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Handwritten Black Text Physics Notes

The document discusses electric fields generated by electric dipoles, including calculations for fields on axial and equatorial lines. It also covers torque on dipoles in external electric fields, derivations of Coulomb's law from Gauss's law, and the behavior of electric fields due to various charge distributions. Additionally, it explores concepts of electric potential, capacitance, current electricity, and Kirchhoff's laws in circuit analysis.

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4 views52 pages

Handwritten Black Text Physics Notes

The document discusses electric fields generated by electric dipoles, including calculations for fields on axial and equatorial lines. It also covers torque on dipoles in external electric fields, derivations of Coulomb's law from Gauss's law, and the behavior of electric fields due to various charge distributions. Additionally, it explores concepts of electric potential, capacitance, current electricity, and Kirchhoff's laws in circuit analysis.

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hafizur.xv
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© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Electric charges and fields anon tome) roe ELECTRIC FIELD AT A POINT ON AXIAL LINE Consider an electric dipole consisting of two charges +q and — q as shown. We have to find lactric field due to this dipole at a point P on axial line at distance r from the centre of this dipole. Clearly, the distance of P from — q is (r+ a) and from +q is (r—a). _ Po Oo—————9 5525, e. Electric field at P due to +q is -4_1 “a ame, (ray And electric field at P due to - qis =a 1 “ane, (rea) Therefore, net field at P is wa =E..-E,= 74 4me,| (ray (rea) q >a {oats -(r- al q - oreo a +a | (F-ay’ q [em +a? +2ar-1? 2! eal q___4ar ae, (F-2F) > 2aq(2r) . 4m, ( -2") | pr =2a “lane (e ry] | Pe For short dipole r >> a anes? ELECTRIC FIELD AT A POINT ON EQUATORIAL LINE Consider an electric dipole consisting of two charges +q and — q as shown. We have to find electric field due to this dipole at a point P on axial line at distance r from the centre ofthis dipole. Clearly, the distance of P from = ais (¢+ a) and from +a is (ra). E.,sine Due to symmetry electric field at P due to both +q and — q will be same which is given =——_4__ “ane, (7? +a’) by E, =E The directions of E_, and E,,,are as shown in the figure. The components normal to the dipole axis (E,,sin@ and E_,sin@) cancel out and (E,,cos@ and E_,cos8) will add up E, =E,,0080+E.,cos® =E,, =2E,,00s6 2q =E,-_4_ \ a” are, (7 2") -—4__,_ a “Ge, (748) Pee cos 8 >E, >E,,-—2#4 - 4ne,(r? +a? iy ante, (1? +2 For short dipole r >> a le-—P > 4ne.° TORQUE ACTING ON AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE IN EXTERNAL ELECTRIC FIELD Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges — q and + q and of length 2a placed in a uniform electric field E making an angle @ with electric field. Force on charge — q = -qE acting opposite to the field Force on charge +q = gE acting along the field Electric dipole is under the action of two equal and unlike parallel forces, which give rise to a torque on the dipole. Force x perpendicular distance between the two forces qExAN =>1=qEx2asin8 = 1=(qx2a)Esind = T=pEsing SPECIAL CASES 1. If @=0°, sind” displaced from this orientation it always comes back to the same configuration. 2. 8 =180°, sin180° =0,..1=0 this condition is called unstable equilibrium because once displaced the dipole never comes back to this orientation instead it aligns itself parallel to the field. 3. 6 =90°, sin90° = 4, -.r=pE (maximum) 1 =0 , this condition is called stable equilibrium. When the dipole is Please note: - In a non-uniform electric field F. #0,1 # 0, therefore dipole executes both translation and oscillation. STEN Romy ae) DERIVATION OF COULOMB'S LAW FROM GAUSS LAW Consider an isolated positive point charge q at O. Imagine a sphere of radius r with centre O. the magnitude of electric field intensity E at every point on the surface is the same and it is directed radially outwards. Therefore, the direction of vector dA representing a small area element on the surface of sphere is along E only i.e. 6=0°. According to Gauss law This is the electric fleld intensity at any point P distant r from an isolated point charge