n = 29, 34.1%). The mean response was 3.40 (SD = 1.18), indicating that participants,

on average, fell between "neutral" and "agree" on the response scale. While the majority of

participants reported feeling attractive compared to their peers, the relatively large neutral
 67

group (25.9%) suggests that comparative attractiveness evaluation may be challenging for

many individuals in this sample.

I try to hide certain parts of my body when in public

Participants' tendency to conceal specific body parts in public was measured using a 5-

point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Table 4.14 presents

the distribution of responses for the statement "I try to hide certain parts of my body when in

public."

Table 4.14

Distribution of Body Concealment Behavior Responses

Response Option Frequency Percentage

Strongly Disagree 8 9.4%

Disagree 12 14.1%

Neutral 19 22.4%

Agree 27 31.8%

Strongly Agree 19 22.3%

Total 85 100.0%

The findings reveal that more than half of the participants (54.1%, n = 46) engaged in

body concealment behaviors in public settings, with responses indicating agreement or strong

agreement with the statement. Specifically, 27 participants (31.8%) agreed with the statement,

representing the largest single response category, while 19 participants (22.3%) strongly agreed

with trying to hide certain body parts when in public.

In contrast, fewer participants reported not engaging in body concealment behaviors.

Twelve participants (14.1%) disagreed with the statement, and 8 participants (9.4%) strongly

disagreed, representing a combined 23.5% (n = 20) of the sample who indicated they do not
 68

try to hide body parts in public settings. Nineteen participants (22.4%) maintained a neutral

position on this measure, neither agreeing nor disagreeing with engaging in body concealment

behaviors.

The distribution demonstrates a positively skewed pattern, with the modal response

being "agree" (n = 27, 31.8%). The mean response was 3.43 (SD = 1.23), indicating that

participants, on average, leaned toward agreement with trying to hide certain body parts in

public, falling between the "neutral" and "agree" categories. This suggests a prevalent tendency

among participants to engage in body concealment behaviors, potentially reflecting body image

concerns or self-consciousness in public settings.

Social Comparison and Appearance-Related Pressures Analysis

Participants' tendency to engage in appearance comparisons was measured using a 5-

point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Table 4.15 presents

the distribution of responses for the statement "I often compare my appearance to other students

on campus, magazines and advertisement."

Table 4.15

Distribution of Appearance Comparison Behavior Responses

Response Option Frequency Percentage

Strongly Disagree 4 4.7%

Disagree 9 10.6%

Neutral 20 23.5%

Agree 30 35.3%

Strongly Agree 22 25.9%

Total 85 100.0%
 69

The findings reveal that the majority of participants (61.2%, n = 52) engaged in

appearance comparison behaviors, with responses indicating agreement or strong agreement

with the statement. Specifically, 30 participants (35.3%) agreed with the statement,

representing the largest single response category, while 22 participants (25.9%) strongly agreed

with comparing their appearance to others on campus and in media.

In contrast, fewer participants reported not engaging in comparison behaviors. Nine

participants (10.6%) disagreed with the statement, and 4 participants (4.7%) strongly disagreed,

representing a combined 15.3% (n = 13) of the sample who indicated they do not frequently

compare their appearance to others. Twenty participants (23.5%) maintained a neutral position

on this measure, neither agreeing nor disagreeing with engaging in appearance comparison

behaviors.

The distribution demonstrates a positively skewed pattern, with the modal response

being "agree" (n = 30, 35.3%). The mean response was 3.67 (SD = 1.08), indicating that

participants, on average, leaned toward agreement with engaging in appearance comparisons,

falling between the "neutral" and "agree" categories. This suggests a prevalent tendency among

participants to engage in social comparison behaviors related to physical appearance.

Social Media Impact on Appearance Perception

Participants' experiences with social media's impact on their appearance perception

were assessed using the same 5-point Likert scale. Table 4.16 presents the distribution of

responses for the statement "Social media makes me feel worse about my appearance."

Table 4.16

Distribution of Social Media Impact on Appearance Responses

Response Option Frequency Percentage

Strongly Disagree 7 8.2%

 70

Response Option Frequency Percentage

Disagree 12 14.1%

Neutral 18 21.2%

Agree 29 34.1%

Strongly Agree 19 22.4%

Total 85 100.0%

The results indicate that more than half of the participants (56.5%, n = 48) reported that

social media negatively impacts their appearance perception, with responses indicating

agreement or strong agreement with the statement. Twenty-nine participants (34.1%) agreed

with the statement, representing the largest response category, while 19 participants (22.4%)

strongly agreed that social media makes them feel worse about their appearance.

Conversely, fewer participants indicated that social media does not negatively affect

their appearance perception. Twelve participants (14.1%) disagreed with the statement, and 7

participants (8.2%) strongly disagreed, representing a combined 22.3% (n = 19) of the sample

who indicated that social media does not make them feel worse about their appearance.

Eighteen participants (21.2%) maintained a neutral stance on this measure.

The distribution shows a positively skewed pattern, with the modal response being

"agree" (n = 29, 34.1%). The mean response was 3.48 (SD = 1.21), indicating that participants,

on average, leaned toward agreement that social media negatively impacts their appearance

perception. This suggests that social media platforms may serve as sources of appearance-

related distress for a significant portion of the sample.

 71

Impact of Peer Comments on Self-Perception

The influence of peer feedback on appearance-related self-perception was measured

using the statement "Comments from friends about appearance affect how I feel about myself."

Table 4.17 presents the response distribution.

Table 4.17

Distribution of Peer Comment Impact Responses

Response Option Frequency Percentage

Strongly Disagree 6 7.1%

Disagree 10 11.8%

Neutral 21 24.7%

Agree 28 32.9%

Strongly Agree 20 23.5%

Total 85 100.0%

The findings demonstrate that more than half of the participants (56.4%, n = 48)

indicated that comments from friends about appearance significantly impact their self-

perception. Twenty-eight participants (32.9%) agreed with the statement, while 20 participants

(23.5%) strongly agreed that peer comments affect how they feel about themselves.

A smaller proportion of participants reported that peer comments do not significantly

impact their self-perception. Ten participants (11.8%) disagreed with the statement, and 6

participants (7.1%) strongly disagreed, representing a combined 18.9% (n = 16) of the sample.

