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Mr. Kim (MM)

[Link] (Hons.), [Link], PhD (Chemistry)

 2

CHAPTER 1
The Electronic Structures of Atoms, Periodic Table and Chemical Bonds
Fundamental Particles
Matter is made up of atoms. There are three main fundamental particles called protons, neutrons
and electrons.

Fundamental particles of matter

Particle Mass Charge

Proton (p) 1 amu Positive (+1)
Neutron (n) 1 amu Neutral
Electron (e) 1 Negative (-1)
amu
1840

Figure. 1.1 Models of the hydrogen and helium atoms

Atomic Number (Z)

The number of protons in an atom of an element is the atomic number of that element.

Atomic number (Z) = Number of protons (p)

Mass Number (A)

The sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is the mass number of
that atom.

Mass number (A) = Protons (p) + Neutrons (n)

Isotopes
Atoms of the same element with different masses are called isotopes.

e.g., 35 37
17 Cl , 17 Cl

Notation for Isotopes

 3

A
Z X ; Where, A = mass number (Protons + Neutrons)

Z = atomic number (Protons or Electrons)

A – Z = Neutrons

e.g., (1) What are the numbers of protons, electrons and neutrons for 35 16
17 Cl ,∧ 8O ? Give the possible

isotope for each.

Answer:
35
17 Cl

Protons = 17; Electrons = 17; Neutrons = 18

Possible isotope for 35 37

17 Cl = 17 Cl .

16
8 O

Protons = 8; Electrons = 8; Neutrons = 8

Possible isotope for 168O = 178O or 188O.

e.g., (2) Select the isotopes from the followings and give reason for your answer.

(i) 40 35 40 37 12 24 13 27
18 Ar , 17 Cl , 20 Ca , 17 Cl (ii) 6C , 12 Mg , 6C , 13 Al

Answer:

(i) 40 35 40 37
18 Ar , 17 Cl , 20 Ca , 17 Cl

Isotopes are35 37
17 Cl ,∧ 17Cl . They have the same atomic number and different mass numbers.

(ii) 126C , 24 13 27
12 Mg , 6C , 13 Al

Isotopes are126C ,∧136C . They have the same atomic number and different mass numbers.

The Electronic Structures of Atoms

Electrons move around the nucleus in definite orbits or shells. Each shell or energy level can
contain a limited number of electrons.

Shell 2 x n2 Electrons
K (n = 1) 2 x 12 2
L (n = 2) 2 x 22 8
2
M (n = 3) 2x3 18
N (n = 4) 2 x 42 32
O (n = 5) 2 x 52 50

Maximum number of electrons = 2n2

Figure. 1.2 Diagrammatic representation of the nucleus and the electron shells in an atom
 4

Sub-shells

Each shell is divided into a number of sub-shells which are known as s, p, d, f.

(s = sharp, p = principal, d = diffuse, f = fundamental)

Shell Sub-shell Electrons

K (n = 1) 1s2 2
L (n = 2) 2s2, 2p6 8
M (n = 3) 3s2, 3p6, 3d10 18
N (n = 4) 4s2, 4p6, 4d10, 4f14 32

Order of Filling up Electrons in the Shell-shells

The shell nearest to the nucleus has the lowest energy. In general the closer the shell is to the
nucleus, the lower it its energy. Electrons are placed in the sub-shells according to their energy
levels.

Order of increasing energy levels of the sub-shells

1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p

Complete Electronic Structure

The arrangement of all the electrons of an atom of the element in appropriate sub-shells is known
as the complete electronic structure of that element.

e.g., 19K 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s1

Essential Electronic Structure

The representation of the arrangement of valence electrons of an atom of the element in

appropriate sub-shells is called the essential electronic structure of that element.

e.g., 19K 4s1

Valence of the Elements
Valence = Electrons in the outermost shell (electrons ≤ 4)
Valence = 8 – Electrons in the outermost shell (electron > 4)
e.g.,

Elemen 3 Li 4Be 5B 6C 7N 8O 9F Ne
10
t
 5

E.S 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8

Valence 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0

The Periodic Table

The elements are arranged in a table in order of their atomic numbers, so that elements with similar
electronic structures or similar properties fall under one another in a column. In this arrangement,
elements with similar electronic structures or similar properties occur in certain periodic intervals.