q at the centre of the sphere. \ I another point charge q, were placed at a point on the surface, then force on q, would be FaqxE oF =a Which is Coulomb's law. ane,F ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A STRAIGHT LONG CHARGED CONDUCTOR Consider a straight charged conductor of length ¢ as shown, Consider a cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius r around this conductor. Let dA be small area on this surface. As conductor is positively charged, electric field due it is outwards. Therefore, electric field and area vector are in same direction on the curved part of the surface and electric field and area vector is perpendicular on the flat part of the Gaussian surface as shown. Applying gauss theorem, we have GEdA -2 a4 => EdAcos0” = z = feda=4 ; ——— A= 4 } is the linear charge density. Clearly, E = 1 Therefore, the variation of E with r is shown graphically in the figure. ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO SPHERICAL SHELL When point P lies outside the spherical shell E Suppose that we have to calculate electric field at the point P at a distance r (r > R) from its centre. Draw the Gaussian surface through point P so as to enclose the charged spherical shell. The Gaussian surface is a spherical shell of radius r and centre O. Let E be the electric field at point P. Then, the electric flux through area element dA is given by, dg, =[Link] Since ds is also along normal to the surface, dg =EdAcos0° =EdA « Total electric flux through the Gaussian surface is given by, ° = EGA = Efda Now, aA = 4n0? 2 Q@=Ex4nr? Since the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is q, according to Gauss theorem, (iy =o ars From equations (i) and (i), we obtain Ex4nr? = =e mer (for r > R) When point P lies inside the spherical shell In such a case, the Gaussian surface encloses no charge. According to Gauss law, Ex4nr? =0 =>E=0 Hence, the field due toa uniformly charged spherical shell is zero at all points inside the shell. The variation of electric field intensity E with distance from the centre of a uniformly charge spherical shell is shown: ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO INFINITE PLANE SHEET OF CHARGE Consider an infinite thin plane sheet of positive charge having a uniform surface charge density o on both sides of the sheet. Draw a Gaussian cylinder of area of cross-section A through the sheet. The electric flux crossing through the Gaussian surface is given by, © = E Area of the circular caps of the cylinder Since electric lines of force are parallel to the curved surface of the cylinder, the flux due to electric field of the plane sheet of charge passes only through the two circular caps of the cylinder. dp =Ex2dA According to Gauss theorem, we have dq 77 dp= = . = & Blots Here, the charge enclosed by the Gaussian & w ( ES surface, dq=odA where o is the surface charge density (q/A) odA cdg = 9= From equations (1) and (i), we obtain ex2da=29A |e = & 2e, Electric potential and capacitance ‘A surface on which potential is same at every point is called equipotential surface. PROPERTIES OF EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACE (1) No work is done to move any charge between any two points on an equipotential surface. Proof: Let there be two points A and B on an equipotential surface. Then, work done to move a charge q between A and B is (2) Electric field lines are always perpendicular to an equipotential surface. Proof: Let electric field makes and angle 6 with the surface as shown. Now resolve E into two rectangular components: Ecos@ along the surface. Esin@ perpendicular to the surface. Since it is an equipotential surface so there is no flow of charge along the surface, therefore, Ecos =0 “rE #0-.cos8 =0 or 8=90° Esin8 (3} No two equipotential surfaces can ever intersect. (4) Equipotential surfaces are closed in the region of Exos8 strong electric field and farther in the region of weak electric field. Proof: AV wee Av So,if AV Is fixed Ec ar CAPACITOR WITH SLABS. CAPACITANCE OF PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR WITH DIELECTRIC SLAB BETWEEN THE PLATES Consider a slab of thickness t inserted between the plates as shown Potential difference between the plates is given by V=E,(d-t)+Et =V=E,(d-t)+Eee t ve-e,|d-tet ove [att] Let new capacitance be C’ CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR WITH