Twenty-one participants (24.7%) maintained a neutral position, representing the largest single

neutral response across the appearance-related measures. The distribution exhibits a positively

skewed pattern, with the modal response being "agree" (n = 28, 32.9%). The mean response

was 3.54 (SD = 1.18), indicating that participants generally agreed that peer comments about
 72

appearance influence their self-perception. This highlights the significant role of social

feedback in shaping appearance-related self-concepts among the sample.

Perceived Societal Pressure for Appearance Standards

Participants' perception of societal pressure to conform to appearance standards was

assessed through the statement "I feel pressure from society to look a certain way." Table 4.18

presents the response distribution.

Table 4.18

Distribution of Societal Pressure Perception Responses

Response Option Frequency Percentage

Strongly Disagree 5 5.9%

Disagree 9 10.6%

Neutral 15 17.6%

Agree 32 37.6%

Strongly Agree 24 28.2%

Total 85 100.0%

The results reveal that nearly two-thirds of participants (65.8%, n = 56) perceived

significant societal pressure to conform to appearance standards. Thirty-two participants

(37.6%) agreed with the statement, representing the largest response category, while 24

participants (28.2%) strongly agreed that they feel societal pressure to look a certain way.

A smaller proportion indicated they do not feel such pressure. Nine participants (10.6%)

disagreed with the statement, and 5 participants (5.9%) strongly disagreed, representing a

combined 16.5% (n = 14) of the sample who do not perceive significant societal pressure

regarding appearance. Fifteen participants (17.6%) maintained a neutral stance on this measure.
 73

The distribution demonstrates a positively skewed pattern, with the modal response

being "agree" (n = 32, 37.6%). The mean response was 3.71 (SD = 1.14), indicating that

participants, on average, agreed that they feel societal pressure to conform to appearance

standards. This represents the highest mean score among the appearance-related measures,

suggesting that perceived societal pressure may be a particularly salient concern for this

sample.

Perception of Appearance-Based Judgment

Participants' beliefs about being judged by others based on appearance were measured

through the statement "I feel judged by others based on my appearance." Table 4.19 presents

the response distribution.

Table 4.19

Distribution of Appearance-Based Judgment Perception Responses

Response Option Frequency Percentage

Strongly Disagree 6 7.1%

Disagree 12 14.1%

Neutral 20 23.5%

Agree 29 34.1%

Strongly Agree 18 21.2%

Total 85 100.0%

The findings indicate that more than half of the participants (55.3%, n = 47) believe

they are judged by others based on their appearance. Twenty-nine participants (34.1%) agreed

with the statement, while 18 participants (21.2%) strongly agreed that they feel judged by

others based on their appearance.

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Fewer participants reported not feeling judged based on appearance. Twelve

participants (14.1%) disagreed with the statement, and 6 participants (7.1%) strongly disagreed,

representing a combined 21.2% (n = 18) of the sample who do not feel judged by others based

on appearance. Twenty participants (23.5%) maintained a neutral position on this measure.

The distribution shows a positively skewed pattern, with the modal response being

"agree" (n = 29, 34.1%). The mean response was 3.48 (SD = 1.16), indicating that participants

generally agreed that they feel judged by others based on their appearance. This perception of

appearance-based judgment may contribute to heightened self-consciousness and appearance-

related anxiety among participants.

Comparative Appearance Awareness

Participants' tendency to notice when others appear more attractive than themselves

was assessed through the statement "I notice when others look better than me." Table 4.20

presents the response distribution.

Table 4.20

Distribution of Comparative Appearance Awareness Responses

Response Option Frequency Percentage

Strongly Disagree 7 8.2%

Disagree 10 11.8%

Neutral 19 22.4%

Agree 28 32.9%

Strongly Agree 21 24.7%

Total 85 100.0%

The results demonstrate that more than half of the participants (57.6%, n = 49) indicated

they actively notice when others appear more attractive than themselves. Twenty-eight
 75

participants (32.9%) agreed with the statement, while 21 participants (24.7%) strongly agreed

that they notice when others look better than them.

A smaller proportion reported not engaging in such comparative observations. Ten

participants (11.8%) disagreed with the statement, and 7 participants (8.2%) strongly disagreed,

representing a combined 20.0% (n = 17) of the sample who do not frequently notice when

others appear more attractive. Nineteen participants (22.4%) maintained a neutral stance on

this measure.

The distribution exhibits a positively skewed pattern, with the modal response being

"agree" (n = 28, 32.9%). The mean response was 3.54 (SD = 1.19), indicating that participants

generally agreed that they notice when others look better than them. This suggests a heightened

awareness of comparative appearance differences, which may contribute to appearance-related

insecurities and social comparison behaviors.

Overall Self-Satisfaction

Participants' general self-satisfaction was measured using the statement "On the whole,

I am satisfied with myself." Table 4.21 presents the response distribution.

Table 4.21

Distribution of Overall Self-Satisfaction Responses

Response Option Frequency Percentage

Strongly Agree 21 24.7%

Agree 31 36.5%

Disagree 18 21.2%

Strongly Disagree 15 17.6%

Total 85 100.0%
 76

The findings reveal that more than half of the participants (61.2%, n = 52) reported

overall self-satisfaction. Thirty-one participants (36.5%) agreed with the statement,

representing the largest response category, while 21 participants (24.7%) strongly agreed that

they are satisfied with themselves overall. Conversely, a substantial minority expressed

dissatisfaction with themselves. Eighteen participants (21.2%) disagreed with the statement,

and 15 participants (17.6%) strongly disagreed, representing a combined 38.8% (n = 33) of the

sample who indicated overall self-dissatisfaction.

The distribution shows a negatively skewed pattern, with the modal response being

"agree" (n = 31, 36.5%). The mean response was 2.68 (SD = 1.07), indicating that participants,

on average, leaned toward satisfaction with themselves overall, falling between the "agree" and

"neutral" categories. However, the substantial proportion expressing dissatisfaction suggests

considerable variability in self-satisfaction levels within the sample.

Self-Worth Concerns

Participants' experiences with negative self-evaluation were assessed through the

statement "At times, I think I am no good at all." Table 4.22 presents the response distribution.