IA IIA IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB 0

1 1 2
H H He
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
19 20
s-block
K Ca
metals
 6

d-block & f-block metal p - block non - metals

Figure 1.4 Three blocks in the periodic table

Group IA (Alkali metals) = 3Li, 11Na, 19K

Group IIA (Alkaline earth metals) = 4Be, 12Mg, 20Ca
Group VIIB (Halogens) = 9F, 17Cl
Group 0 (Noble gas or inert gas) = 2He, 10Ne, 18Ar

Electropositive Elements
Metals are electropositive elements. They tend to lose electron to form the positive ions.

The electropositivity of the elements decrease on going from left to right across a period, because
the greater the number of electrons that has to be lost, the more difficult it becomes for the element
to lose electron.
Electronegative Elements
Non-metals are electronegative elements. They tend to gain electron to form the negative ions.
On going across a period from left to right, the electronegativity increases, i.e., the elements have an
increasing tendency to gain electrons.

The noble gases or inert gases are neither electropositive nor electronegative.
Atomic Sizes
(i) Atomic radii decrease from left to right across a period in the periodic table.
The higher the atomic number, the greater the number of protons in the nucleus, the charge on the
nucleus increases. The attraction between the nucleus and electrons increases and therefore, the size
of atom decreases.

(ii) Atomic radii increase from top to bottom in a group in the periodic table.
The number of electrons increases. These additional electrons are in the larger electron shells
farther and farther from the nucleus.

Ionic Sizes
 7

(i) Cations (Positive ions)

- A positive ion is formed by removing one or more electron from the atom.

- Both they have the same nucleus charges.

- But the positive ion has the lesser number of electrons.

- The repulsion between electrons decreases in the positive ion.

- The size of the positive ion is smaller than its parent atom.

Note: A positive ion = Na+, the parent atom = Na ( size of Na > that of Na+)

(ii) Anions (Negative ions)

- A negative ion is formed by adding one or more electron to its atom.

- Both they have the same nucleus charges.

- But the negative ion has the more number of electrons.

- The repulsion between electrons increases in the negative ion.
- The size of the negative ion is larger than its parent atom.
Note: A negative ion = Cl-, the parent atom = Cl ( size of Cl- > that of Cl)
Ionization Energy

The amount of energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom to form a gaseous ion is
called the ionization energy.

e.g., Element (g) + ionization energy ion+ (g) + electron

Na (g) + energy Na+ (g) + ē
- The ionization energy increases from left to right across a period in the periodic table. The
attractive force of the nucleus to the electron increases. It is difficult to remove an electron from the
atom.

(Note: Noble gases or inert gases have the largest ionization energy.)
- The ionization energy decreases from top to bottom in a group. The atomic size increases and the
outermost electron is farther from the nucleus. It is easier to remove it.

Electron Affinity

The electron affinity of an element is the energy released when an electron is added to a gaseous
atom to form a gaseous ion.

e.g., Element (g) + electron ion- (g) + energy

Cl (g) + ē Cl- (g) + energy
- The halogens have the highest electron affinities. They form stable anions with noble gas
electronic structures, ns2, 2p6, by gaining one electron.
 8

Types of Bonds

(i) Ionic bond or Electrovalent bond

(ii) Covalent bond
(iii) Metallic bond

(i) Ionic bond (Electrovalent bond)

An ionic bond is formed when there is complete transfer of an electron or electrons from one atom
to another resulting in the formation of cations and anions. These oppositely charged ions are held
together by an electrostatic attraction known as an ionic bond.

e.g., NaCl is an ionic compound.

Characteristic Properties of Ionic Compounds

- Ionic compounds do not contain molecules.
- They consist of oppositely charged ions. (They are melted or dissolved in water.)
- They are solids and do not vaporize easily.
- They have high melting points.
- They will not usually dissolve in organic solvents such as toluene, ether, benzene, etc.

(ii) Covalent bond

Each electron of the shared pair passes from an orbit controlled by the nucleus of one atom into an
orbit controlled by the nuclei of both atoms.

Non-metal + Non-metal Covalent compound

 9

Figure 1.5 Covalent molecules of methane, ammonia and water

Characteristic Properties of Covalent Compounds

- Covalent compounds consist of molecules.

- They contain no ions, are unable to conduct electricity and are non-electrolytes.
- Simple covalent compounds are gases or volatile liquids (e.g., ammonia, carbondioxide, ethanol).

- Covalent compounds (crystals) have low melting points.

- Covalent compounds are usually soluble in covalent organic solvents, such as benzene or carbon
disulphide

Coordinate bond or Dative bond

Coordinate bond is a special type of covalent bonds. This bond is characterized by the fact that the
two shared electrons are both supplied by one of the participating atoms.