CONDUCTING SLAB BETWEEN THE PLATES Consider a conducting slab placed between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor as shown. Since, electric field inside the conducting slab is zero, potential difference between the plates is given by V=E,(d-t)+Et => V=E,(d-t)+(0)t a(d-t) ave2(-9 =V= d-t COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS SERIES COMBINATION Consider three capacitors of capacitances C1, C2 and Ca connected in series as shown. Let. potential difference across them be V1, V2 and Vs and charge stored by each is Q. IfV Is applied voltage, then Cy Cy Cs 4 t4 PARALLEL COMBINATION Figure shown three capacitors connected in parallel, let charge stored by each is Q,.Q, and Q, and potential difference across each is V. If charge c supplied by battery be Q, then Q=0,+0,+a, r ~Q=C,V, C,, = equivalent capacitance ° Q-6,V+0,V+6,V CM = (C,+C, +Cy) =|C,,=,+C,+C, v Current electricity Pyaar ng In awire, which is not connected to battery, electrons move in random manner due to their thermal energies. ‘When the battery is connected all electrons start drifting towards the positive end of the battery. We may define drift velocity as the average velocity with which electrons get drifted towards the positive terminal of the battery under the influence of an external electric field. Let the initial velocities of electrons (in the absence of battery) be uju,.Uy .u, , then, Uy tu + +u, ec =0. When the battery is applied, acceleration of each electrons is a=——. n ‘When electrons move in a conductor, they keep colliding with the heavy ions present in it and come to a momentary rest. Time gap between two successive collisions is called relaxation time (7). Thus, if v,, .-W, be the final velocities of electrons then, by definition, drift velocity is y, Since, v,=u, +2t,,¥, u, +at,- Therefore v, becomes: (u9n)+ (Up + ar) (Uy +20 Ve or jv, =2E 7, where 1 is average relaxation time. COMBINATION OF CELLS Like resistors, cells can also be connected in series and parallel combination. SERIES COMBINATION Consider two cells of emfs ¢,ande, and intemal resistances r,andr, are connected in series. Hf V, and, be the terminal potential differences of the two cells, then V = V, + V, V=(6-Ig) (6-5) SVa(e+6,)-Mi +5) sete 1 2 Comparing this with V = £,+8,] This result can be extended to series combination of n cells as Ey + 8p + Ey PARALLEL COMBINATION If two cells are connected in parallel, terminal potential difference across them is same but current is different, = total current i l=h+h oy(E]- Si + Bf th, ‘fe ays (6) nen (nee Comparing this with V =¢,, ~Ir,, we get ER +E oth This result can be extended to parallel combination of n cells as. KIRCHHOFF: 487 LAW (JUNCTION RULE) The algebraic sum of currents meeting at a junction is 0. In the figure shown above |, +1,=1, +1, +1, oF (I,) +(I,) H(A) +) +(-L)=0 This law is the result of conservation of charge. As no charge can accumulate at a junction, so the amount of charge entering a junction per unit time is equal to amount of charge leaving junction per unit time. 2"° LAW (LOOP RULE) The algebraic sum of potential drops across all the components in a closed loop of an electric is zero. This result is direct result of law of conservation of energy. Stops to solve circui 4) Aseume unknown currents in the given circuit and show their directions by arrows. 2) Choose any loop and find the algebraic sum of voltage drops plus the algebraic sum of emfs in that loop and put it equal to zero. 3) Write equations for as many loops as the number of unknown uantities. Solve the equations to find the unknown quantities. 4) Ifthe value of assumed current comes out to be negative, it means that the actual direction of current is opposite to that of assumed direction. Example: In loop AFEBA : -¢, +f, -I,t, +€,-0 In loop BEDCB: -c, +1, -€, +1,f,=0 Tae) ed ‘Wheatstone bridge is a circuit which is used to measure accurately an unknown resistance. Principle. it states that when the bridge is balanced (i.e. when |, =0 ), the product of resistances of opposite arms is equal. Applying Kirchhoff's second law to loop ABDA, we get IP +1,G-(I-l)R=0 Since |, =0 P-(1 =P =(I-1)R ‘Applying second law in loop BCDB, we get (.