Table 4.22

Distribution of Self-Worth Concern Responses

Response Option Frequency Percentage

Strongly Agree 18 21.2%

Agree 24 28.2%

Disagree 23 27.1%

Strongly Disagree 20 23.5%

Total 85 100.0%
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The results indicate that nearly half of the participants (49.4%, n = 42) reported

experiencing periods of severe self-doubt and negative self-evaluation. Twenty-four

participants (28.2%) agreed with the statement, representing the largest response category,

while 18 participants (21.2%) strongly agreed that they sometimes think they are no good at

all. A comparable proportion reported not experiencing such severe self-doubt. Twenty-three

participants (27.1%) disagreed with the statement, and 20 participants (23.5%) strongly

disagreed, representing a combined 50.6% (n = 43) of the sample who do not frequently

experience such negative self-evaluations.

The distribution demonstrates a relatively balanced pattern across response categories,

with the modal response being "agree" (n = 24, 28.2%). The mean response was 2.47 (SD =

1.13), indicating that participants, on average, fell between disagreement and neutrality

regarding experiencing severe self-doubt. This balanced distribution suggests significant

individual variation in experiences of negative self-evaluation, with approximately half the

sample reporting occasional severe self-doubt while the other half does not frequently

experience such thoughts.

Comparative Personal Ability

Participants' perception of their abilities relative to others was assessed using a 4-point

Likert scale. Table 4.23 shows the distribution of responses for the statement "I am able to do

things as well as most other people."

Table 4.23

Distribution of Comparative Personal Ability Responses

Response Option Frequency Percentage

Strongly Agree 22 25.9%

Agree 30 35.3%
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Response Option Frequency Percentage

Disagree 18 21.2%

Strongly Disagree 15 17.6%

Total 85 100.0%

The findings reveal that a clear majority of participants (61.2%, n = 52) believe they

are able to perform as well as most other people, with responses indicating agreement or strong

agreement with the statement. The largest single response category was "agree" with 30

participants (35.3%), representing the modal response, while 22 participants (25.9%) strongly

agreed with their comparative abilities. In contrast, 33 participants (38.8%) expressed doubt

about their comparative abilities. Eighteen participants (21.2%) disagreed with the statement,

and 15 participants (17.6%) strongly disagreed with being able to do things as well as most

other people.

The distribution demonstrates a moderate positive skew toward agreement, with the

majority expressing confidence in their comparative abilities. The mean response was 2.69 (SD

= 1.05), indicating that participants, on average, leaned toward agreement with their ability to

perform as well as others, positioning above the midpoint between "disagree" and "agree" on

the response scale.

This pattern suggests that while approximately three-fifths of participants maintain

confidence in their comparative abilities, more than one-third doubt their performance relative

to others. The majority positive assessment (61.2%) indicates generally favorable self-

evaluation of personal competence among participants, though the substantial minority

(38.8%) who question their comparative abilities highlights important individual differences in

self-efficacy and confidence. This finding may be relevant for understanding how self-

perceived competence relates to overall self-esteem and body image within the study

population.
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Personal Pride and Accomplishments

Participants' sense of personal pride regarding their accomplishments was evaluated

using a 4-point Likert scale. Table 4.24 presents the distribution of responses for the statement

"I feel I do not have much to be proud of."

Table 4.24

Distribution of Personal Pride Responses

Response Option Frequency Percentage

Strongly Agree 17 20.0%

Agree 21 24.7%

Disagree 26 30.6%

Strongly Disagree 21 24.7%

Total 85 100.0%

The results demonstrate that a majority of participants (55.3%, n = 47) do have things

to be proud of, as indicated by their disagreement or strong disagreement with the negatively

worded statement. Specifically, 26 participants (30.6%) disagreed with not having much to be

proud of, representing the largest single response category, while 21 participants (24.7%)

strongly disagreed with the statement.

Conversely, 38 participants (44.7%) indicated a lack of personal pride by agreeing or

strongly agreeing with the statement. Twenty-one participants (24.7%) agreed with not having

much to be proud of, and 17 participants (20.0%) strongly agreed.

The distribution shows a relatively balanced pattern with a slight negative skew, as

responses are more concentrated in the disagreement categories. The modal response was

"disagree" (n = 26, 30.6%). The mean response was 2.40 (SD = 1.09), indicating that
 80

participants, on average, leaned toward disagreement with the statement, suggesting overall

presence of personal pride.

This finding reveals that while a majority of participants maintain a sense of personal

pride and accomplishment, a substantial minority (44.7%) report lacking things to be proud of.

The relatively close distribution between those who have personal pride and those who do not

highlights considerable individual variation in self-evaluation of personal achievements. This

pattern may reflect differences in life experiences, goal attainment, or personal standards for

what constitutes accomplishment worthy of pride within the sample.

Positive Self-Attitude

Participants' tendency to maintain a positive attitude toward themselves was assessed

using a 4-point Likert scale. Table 4.25 displays the distribution of responses for the statement

"I take a positive attitude toward myself."

Table 4.25

Distribution of Positive Self-Attitude Responses

Response Option Frequency Percentage

Strongly Agree 19 22.4%

Agree 32 37.6%

Disagree 20 23.5%

Strongly Disagree 14 16.5%

Total 85 100.0%

The findings indicate that a majority of participants (60.0%, n = 51) reported taking a

positive attitude toward themselves, with responses showing agreement or strong agreement

with the statement. The largest single response category was "agree" with 32 participants

(37.6%), representing the modal response, while 19 participants (22.4%) strongly agreed with
 81

maintaining a positive self-attitude. Conversely, 34 participants (40.0%) indicated they do not

take a positive attitude toward themselves. Twenty participants (23.5%) disagreed with the

statement, and 14 participants (16.5%) strongly disagreed.

The distribution demonstrates a moderate positive skew toward agreement, with a clear

majority expressing positive self-attitudes. The mean response was 2.66 (SD = 1.03), indicating

that participants, on average, leaned toward agreement with taking a positive attitude toward

themselves, positioning above the midpoint between "disagree" and "agree" on the response

scale. This pattern reveals that while three-fifths of participants maintain a positive self-

attitude, two-fifths do not, highlighting substantial individual differences in self-regard within

the sample.

The majority positive self-attitude (60.0%) suggests generally favorable self-perception

among participants, though the considerable minority (40.0%) who lack such positive self-

regard indicates important variation in psychological well-being and self-concept. This finding

may have implications for understanding how self-attitude relates to body image concerns and

overall mental health within the study population.

Overall Appearance Satisfaction

Participants' global satisfaction with their physical appearance was evaluated using a 4-

point Likert scale. Table 4.26 shows the distribution of responses for the statement "On the

whole, I am satisfied with the way I look."