A coordinate bone is formed when one of the participant atoms possesses a lone pair of electrons.
This lone pair is donated to an atom needing them to complete an electron octet or duplet of great
stability.

e.g., Ammonium ion (NH4+)

Figure 1.6 Formation of ammonium ion

The Octet Rule

In forming a chemical bond, atoms gain, lose or share electrons in such away to attain the stable
electronic structure of the noble gases i.e., to have eight electrons in the outermost shell. This is
known as the octet rule.

Exception to the Octet Rule

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(iii) Metallic Bond

In metallic solids, atoms of metals are present. They form metallic bonds. In a metallic
bond, valence electrons of the atoms are very loosely held, forming a common electron cloud.
Electrons move freely within this electron cloud. These electrons are often described as a sea of
electrons. Each metal atom is bonded to all the atoms around it by a surrounding sea of electrons.

Typical Questions

1. (a) A compound is formed between 5A and 17B. Name the type of bonding existing between A
and B. Write down the electron dot-cross formula of the compound formed.

(b) What type of bond is formed between the above compound and: NH 3? Draw the electron
dot-cross structure.

Ans: (a) 5A = 2.3

B = 2.8.7
17

Covalent bond

electron dot-cross formula

(b) Coordinate bond

electron dot-cross formula

2. Answer the following:

(a) In a neutral atom of an element, the number of a certain particle or particles is equal to the
atomic number. Name the particle or particles.
(b) Select the isotopes from the following and give reasons for your answer.
40 35 40 37
18Ar, 17Cl, 20Ca, 17Cl

(c) Determine the number of neutrons, protons and electrons in the atom of 3216S.
 11

(d) What elements are most likely to form covalent bond?

(e) What type of bond exists in the solid metals?

Ans: (a) protons, electrons

(b) 3517Cl and 3717Cl are isotopes. They are atoms of same element with different masses.

(c) protons = 16, electrons = 16, neutrons = 16

(d) non-metals

(e) metallic bond

3. (a) Write down

(i) the complete electronic structure

(ii) the essential electronic structure

(iii) the group number

(iv) the period number

(v) the chief valence of the following elements.

Na, 9F, 12Mg, 13Al, 17Cl, 18Ar

11

(b) Classify the above elements as alkali metals, alkaline earth metal, halogen, noble gas and
give reasons for your classification.

Ans: (a) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)

Complete Electronic Essential Electronic Chief

Element Group Period
Structure Structure Valance
2 2 6 1 1
11Na 1s , 2s 2p , 3s 3s IA 3 1
2 2 5
9 F 1s , 2s 2p 2s2 2p5 VIIB 2 1
12Mg 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2 3s2 IIA 3 2
13Al 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2 3p1 3s2 3p1 IIIB 3 3
17Cl 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2 3p5 3s2 3p5 VIIB 3 1
18Ar 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2 3p6 3s2 3p6 0 3 0
(b) Alkali metals Na (IA)
Alkaline earth metal Mg (IIA)
Halogen F and Cl (VIIB)
Noble gas Ar (group 0)
4. (a) Generally the elements of the same group have similar electronic structures. Arrange the
following elements in their appropriate groups.

3Li, 12Mg, 20Ca, 8O, 11Na, 19K, 16S

(b) What is meant by the terms?
 12

(i) electropositive element (ii) electronegative element

Arrange the following elements in order of their increasing electronegativity.
Oxygen, carbon, fluorine, nitrogen
Ans: (a) Group IA Group IIA Group VIB

3Li (2.1) Mg (2.8.2)

12 8O (2.6)

11 Na (2.8.1) Ca ([Link])
20 16 S (2.8.6)
(b)(i) Metals are electropositive elements. They tend to lose electron(s) and form positive ions.
(ii) Non-metals are electronegative elements. They tend to gain electron(s) and form
negative ions.

5. The following information regarding elements I to IV are provided.

Element Atomic Number Mass Number Complete Electronic Structures

I 4 9 1s , 2s2
2

II 18 40 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2 3p6

III 17 35 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2 3p5
IV 12 24 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2
(a) Which of the above elements are in the same group of the periodic table?
(b) Which element is a noble gas?
(c) Which element has the highest electron affinity?
(d) Which element has 18 neutrons in each atom?
(e) Which of the elements have a valence of 2?