-1,)Q-(I-1, +1,)$-1,6=0 “=O lQ-(I-L)S=0 =1Q-(I-1)s Ail) From (i) and (i) we get Or [PS=QR] MAGNETIC FIELD ON THE AXIS OF A CIRCULAR LOOP ‘Small magnetic field due to current element Idl of circular loop of radius r at a point P at distance x from its Idi Component dBcos@ due to current element at point P is cancelled by equal and opposite component dBcos@of another diagonally opposite current element, whereas the sine components dB sing add up to give net magnetic field along the axis. So net magnetic field at point P due to entire loop is Idi J eBsing = ft ae) aye pelt pam -° aneseee ’ blr am(r +x?) pire s 2(r? 4x2 Which is directed along the axis (a) towards the loop if current in it is in clockwise direction (b) away from ‘the loop if current in it is in anticlockwise direction. =B= 2m =/B= SPECIAL POINTS +H point P is far away from the centre of the loop i.e. x >> rthen magnetic field at point P is pa Hit vit or Ba 141 mete A isthe area of the circular loop. 2x mx" 2x" bet * circular loop has N turns then magnetic field strength at its centre is and at any point on NU? AP +x) FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL STRAIGHT CONDUCTO! Somes WHEN THE CURRENTS ARE IN SAME DIRECTION ‘When two current carrying conductors are placed parallel to each other, each conductor produces a magnetic field around itself. So, one conductor is placed in the magnetic field produced by the other. Using Fleming's the axis of circular loop is B = left hand rule it can be easily shown that the forces on them are such that they attract each other. Force acting on 1* conductor is given as. F, =1/B, sin90° F, nie Now force acting on h 2 h an ra conductor 2 is given by ? ? F, =1,¢B,sin90” Therefore F, =F, WHEN THE CURRENT IS IN OPPOSITE DIRECTION the conductors will repel each other the magnitude of force will be same as derived above. TORQUE ACTING ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR PLACED IN A MAGNETI aaa) ‘When a rectangular loop PQRS of sides ‘a’ and 'b’ carrying current | is placed in uniform magentic field B, such that area vector A makes an angle @ with direction of magnetic field, then forces on the arms QR and SP of loop are equal, opposite and collinear, thereby perfectly cancel each other, whereas forces on arms PQ and RS of loop are equal and opposite but not collinear, so they give rise to torque on loop. Force on side PQ or RS of loop is F = IbBsin90° =IbB Perpendicular distance between two non collinear forces r, = asin@ So, torque on the loop is 1=F, =IbBasin@ = I(ab)Bsine or|t =IABsin@| loop has N tums then [F=NIABsin6]. In vector form T=MxB where M = NIA is called magnetic dipole moment of current loop abd is directed in direction of area vector. Ifthe plane of the loop Is normal to the direction of magnetic field i.e. 8 = 0° between & and A then the loop does not experience any torque 1.0. Thay =O ¥ Hf the plane of the loop is parallel to the direction of magnetic field i.e. 6 = 90° between B and A NIAB then the loop experience maximum torque Tyr anne ne TER Moving coil galvanometer is used to detect or measure small currents. It works on the principle that when an electric current is passed through a coil placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a torque, whose magnitude Is proportional to the strength of electric current passed through it. In order to make torque on the coil independent of angle 6 between the area vector A and magnetic field B, 80 that the plane of coil always remain parallel to the field. 4) The radial magnetic field is applied by cutting the poles of magnet concave, and (2) The core of coil Is filled by soft iron Permanent magnet Therefore, when current is passed through a coil suspended in radial magnetic field, it experiences a torque NIAB and gets deflected by an angle @ where itis balanced by restoring torque 8, developed in suspension strip, where k is restoring torque per unit deflection or torsional constant of suspension strip. Thus NIAB = k9 k 1-9 or |=G8 orle® ‘So by measuring deflection a, we can measure current | passing through the coil. Where 6-Ks is called galvanometer constant. So measuring by deflection a, we can measure current | passing through the coll. CURRENT SENSITIVITY (Is) It Is defined as the deflection produced in the galvanometer coil when unit current is passed through it. Thus |, 8 St unit is raga. since a é we therefore, the increase current sensitivity we should Increase N which is not possible beyond a certain limit as it makes galvanometer bulky. Increase A which is not possible beyond a