Table 4.26

Distribution of Overall Appearance Satisfaction Responses

Response Option Frequency Percentage

Strongly Agree 18 21.2%

Agree 29 34.1%
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Response Option Frequency Percentage

Disagree 22 25.9%

Strongly Disagree 16 18.8%

Total 85 100.0%

The findings reveal that a majority of participants (55.3%, n = 47) expressed satisfaction

with their overall appearance, with responses indicating agreement or strong agreement with

the statement. The largest single response category was "agree" with 29 participants (34.1%),

representing the modal response, while 18 participants (21.2%) strongly agreed with being

satisfied with their appearance.

In contrast, 38 participants (44.7%) reported dissatisfaction with their overall

appearance. Twenty-two participants (25.9%) disagreed with the statement, and 16 participants

(18.8%) strongly disagreed with being satisfied with the way they look. The distribution

demonstrates a moderate positive skew toward satisfaction, though with a substantial minority

expressing dissatisfaction. The mean response was 2.58 (SD = 1.05), indicating that

participants, on average, leaned slightly toward agreement with overall appearance satisfaction,

positioning between "disagree" and "agree" on the response scale.

This pattern suggests that while a majority of participants maintain general satisfaction

with their physical appearance, nearly half of the sample (44.7%) experience dissatisfaction

with their looks. The relatively close distribution between satisfied and dissatisfied participants

highlights considerable individual variation in global appearance evaluation within the sample.

This finding may be particularly relevant for understanding the relationship between specific

body image concerns and overall appearance satisfaction among participants.

 83

Pride in Personal Actions

Participants' sense of pride regarding their actions was assessed using a 4-point Likert

scale. Table 4.27 presents the distribution of responses for the statement "I am not proud of my

actions."

Table 4.27

Distribution of Pride in Actions Responses

Response Option Frequency Percentage

Strongly Agree 16 18.8%

Agree 20 23.5%

Disagree 28 32.9%

Strongly Disagree 21 24.7%

Total 85 100.0%

The results demonstrate that a majority of participants (57.6%, n = 49) expressed pride

in their actions, as indicated by their disagreement or strong disagreement with the negatively

worded statement. Specifically, 28 participants (32.9%) disagreed with not being proud of their

actions, representing the largest single response category, while 21 participants (24.7%)

strongly disagreed with the statement.

Conversely, 36 participants (42.4%) indicated a lack of pride in their actions by

agreeing or strongly agreeing with the statement. Twenty participants (23.5%) agreed with not

being proud of their actions, and 16 participants (18.8%) strongly agreed.

The distribution shows a moderate negative skew, with responses more heavily

concentrated in the disagreement categories. The modal response was "disagree" (n = 28,

32.9%). The mean response was 2.37 (SD = 1.08), indicating that participants, on average,

leaned toward disagreement with the statement, suggesting overall pride in their actions.
 84

This pattern indicates that while the majority of participants maintain a sense of pride

regarding their personal actions, a substantial minority (42.4%) report lacking such pride. The

finding that more than half of participants demonstrate pride in their actions suggests generally

positive self-evaluation of personal behavior within the sample, though the considerable

proportion expressing lack of pride highlights important individual differences in self-

assessment and personal satisfaction with one's conduct.

Desire for Greater Self-Respect

Participants' desire for increased self-respect was evaluated using a 4-point Likert scale.

Table 4.28 displays the distribution of responses for the statement "I wish I could have more

respect for myself."

Table 4.28

Distribution of Self-Respect Desire Responses

Response Option Frequency Percentage

Strongly Agree 20 23.5%

Agree 28 32.9%

Disagree 22 25.9%

Strongly Disagree 15 17.6%

Total 85 100.0%

The findings indicate that a majority of participants (56.4%, n = 48) expressed a desire

for greater self-respect, with responses showing agreement or strong agreement with the

statement. The largest single response category was "agree" with 28 participants (32.9%),

representing the modal response, while 20 participants (23.5%) strongly agreed with wishing

they could have more respect for themselves.

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In contrast, 37 participants (43.5%) did not express a desire for increased self-respect.

Twenty-two participants (25.9%) disagreed with the statement, and 15 participants (17.6%)

strongly disagreed, suggesting that these individuals feel satisfied with their current level of

self-respect.

The distribution shows a moderate positive skew toward agreement, with the majority

expressing some level of desire for enhanced self-respect. The mean response was 2.62 (SD =

1.06), indicating that participants, on average, leaned slightly toward agreement with wishing

for more self-respect, positioning between "disagree" and "agree" on the response scale.

This pattern suggests that while a substantial majority of participants desire greater self-respect,

a considerable minority (43.5%) appear content with their current self-regard. The finding that

more than half of participants wish for increased self-respect may indicate areas for potential

intervention or support related to self-esteem and personal development within this population.

Feelings of Uselessness

Participants' experiences of feeling useless were assessed using a 4-point Likert scale.

Table 4.29 shows the distribution of responses for the statement "I certainly feel useless at

times."

Table 4.29

Distribution of Feelings of Uselessness Responses

Response Option Frequency Percentage

Strongly Agree 18 21.2%

Agree 26 30.6%

Disagree 24 28.2%

Strongly Disagree 17 20.0%

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Response Option Frequency Percentage

Total 85 100.0%

The results reveal a relatively balanced distribution of responses regarding feelings of

uselessness. Slightly more than half of the participants (51.8%, n = 44) reported experiencing

feelings of uselessness, with responses indicating agreement or strong agreement with the

statement. Specifically, 26 participants (30.6%) agreed with the statement, representing the

largest single response category, while 18 participants (21.2%) strongly agreed. Conversely, 41

participants (48.2%) disagreed with experiencing feelings of uselessness. Twenty-four

participants (28.2%) disagreed with the statement, and 17 participants (20.0%) strongly

disagreed.

The distribution demonstrates a nearly even split between those who experience

feelings of uselessness (51.8%) and those who do not (48.2%), with only a 3.6 percentage point

difference between these groups. The modal response was "agree" (n = 26, 30.6%). The mean

response was 2.53 (SD = 1.09), indicating that participants, on average, fell slightly above the

midpoint between "disagree" and "agree" on the response scale. This balanced distribution

suggests considerable individual variation in experiences of perceived uselessness within the

sample. The substantial proportion who report such feelings (51.8%) indicates that feelings of

uselessness are a common experience among participants, while the nearly equal proportion

who do not experience such feelings highlights the heterogeneity of self-perception within the

sample.