Ans: (a) Element I and IV (c) Element III (e) Element I and IV
(b) Element II (d) Element III
6. Complete the following table.
Element X Element Y Element Z
Atomic number 11 6 -
Number of protons - - 16
Number of neutrons 12 6 12
Mass number - 12 32
Electronic structure 2.8.1 - -
and answer the following questions.
(a) Which of the elements X, Y and Z is a metal?
(b) What type of bonding existing between X and Z?
Write down the most likely formula of this compound using the symbol X and Z.
 13

Ans: Element X Element Y Element Z

Number of protons 11 Number of protons 6 Atomic number 16
Mass number 23 Electronic structure 2.4 Electronic structure 2.8.6
(a) Element X is metal (b) Ionic bond X2Z
7. (a) From the following group of elements, select the one which has the largest radius. Give
reasons.
(i) Fe2+, Fe3+ (ii) Cl, Cl- (iii) Li, Na, K (iv) C, N, O
(b) Explain which of the following group has the largest ionization energy.
(i) (2.8.1) (ii) (2.8.5) (iii) (2.8.7)
Ans: (a) (i) Fe2+, Fe3+
Fe2+ is formed by removing 2 electrons.
Fe3+ is formed by removing 3 electrons.
They have the same nuclear charge.
. . . Number of electrons Fe2+ > Fe3+
ē Repulsion Fe2+ > Fe3+
sizes Fe2+ > Fe3+
(ii) Cl, Cl-
Cl- is formed by adding 1 electron.
They have the same nuclear charge.
. . . Number of electrons Cl- > Cl
ē Repulsion Cl- > Cl
sizes Cl- > Cl
(iii) Li, Na, K
They are in the same group.
Atomic size increases from top to bottom in a group.
. . . Li < Na < K in sizes
(iv) C, N, O
They are in the same group.
Atomic size decreases from left to right across a period.
. . . C > N > O in sizes
(b) They are in same period of the periodic table. The ionization of the element increases from
left to right in a period. Therefore, element (iii) 2.8.7 has the largest ionization energy.

8. Answer the following questions.

 14

(a) What is the charge and mass of a proton?

(b) From the following, calculate the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in each of
these atoms : 4018Ar, 3517Cl, 4020Ca, 3919K, 3115P
(c) Which two elements would form a covalent compound?
(d) Which two elements would form an electrovalent compound?
(e) Which particle contains 20 neutrons, 19 protons and 19 electrons?
(f) Explain the meaning of the atomic number of the element.
(g) How are the elements arranged in the Periodic table?

Ans: (a) Charge of proton = +1

Mass of protons = 1 amu
(b) Elements Proton Electron Neutron
40
18Ar 18 18 22
35
17Cl 17 17 18
40
20Ca 20 20 21
39
19K 19 19 20
31
15P 15 15 16
(c) 3115P and 3517Cl form covalent compound.

(d) K and Cl will form an electrovalent compound.

(e) 3919K atom contains 20 neutrons, 19 protons and 19 electrons.

(f) Atomic number

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of an element is known as the atomic
number of that element.

(g) Elements are arranged in order of their atomic number so that the elements of similar
electronic structure or similar property fall under one another in a column.

EXERCISES (Sample Questions)

Question No.1

Write TRUE or FALSE for each of the following statements.

 15

1. Electrons move around the nucleus in definite orbit or shell.

2. In an atom, the number of protons must be equal to the number of neutrons.
3. Atomic number of an element never changes.
4. Isotopes of chlorine contain the same number of protons.
5. The essential electronic structure of halogens is ns2, np5.
6. Noble gas elements are neither electropositive nor electronegative.
7. The halogens have the lowest electron affinities.
8. A metallic bonding is observed in metals.
9. Ionic compounds (electrovalent compounds) consist of molecules.
10. The electrons from the higher shell are easier to remove.
11. Covalent compounds are gases or volatile liquids.
12. A negative ion is always larger than its parent atom.
13. The alkali metals have very high electron affinities.
14. The atom with duplet structure is hydrogen.
15. Ionic compounds are electrolytes.

Question No.2

Fill in the blanks.

1. Atoms of the same element that have the same atomic number but different atomic masses are
…….. .
2. Elements that are found within the same ……. of the periodic table have similar properties.
3. Compounds formed between metals and non-metals will have ……… bonds.
4. From top to bottom in the given group, the atomic number increases and the size of atom
……… .
5. A charged particle is a (an) ……… .

Question No.3

Select the correct word(s), notation(s), term(s), unit(s), etc given in the brackets.