certain limit due to space. Increase B SARS Decrease k, 80 we use phosphor bronze strip in galvanometer because it has very small k. VOLTAGE SENSITIVITY {V,} Is the defined as the deflection produced in galvanometer coil when unit voltage is applied across its © stunt isradv. terminals. V, = v Electromagnetic induction Let us consider a solenoid of N tums with length | and area of cross section A. It carries 2 current |. If Bis the magnetic field at any point inside the solenoid, then Magnetic flux per turn = B x area of each tum But, B= ae = ANIA ment Hence, the total magnetic flux (@) linked with the solenoid is given by the product of flux through each turn and the total number of turns. ‘ ANA Therefore magnetic flux per tu ie. ¢ ana vee (i) If Lis the coefficient of self induction of the solenoid, then gel From equations (i) and (ji) _ NIA ue Lana t If the core is filled with a magnetic material of permeability 4, then NA LaHNA t MUTUAL INDUCTION OF TWO Ty S1 and S; are two long solenoids each of length |. The solenoid Sz is wound closely over the solenoid Ss. Nx and N2 are the number of turns in the solenoids S; and S2 respectively. Both the solenoids are considered to have the same area of cross section A as they are closely wound together. ly is the current flowing through the solenoid S1. The magnetic field B: produced at any point inside the solenoid S; due to the current ly is ‘The magnetic flux linked with each turn of Sz is equal to [Link] magnetic flux linked with solenoid Sz having Nz tums is N tums, Substituting for 8; from equation (1) ‘Where M Is the coefficient of mutual induction between $1 and S2. From equations (2) and (3) wa, -(284) 4 oM= SNE Ifthe core is filed with a magnetic material of permeability js, 2 NNAl t ‘Als always area of the inner solenoid and £ is the length of the longer solenoid if both solenoids have unequal length. ERR aes It is a device which Is used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. Its working is based on the Principle of electromagnetic induction. CONSTRUCTION It consists of ‘Armature: It is a coil of large no. of tums of copper wire wound over an iron core. (because iron has high permeability). The coil is rotated about its axis. Field Magnets: North and south are the pole pieces of a strong magnet in which the coil is rotated. The axis of the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field. Rings (Ri and R2): (also called siip rings): These are the two hollow metallic rings which are connected to the ends of the coll. These rings rotate with the rotation of coll. Brushes (Bs and B2): These are the two metal plates or carbon rods. They are fixed and kept in contact with Ri and Re. The purpose of the brushes is to pass current from the armature to the external load resistance. WORKING AND THEORY ‘Suppose that the plane of the coil is such that its axis is perpendicular to the magnetic field. As the coil is rotated clockwise, the side AB of the coll moves upward and the other side CD moves downwards. The flux in the coil changes, the current is induced, the direction of the current in the side AB will be outward according to Fleming's left-hand rule. In the next half cycle, AB moves downward and CD moves upward. Now, the direction of current induced in AB is inward according to Fleming's left-hand rule. Thus, alternating current is induced in the coil in one complete cycle which flows from the brushes By and B; to the external load resistance such that an alternating voltage is developed across Ri. Let N be the number of turns in the coil, B be the magnitude of the induced emf, Abe the area of the coil, @ be the magnitude of flux linked with the coil, then, dp at A(NBAcosut) at “PE =-NBAF (cost) = E=-NBAWsinust E is maximum when wt =90° ie. when sinwt =1 Let maximum induced emf be E, E, =NBAw AE=E, sinwt Which the magnitude of instantaneous emf induced in the coil. This can be plotted against time as shown. Alternating current Mies ene essen ror Consider a resistor of resistance R, inductor of inductance L and capacitor of capacitance C connected in series to an altsrnating EMF source as shown. Voltage across all the components is shown in the diagram below. Net voltage V is given by V=y(W-Vc) + VE “VL =IK,, Ve IR, Vo = 1X5 V=y(IX, -IX,) +(IR)’ = V= JP - Xx) +R} [e=V(% -Xe) +R? ‘Where Z is called the impedance of the circuit. Phasor diagram and