Perceived Gender Differences in Societal Expectations

Participants were asked to respond to the question "Do you feel like societal

expectations differ for men and women?" using a dichotomous response format. Table 4.30

presents the distribution of responses.

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Table 4.30

Distribution of Perceived Gender Differences in Societal Expectations

Response Option Frequency Percentage

Yes 68 80.0%

No 17 20.0%

Total 85 100.0%

The findings demonstrate an overwhelming consensus among participants regarding

gender-based differences in societal expectations. Four-fifths of participants (80.0%, n = 68)

indicated that they believe societal expectations differ for men and women. This substantial

majority represents a clear recognition of gender-differentiated social expectations within the

sample. In contrast, only 17 participants (20.0%) reported that they do not perceive differences

in societal expectations between men and women, representing one-fifth of the sample.

The pronounced 4:1 ratio between affirmative and negative responses indicates a strong

collective awareness of gender-based disparities in societal expectations. This finding suggests

that participants are highly cognizant of the differential standards, roles, and expectations that

society places on individuals based on gender. The overwhelming majority perception of

gender-differentiated expectations reflects an understanding that men and women face distinct

social pressures and requirements across various life domains.

This near-universal recognition of gender-based societal differences may contribute to

participants' awareness of how these expectations influence personal experiences, including

body image concerns, behavioral choices, and social interactions. The small minority who do

not perceive such differences (20.0%) may reflect individual variations in social awareness,

exposure to more egalitarian environments, or personal philosophical positions regarding

gender equality and social expectations.

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Pressure to Conform to Traditional Gender Appearance Norms

Participants were asked to respond to the question "Have you ever felt pressure to

conform to traditional gender norms regarding appearance?" using a dichotomous response

format. Table 4.31 displays the distribution of responses.

Table 4.31

Distribution of Gender Norms Appearance Pressure Responses

Response Option Frequency Percentage

Yes 66 77.6%

No 19 22.4%

Total 85 100.0%

The results reveal a striking pattern regarding participants' experiences with gender-

related appearance pressures. An overwhelming majority of participants (77.6%, n = 66)

reported having felt pressure to conform to traditional gender norms regarding appearance.

This represents more than three-quarters of the sample, indicating that gender-normative

appearance pressure is a widespread experience among participants.

Conversely, only 19 participants (22.4%) indicated that they have not experienced such

pressure to conform to traditional gender appearance norms.

The substantial disparity between affirmative and negative responses, with a ratio of

approximately 3.5:1, demonstrates that pressure to conform to gender-based appearance

expectations is a prevalent phenomenon in this sample. This finding suggests that traditional

gender norms continue to exert considerable influence on individuals' appearance-related

experiences and decisions. The high percentage of participants who have experienced such

pressure indicates that gender-normative expectations regarding appearance remain a

significant social force, potentially contributing to body image concerns and influencing

personal grooming, clothing choices, and other appearance-related behaviors. The relatively
 89

small proportion who reported no such pressure (22.4%) may reflect individual differences in

sensitivity to social expectations, exposure to diverse social environments, or personal

resistance to traditional gender norms.

Media Portrayal of Gender and Body Image

Participants' perceptions of differential media portrayal of men and women regarding

body image were assessed using a 4-point Likert scale. Table 4.32 shows the distribution of

responses for the statement "Men and women are portrayed differently in the media in terms

of body image."

Table 4.32

Distribution of Media Gender Portrayal Perception Responses

Response Option Frequency Percentage

Strongly Agree 44 51.8%

Agree 30 35.3%

Disagree 8 9.4%

Strongly Disagree 3 3.5%

Total 85 100.0%

The findings demonstrate overwhelming consensus among participants regarding

differential media portrayal of gender and body image. An exceptionally high proportion of

participants (87.1%, n = 74) agreed that men and women are portrayed differently in media

regarding body image, with responses indicating agreement or strong agreement with the

statement. More than half of all participants (51.8%, n = 44) strongly agreed with this

statement, representing the modal response, while an additional 30 participants (35.3%) agreed.

In stark contrast, only a small minority of participants disagreed with the statement.

Eight participants (9.4%) disagreed, and merely 3 participants (3.5%) strongly disagreed,
 90

representing a combined 12.9% (n = 11) who did not perceive differential gender portrayal in

media body image representations.

The distribution exhibits a strongly negatively skewed pattern, with responses heavily

concentrated in the agreement categories. The mean response was 3.36 (SD = 0.82), indicating

strong overall agreement with the statement. This near-universal recognition of differential

media portrayal suggests that participants are acutely aware of gender-based disparities in how

body image is presented and constructed in media contexts. The overwhelming consensus

reflects participants' perception that media representations of body image are fundamentally

different for men and women, potentially contributing to distinct body image experiences and

pressures across genders.

Perceived Gender Similarities in Body-Related Stress

Participants were asked to respond to the question "Do you believe men and women

experience similar levels of body-related stress?" using a dichotomous response format. Table

4.33 presents the distribution of responses.

Table 4.33

Distribution of Perceived Gender Similarities in Body-Related Stress

Response Option Frequency Percentage

Yes 34 40.0%

No 51 60.0%

Total 85 100.0%

The results reveal a clear majority opinion regarding gender differences in body-related

stress levels. Sixty percent of participants (n = 51) indicated that they do not believe men and

women experience similar levels of body-related stress, suggesting that most participants

perceive differential stress experiences between genders. Conversely, 34 participants (40.0%)

 91

believed that men and women do experience similar levels of body-related stress, indicating

that a substantial minority of the sample perceives gender similarities in this domain.

The 3:2 ratio between "no" and "yes" responses demonstrates a notable division in

participant perspectives, though the majority view favors the belief that body-related stress

differs between men and women. This finding suggests that most participants recognize gender-

based disparities in the experience of body-related stress, potentially reflecting observations of

different societal pressures, expectations, or coping mechanisms related to body image

concerns across genders. The substantial minority who perceive similarities (40.0%) indicates

that the question of gender differences in body-related stress remains a topic of varied opinion

among participants, highlighting the complexity of gender-body image relationships in

contemporary society. Campus media and social campaigns can reshape how students view

themselves and others.

Gender-Based Differences in Body Image Issue Perception

Participants were asked to respond to the question "Have you noticed any difference in

how body image issues are addressed or perceived based on gender?" using a dichotomous

response format. Table 4.34 displays the distribution of responses.