1. The atom has positively charged centre called the (proton, neutron, nucleus).
2. The atom without neutron is (hydrogen, helium, caesium).
3. Hydrogen atom has no (electron, proton, neutron).
4. Atoms are electrically (acid, neutral, base).
5. Mass of an electron can be considered as (1 amu, 2 amu, negligible).
6. The ‘f’ sub-shell can have the maximum number of (6, 8, 14) electrons.
7. (Na-, Na+, Na) is stabilized by an electron octet.
8. (Cl-, Cl+, Cl) is stabilized by an electron octet.
9. 7N and 8O are both in period 2. Therefore, the ionization energy of nitrogen is (larger, smaller,

same) than oxygen atom.

10. BF3 reacts with NH3 to form (ionic, covalent, dative) bond.

Question No.4

Matching with Answers

(i) transfer of electron electrovalent bond

 16

(ii) alkali metal lowest electron affinity

(iii) covalent bond sharing of electrons
(iv) neutrons in the nucleus
(v) atomic size increase down the group
(vi) cation positively charged ion
(vii)number of electrons in the nth shell 2n2 (n=number of electrons)
(viii) protons in the nucleus

Question No. 5 (Definitions)

Atoms, Electrons, Nucleus, Neutrons, Isotopes, Atomic number, Mass number, Electropositive
elements, Electronegative elements, Ionization Energy, Electron affinity, Electrovalent bond(Ionic
bond),Covalent bond, Coordinate bond, Octet Rule

Question No.6

1. What are the charges and masses of neutron and electron?

2. What are the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atom of 2814Si? Write down its
possible isotopes.
3. What type of bond is formed between: NH 3 and BF3? Write down the electron dot-cross formula
of the compound formed?
4. Draw the electron dot-cross structure of BCl3, PF5 and BeCl2.
5. What elements are the most likely to form covalent bonds? Give an example with the electron
dot-cross formula.
6. Select the isotopes from the following and give reasons for your answer.
(a) 3517Cl, 23592U, 2712Mg, 23892U
(b) 3517Cl, 23592U, 4018Ar, 23892U, 2912Mg
(c) 3517Cl, 4018Ar, 4120Ca, 3717Cl
(d) 4119K, 4018Ar, 3517Cl, 4020Ca, 3717Cl
7. In each of the following groups, select the one which has the largest radius.
(i) Fe2+, Fe3+ (ii) Cl, Cl- (iii) Li, Na, K (iv) C, N, O

8. Explain which of the following groups has the largest ionization energy:

(i) 2.8.1, (ii) 2.8.5, (iii) 2.8.7

9. Explain why N has the higher ionization energy than that of O.

Question No.7

1. From the following elements, 4018Ar, 3517Cl, 3919K, 3115P

(i) Which two elements would from a covalent compound?
(ii)Which two elements would from an electrovalent compound?
(iii) Which element is an electropositive element?
(iv) Which element is an inert gas?
2. Write down
(i) the complete electronic structure (ii) the essential electronic structure
(iii) the group number (iv) the period number
(v) the chief valence of the following elements,
11Na, 9F, 12Mg, 18Ar
 17

3. Write down
(i) Write down the electronic structures of the elements 11X and 16Y.
(ii) Write down the valences of the elements X and Y.
(iii) Classify the elements X and Y as metal and non-metal.
(iv) What types of bonding exists between X and Y? Write down the most likely formula of
this compound using the symbol X and Y.
4. A compound formed between 5X and 9Y.
(i) Name the type of bonding that exists between X and Y.
(ii) Write down the electron dot-cross structure of that compound.
(iii) What type of bond is formed between the above compound and :NH3?
(iv) Draw the electron dot-cross structure of that compound formed.
5. Atom “A” has an atomic number 20 ant atom “B” has an atomic number of 10.
(i) Write down their essential electronic structures.
(ii) Give their positions in the periodic table.
(iii) What is the chief valence of each atom?
(iv) What is the type of each of the atom?
6. From the following elements
3A (2.1) 7B (2.5) 9C (2.7) 10D (2.8)

(i) Which element has the highest ionization energy?

(ii) Which element has the highest electron affinity?
(iii) Which element has a valence of 1?
(iv) Which element is a noble gas?
7. You are given elements A, B, C and D with the following electronic structures.
A(1s2,2s2); B(1s2,2s2 2p6,3s2 3p6); C(1s2,2s2 2p6,3s2 3p5); D(1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s1)
(i) Which of the above elements are in the same group of periodic table?
(ii) Which element is halogen?
(iii) Which element has the highest electron affinity?
(iv) Which two elements would form an electrovalent compound?

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