graph for series LCR circuit is shown in the figure below: u TRANSFORMER ‘Adevice used for converting high current low altemating voltage Into low current, high voltage and vice versa. ‘Soft tron-core WORKING PRINCIPLE: ‘Transformer works on the principle of mutual induction Le, if two coils are inductively coupled, then a change in current in one col induces an EME in another. CONSTRUCTION: = Step up transformer In these transformers, number of tums in the secondary coil greater than primary ones ie., (N, >N, ). The primary col is made of thick insulated wire. It helps in converting ‘mow voltage/high current’ to ‘high voltage/low current. + Step down transformer: tn such transformer, number of turns in the secondary coll are less than in the primary collsi@., (Ns IgEs the efficiency of the transformer is LES | ES Ray optics Consider an object AB placed on the principle axis beyond the centre of curvature C of a concave mirror of small aperture, as shown. Now AA’B'C ~ AABC. _ A'B’_CB'_CP-BIP_-R+v “AB BC BP-CP -u+R As ZA'B'C = ZAPB, therefore, AA'B'P ~ AABP. Consequently, AB _BIP wv AB BP -u wu From (i) and (ii), we get -R+v —uR ou => -uR+uv=uv+vR => vR+uR=2uv = YR UR aw wR uvR uvR Consider and object A8 placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a thin convex lens between its F’ and C’ as shown. A real, inverted and magnified image A’B’ is formed beyond C on the other side of the lens. AA'B'O and AABO are similar ARS () “AB OF From (1) and (2), we get BO OF OF By sign cartesian sign convention, we get Object distance, BO = -u Image distance, OB' = +v Focallength OF =+f v _v-f aT or vf=-uvtuf or uv=uf-vf Dividing both sides by uvf, we get DERIVE THE RELATION BETWEEN THE DISTANCE OF OBJECT, DISTANCE OF IMAGE AND RADIUS OF CURVATURE OF CONVEX SPHERICAL SURFACE, WHEN REFRACTION TAKES PLACE FROM RARER TO DENSER MEDIUM AND IMAGE el teat Consider an object placed at O and its real image is formed at | as shown. In ANOG, iis an exterior angle, therefore, isaty Similarly, from ANIC, we have y=ar+B =r=y-B ‘Suppose, all the rays are paraxial. Then the angles i, r, a, B and y will be small. :atang=NM , NM “ “OM OP NM _NM B=tanB= 4” pr = ui nr = n(ary)-Ho(y-B) (MM. NM) (NM NM ‘opt pc)" lec” Pr nf A) op (2 *optac) YlBc” Pl by ot PI Using Cartesian sign convention, Irnage distance Pl=+v Radius of curvature PC = 4 tor) Consider an object placed at © whose final image is formed at | as shown. Let the image formed by first surface is at ls. This image will act as on abject for the second surface. For refraction at fist surface, we have abe Mw 4 o R (i} for refraction at second surface we have He Hob Gy voy R adding (i) and (ii) we get Bo v rth’ object is placed at infinity (Ul ~ oo ), he image is formed at focus, Le.v=. Therefore, This results lens maker's formula. DERIVE A RELATION BETWEEN ANGLE OF DEVIATION, ANGLE Riot a ao LO PRISM AND Consider a ray PQ incident of one face of a prism as shown. The path of ray inside the prism and refracted ray is also shown. From quadrilateral AQNR. A+ ZQNR = 180° From the triangle QNR r+rtt ZONR = 180" oASrer Now, from the triangle MQR, the deviation produced by the prism Hence deviation produced by the prism is BHi+f- As urepr-A = B=p(rar')-A=pA-A =B=0-94) DERIVE A RELATION FOR REFRACTIVE INDEX OF A PRISM IN TERMS OF ANGLE OF MINIMUM DEVIATIO ‘When a prism isin the position of minimum deviation, a ray of light passes symmetrically (parallel to base} through the prism, so that A+S=i47 A486, -14i or 7 AtOn Also A=rer'=rer=2r sin| or |b sinr on) DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR MAGNIFYING POWER OF A COMPOUND MICROSCOPE WHEN FINAL IMAGE IN FORMED AT (A) LEAST DISTANCE OF PST ea U ET CE LaLa or WHEN FINAL IMAGE IS FORMED AT LEAST DISTANCE OF DISTINCT VISION WHEN FINAL IMAGE IS FORMED AT LEAST DISTANCE OF DISTINCT VISION The object AB is placed at u, slightly larger than the focal length f,of the objective O. The object forms a real, inverted and magnified image A’B" on the other side of the lens. This image acts as an object for the eyepiece which essentially acts like a simple microscope. The eyepiece E forms a virtual and magnified final image A”B” of the object. ‘Magnifying power, m= WHEN FINAL IMAGE IS FORMED AT INFINITY wo air] x 15] Wave optics PROOFS ON THE BASIS OF WAVE THEORY PROOF OF LAWS OF REFLECTION Consider a beam of light LM, whose wave front