Table 4.34

Distribution of Gender-Based Body Image Perception Responses

Response Option Frequency Percentage

Yes 62 72.9%

No 23 27.1%

Total 85 100.0%

The results demonstrate a clear pattern in participants' awareness of gender-based

differences in body image issues. The overwhelming majority of participants (72.9%, n = 62)
 92

indicated that they have noticed differences in how body image issues are addressed or

perceived based on gender. This represents nearly three-quarters of the sample.

In contrast, 23 participants (27.1%) reported that they have not observed such gender-

based differences in the addressing or perception of body image [Link] substantial disparity

between the "yes" and "no" responses suggests that gender-based differences in body image

treatment and perception are readily apparent to most participants in this study. The high

percentage of affirmative responses indicates widespread awareness among the sample

regarding differential approaches to body image issues across genders. This finding may reflect

participants' observations of societal, cultural, or interpersonal variations in how body image

concerns are handled for different genders, suggesting that gender plays a significant role in

the social construction and management of body image issues.

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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction

This chapter provides a comprehensive discussion of the research findings presented in

Chapter Four. It analyzes their implications within the broader context of body image research

among university students. The chapter synthesizes the key findings, examines their theoretical

and practical significance, and acknowledges study limitations. It also offers recommendations

for future research and interventions. The discussion is structured around the major themes that

emerged from the data analysis: body image perceptions, social comparison behaviors, gender

differences, and self-esteem relationships.

Discussion of Findings

Body Image Perceptions and Satisfaction

The findings reveal a complex picture of body image perceptions among university

students. While 56.4% of participants reported being satisfied or very satisfied with their

overall physical appearance, this apparent positivity is counterbalanced by concerning patterns

of body-related anxiety and preoccupation. The data indicate that 58.9% of participants

frequently worry about their body weight, with 31.8% reporting constant weight-related

concerns. This discrepancy between overall appearance satisfaction and specific weight-related

anxiety suggests that body image is multifaceted, with students potentially compartmentalizing

different aspects of their physical appearance.

The prevalence of mirror-checking behaviors (60.4% checking frequently) and the

tendency to spend considerable time thinking about physical flaws (56.5%) indicate that even

students who report general satisfaction with their appearance engage in behaviors

characteristic of body image concern. This finding aligns with previous research suggesting
 94

that body image dissatisfaction can coexist with surface-level contentment, particularly in

populations where appearance-related pressures are high (Thompson et al., 2019).

The study's finding that 54.1% of participants attempt to hide certain body parts in

public settings further underscores the complexity of body image experiences. This behavior

suggests that despite reported satisfaction, many students experience body-related self-

consciousness that influences their daily interactions and clothing choices. These findings

support the theoretical framework proposed by Cash and Smolak (2011), which conceptualizes

body image as encompassing multiple dimensions, including perceptual, cognitive, affective,

and behavioral components.

Social Comparison and Media Influences

The research reveals significant engagement in appearance-related social comparison

behaviors, with 61.2% of participants reporting frequent comparisons with peers and media

representations. This finding is particularly concerning given the established relationship

between social comparison and body image dissatisfaction (Festinger, 1954; Fardouly &

Vartanian, 2016). The data indicate that 56.5% of participants feel that social media negatively

impacts their appearance perception, highlighting the role of digital platforms in shaping

contemporary body image experiences.

The finding that 56.4% of participants report being significantly affected by peer

comments about appearance demonstrates the continued importance of immediate social

environments in body image formation. This is consistent with sociocultural theory, which

emphasizes the role of social feedback in the internalization of appearance ideals (Thompson

et al., 1999). The combination of direct peer influence and media exposure creates a complex

social environment where appearance-related pressures are both pervasive and multifaceted.
 95

Particularly noteworthy is the finding that 65.8% of participants perceive significant

societal pressure to conform to appearance standards, representing the highest mean score

among appearance-related measures. This suggests that perceived societal pressure may be a

primary driver of body image concerns, potentially serving as an overarching framework within

which more specific appearance-related anxieties develop.

Gender Differences and Societal Expectations

The study reveals striking gender-related patterns in body image experiences and

societal expectations. An overwhelming 80% of participants recognized that societal

expectations differ for men and women, while 77.6% reported experiencing pressure to

conform to traditional gender norms regarding appearance. These findings suggest that gender

continues to be a significant organizing principle in appearance-related experiences, despite

evolving social attitudes toward gender equality.

The near-universal recognition (87.1%) that men and women are portrayed differently

in media regarding body image indicates sophisticated awareness among participants of

gendered media representations. However, the finding that 60% of participants believe men

and women do not experience similar levels of body-related stress suggests that this awareness

may be accompanied by assumptions about differential vulnerability to body image concerns

across genders.

The observation that 72.9% of participants have noticed gender-based differences in

how body image issues are addressed or perceived indicates that the social response to body

image concerns remains gendered. This finding has important implications for intervention

development, suggesting that gender-sensitive approaches may be necessary to address body

image concerns effectively across different populations.

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Self-Esteem and Body Image Relationships

The research reveals complex relationships between self-esteem and body image, with

considerable individual variation in self-evaluation patterns. While 61.2% of participants

reported overall self-satisfaction, 49.4% indicated experiencing periods of severe self-doubt,

and 51.8% reported feelings of uselessness at times. These findings suggest that self-esteem

among university students is characterized by instability and context-dependent variation.

The finding that 56.4% of participants desire greater self-respect indicates that current

self-esteem levels may be insufficient for optimal psychological well-being. This is particularly

relevant given the established relationship between self-esteem and body image, where low

self-esteem can both contribute to and result from body image dissatisfaction (Tiggemann,

2011).

The relatively balanced distribution of responses across self-esteem measures suggests

that the sample includes individuals with varying levels of psychological adjustment. This

heterogeneity is important for understanding how body image concerns may differentially

impact students based on their underlying self-esteem profiles.

Theoretical Implications

The findings contribute to several theoretical frameworks in body image research. The

data support the multidimensional nature of body image as proposed by Cash and Smolak

(2011), demonstrating that satisfaction with overall appearance can coexist with specific

appearance-related concerns and behaviors. This suggests that interventions should address

multiple components of body image rather than focusing solely on general appearance

satisfaction.

The prevalence of social comparison behaviors supports Festinger's (1954) social

comparison theory, while the impact of media and peer influences aligns with the sociocultural
 97

theory (Thompson et al., 1999). The combination of these influences suggests that

contemporary body image formation occurs within an increasingly complex social

environment where traditional interpersonal comparisons are amplified by digital media

exposure. The gender-related findings contribute to an understanding of how sociocultural

factors interact with individual experience. The recognition of gendered expectations and

differential treatment suggests that body image concerns may be embedded within broader

systems of gender socialization and cultural meaning-making.

Practical Implications

Intervention Development

The findings suggest several directions for intervention development. The prevalence

of weight-related worry (58.9%) and mirror-checking behaviors (60.4%) indicates that

cognitive-behavioral interventions targeting specific appearance-related thoughts and

behaviors may be beneficial. Programs should address not only general body satisfaction but

also specific behavioral patterns that maintain body image concerns.

The significant impact of social comparison (61.2%) and media influence (56.5%)

suggests that interventions should include components addressing social media literacy and

comparison reduction strategies. Programs should help students develop critical media

consumption skills and alternative frameworks for self-evaluation that are less dependent on

appearance-based comparisons.

Campus-Based Programming

The finding that 65.8% of participants perceive societal pressure to conform to

appearance standards suggests that campus-wide initiatives addressing appearance-related

pressures may be beneficial. These could include campaigns promoting body diversity,
 98

challenging appearance-based assumptions, and creating environments where multiple forms

of value and achievement are recognized.

The gender-related findings indicate that programming should be sensitive to

differential experiences across genders while avoiding assumptions about who is affected by

body image concerns. Both gender-specific and mixed-gender programming may be necessary

to address the full range of body image experiences on campus.

Support Services

The finding that 49.4% of participants experience periods of severe self-doubt suggests

that campus counseling services should be prepared to address body image concerns as part of

broader mental health support. The relationship between body image and self-esteem indicates

that addressing appearance-related concerns may be an important component of overall

psychological well-being.

Limitations

Several limitations should be considered when interpreting these findings. The sample

consisted primarily of students from a single university, which may limit generalizability to

other institutional contexts or demographic groups. The cross-sectional design prevents causal

inferences about the relationships between variables, and the reliance on self-report measures

may be subject to social desirability bias.

The study's focus on undergraduate students may not capture the full range of body

image experiences across different age groups or life stages. Additionally, the binary approach

to gender in some analyses may not fully capture the experiences of non-binary or gender-

diverse participants, despite their inclusion in the sample.

 99

The cultural context of the study, conducted in Kenya, may limit generalizability to

other cultural contexts where body image norms and gender expectations differ. Future research

should examine how cultural factors interact with the patterns observed in this study.

Recommendations

For Future Research

Future research should employ longitudinal designs to examine how body image

concerns develop and change over time, particularly during the university years. Studies should

investigate the causal relationships between social comparison, media exposure, and body

image outcomes using experimental or quasi-experimental designs.

Research should examine the effectiveness of different intervention approaches,

comparing individual versus group-based interventions and gender-specific versus mixed-

gender programming. Studies should also investigate how cultural factors influence body

image experiences and the effectiveness of interventions across different cultural contexts.

Future research should employ more sophisticated measures of body image that capture

its multidimensional nature, including recent developments in positive body image assessment.

Studies should also investigate the role of specific social media platforms and usage patterns

in body image formation.

For Practice

Mental health professionals should receive training in body image assessment and

intervention, recognizing that body image concerns may present alongside other mental health

issues. Practitioners should be prepared to address the complex relationships between body

image, self-esteem, and social functioning.

 100

Educational institutions should develop comprehensive approaches to body image

promotion that address both individual and environmental factors. This should include policy

development regarding appearance-related discrimination, media literacy education, and the

creation of supportive campus environments.

Programs should be developed that address the specific needs identified in this research,

including weight-related anxiety, social comparison behaviors, and the impact of social media

on appearance perception. These programs should be evaluated for effectiveness and adapted

based on participant feedback and outcomes.

For Policy
Educational institutions should consider developing policies that address appearance-

related discrimination and promote inclusive environments. This may include guidelines for

appearance-related comments, dress codes that accommodate diverse body types, and the

representation of body diversity in campus materials and programming.

Policies should address the role of social media in campus life, potentially including

guidelines for social media use and digital citizenship education. Institutions should consider

how their own media representations and marketing materials may contribute to appearance-

related pressures.

Conclusions

This study provides important insights into the body image experiences of university

students, revealing complex patterns of satisfaction, concern, and social influence. The findings

demonstrate that body image is multifaceted, with students experiencing both satisfaction and

anxiety regarding their physical appearance. The prevalence of social comparison behaviors

and the impact of media exposure highlight the importance of social and cultural factors in

body image formation.

 101

The gender-related findings underscore the continued relevance of gender in

appearance-related experiences, suggesting that interventions should be sensitive to differential

experiences while avoiding assumptions about vulnerability. The relationship between body

image and self-esteem indicates that addressing appearance-related concerns may be an

important component of overall psychological well-being.

These findings contribute to the theoretical understanding of body image while

providing practical guidance for intervention development and campus programming. The

research highlights the need for comprehensive approaches that address both individual and

environmental factors contributing to body image concerns.

The study's limitations suggest directions for future research, including the need for

longitudinal studies, intervention research, and cross-cultural investigations. The findings

provide a foundation for evidence-based approaches to body image promotion among

university students, with implications for mental health practice, educational programming,

and policy development.

Ultimately, this research contributes to understanding how contemporary university

students navigate appearance-related pressures and form relationships with their bodies. The

findings suggest that while many students maintain overall satisfaction with their appearance,

significant proportions experience concerning levels of body-related anxiety and social

pressure. Addressing these concerns requires comprehensive approaches that recognize the

complexity of body image experiences and the multiple factors that contribute to both positive

and negative body image outcomes.

 102

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: INFORMED CONSENT FORM

Research Title: Relationship between Body Image and Self-Esteem, a Case Study of

the University of Nairobi, Kenya.

Researcher: Jacinta Nelima Misiko

Institution contacts: International Leadership University,

P.O. Box 60954-00200,

Nairobi, Kenya.

1) Description of the Research

You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Jacinta Misiko from

International Leadership University. This study aims to examine how body image concerns

Influence self-esteem among university students. Before you decide to participate,

please read the following information carefully.

Introduction and purpose of the study

University life presents unique challenges for students, many of which are

influenced by personal perceptions and social pressures. Among these, body image and

self-esteem are critical factors that can significantly impact students' mental and

emotional well-being. As students navigate academic pressures, social dynamics, and

increasing exposure to social media, their body image perceptions often become closely

tied to their overall self-esteem.

The study will help in three ways

i. In examining the extent to which body image influences the esteem of

university students.

ii. To find out factors that influence self-perception and esteem of university

students.
 103

iii. Enhancing mental health interventions by understanding how body image

affects self-esteem

Potential Risks and Discomforts

Some questions may cause mild emotional discomfort. If you feel uncomfortable, you

may skip any question or withdraw from the study at any time without consequences.

2) Potential Benefits

Benefits: While there is no direct benefit, your participation will contribute to

understanding how body image affects self-esteem, helping to develop better support

systems for students.

3) Procedures.

If you agree to participate, you will be asked to complete a questionnaire or

interview about your perceptions of body image and self-esteem. This process will take

approximately 15 minutes. Your responses will remain anonymous, and no personally

identifiable information will be collected.

Contact Information:

If you have any questions about the study, please contact:

International Leadership University

[Link]@[Link]

If you have concerns about your rights as a participant, you may contact:

[Institutional Ethics Review Board Contact]

Consent Statement:
 104

I have read and understood the information provided above. I understand that my

participation is voluntary and that I may withdraw at any time. By signing below, I agree

to participate in this research study.

Participant’s Name: ________

Signature: ________

Date: ________

APPENDIX B: QUESTIONNAIRES

SECTION A: SOCIO DEMOGRAPHIC QUESTIONNAIRE

1. Age:_____ years

2. Gender:

[ ] Male

[ ] Female

[ ] Non-binary

[ ] Prefer not to say

3. Year of Study:

[ ] First Year

[ ] Second Year

[ ] Third Year

[ ] Fourth Year

[ ] Fifth Year+

4. School/Faculty:_________________________

5. Residence:
 105

[ ] On-campus

[ ] Off-campus (within Nairobi)

[ ] Off-campus (outside Nairobi)

SECTION B: BODY IMAGE QUESTIONNAIRE

Rate each statement using the following scale:

1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neutral, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly

Agree

1. I am satisfied with my overall physical appearance. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

2. I often worry about my body weight. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

3. I feel comfortable with my body shape. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

4. I frequently check my appearance in mirrors or reflective surfaces. [1]

[2] [3] [4] [5]

5. I avoid certain activities because of how I look. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

6. I feel confident about my physical appearance in social situations. [1]

[2] [3] [4] [5]

7. I spend a lot of time thinking about my physical flaws. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

8. I am happy with my body size. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

9. I feel attractive compared to others my age. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

10. I try to hide certain parts of my body when in public. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

SECTION C: SELF-ESTEEM QUESTIONNAIRE

1. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.

 Strongly agree [ ]

 Agree []

 Disagree []

 Strongly disagree []
 106

2. At times, I think I am no good at all.

 Strongly agree [.]

 Agree [.]

 Disagree []

 Strongly disagree [.]

3. I feel that I have a number of good qualities.

 Strongly Agree [.]

 Agree [. ]

 Disagree [.]

 Strongly Disagree [.]

4. I am able to do things as well as most other people.

 Strongly Agree [.]

 Agree [.]

 Disagree [.]

 Strongly Disagree [.]

5. I feel I do not have much to be proud of.

 Strongly Agree

 Agree [.]

 Disagree [.]

 Strongly Disagree [.]

6. I take a positive attitude toward myself.

 Strongly Agree [.]

 Agree [.]
 107

 Disagree [.]

 Strongly Disagree [.]

7. On the whole, I am satisfied with the way I look.

 Strongly Agree [.]

 Agree [.]

 Disagree [.]

 Strongly Disagree [.]

8. I am not proud of my actions.

 Strongly Agree [.]

 Agree [.]

 Disagree [.]

 Strongly Disagree [.]

9. I wish I could have more respect for myself.

 Strongly Agree [.]

 Agree [.]

 Disagree [.]

 Strongly Disagree [.]

10. I certainly feel useless at times.

 Strongly Agree

 Agree [.]

 Disagree [.]

 Strongly Disagree [.]

 108

SECTION D: SOCIAL AND CULTURAL INFLUENCES QUESTIONNAIRE

Instructions: Rate the influence of each factor on your body image using the 5-point

scale.

1. Peers/Friends: How much do they influence your body image? [1] [2]

[3] [4] [5]

2. Family: How much do they influence your body image? [1] [2] [3] [4]

[5]

3. Social Media: How much does it influence your body image? [1] [2] [3]

[4] [5]

4. Traditional Media (TV, magazines): How much does it influence your

body image? [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

5. Cultural Beauty Standards: How much do they influence your body

image? [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

6. Romantic Relationships: How much do they influence your body

image? [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

7. University Environment: How much does it influence your body image?

[1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

SECTION E: GENDER DIFFERENCES QUESTIONNAIRE

1. Do you feel like societal expectations differ for Men and women?

Yes []

No []

2. Have you ever felt pressure to conform to traditional gender norms

regarding appearance?

Yes []
 109

No []

3. Men and women are portrayed differently in the media in terms of body

image.

Strongly agree []

Agree []

Disagree []

Strongly disagree []

4. Do you believe men and women experience similar levels of body-

related stress?

Yes []

No []

5. Have you noticed any difference in how body image issues are addressed

or perceived based on gender?

Yes []

No []
 110

APPENDIX C: NACOSTI RESEARCH AUTHORIZATION LICENSE.

 111

APPENDIX D: RESEARCH LICENSE REQUEST LETTER FROM INTERNATIONAL

LEADERSHIP UNIVERSITY
 112

APPENDIX E: UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI APPROVAL

 113

APPENDIX F: ACTION RESEARCH WORK PLAN AND TIMELINES

Action Research Work Plan and Timelines

Activity Time Frame Final Deadline for

Submission/ Completion

Development One week 30th April, 2025

of research proposal

Application One week 12th May,2025

of permits

Data One week 20th May,2025

collection

Data 2 days 29th May,2025

organization

Data analysis 2 days 2nd June, 2025

Interpretation One week 5th June, 2025

of findings and data

conclusions
 114

APPENDIX G: BUDGET

ACTIVITY AMOUNT (Kesh)

Typing and printing 6500

photocopying 1500

Data collection and data analysis 1200

Case binding and tilting 6000

Transport and other expenses 3000

TOTAL 22,200
 115

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