AP reaches A'P” in time t, hence for any point Q on the AP wave front ‘must also reach A'P’ in time t. Lat speed of light in the medium be c, then PP" = ct and AA’ = ot In AAP‘P and AAA'P* PP'= AA‘ [Proved above] AP‘= AP' [common] ZAPP'= ZAA'P" [both 90°] -. AAP'P= AAA'P' [by RHS congruence rule) 4i=40 [by cpct] PROOF OF LAW OF REFRACTION (SNELL'S LAW) USING WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT Let speed of light in medium 1 be ci and speed of light in medium 2 be c2. Let time taken by light to travel from AP to A’P’ be t, then Medium 3 ssa ‘The phenomenon of redistribution of energy in the medium due to superposition of two light waves is called interference of light. YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT In this experiment, light from a single source Is split into two components using slits. AT a distance D, a screen is placed on which the interference pattern is obtained. Observation v The interference pattern disappears if one the tow slits is closed. ¥ Iftwo different sources are used, no permanent pattern of interference is obtained. Conditions for sustained interference The two sources of light should emit light continuously. ‘The two waves should be of same wavelength (monochromatic) The light waves should be of same or comparable amplitude. The two waves must be in same phase or bear a constant phase difference. The two sources of light must lie close to each other. The two sources must be very narrow. KAA KKS Coherent sources ‘When two light sources are produced from a single source, the amplitude, wavelength of the source are same and they are in constant phase difference, such sources are known as coherent sources. Condition for constructive and destructive interference We can represent the displacement of the waves from the sources S1 and S2 (see figure) at point P on the screen at any time t by = 4,sinor and Ya =a, sin(at +9) where ¢ is the constant phase difference between the two waves. resultant amplitude atter interference is [R= af +i +200, 0059) But intensity of light leak [Fee af + ai +2aa, 0039) = [21+ +2NEh cosg) Constructive interference For intensity of light to be maximum at P, cosp=1 [Link] difference $=2nz, where n=0,1,2,3, fx be the path difference between $1P and S2P, then respective phase difference between two waves will Destructive interference For intensity of light to be minimum at P, cos; $=Qnt De 2e PE net Gre Onda a Gnd Ratio of intensity of light at Maxima and minima Tue © +4; +2a,0, =(4,+4,)° Ian 4) +43 ~2a@ =(4,- 4) Je G+) Van (Ga)? Ratio of intensity of light due to two sources Let I; and Ip and a1 and az be the intensities and amplitudes of light from slits S: and Sz respectively. Then, Relation between slit width (w), | anda oa hie [oh a] Fringe width ‘The angular wath ofeach tinge, 49—5 4 Y_ Interference patter has a number of equally spaced dark and bright fringes of the same width and same intensity. Y For better fringe width > The distance between slits should be small, > Distance between slits and screen should be large, > Wavelength of light used should be large. DIFFRACTION The phenomenon of bending of light around the comers of an obstacle and spreading into the regions of geometrical shadow is called diffraction. | Fresnel diffraction: Diffraction that takes place at a slit when source of, light is at finite distance. | Fraunhofer diffraction: Diffraction that takes place at a siit when source of light is at very large distance. Diffraction Single slit diffraction S is a light source and L1 is a convex lens placed in the path of its light rays. The parallel beam of light is made to pass through a slit AB. Diffraction occurs at slit AB and difiracted rays are again made to pass through a convex lens, These rays are S then fall ona screen and 2 diffraction pattern is obtained, Observations ¥ The width of the central maxima is twice as that of the secondary maxima. ¥ The intensity of maxima goes on decreasing with the order of maxima. Theory From figure, BN = ABsind = asind choosing, BN = A and 6 = 6, we have Asasine: sing, = 4, where @; is the angle upto which the central maxima extends. a such an angular position on the screen will represent the first secondary minimum. To understand it, we assume the slit to be divided into two equal halves, the wavelets from the corresponding points of the two halves of the slit will have a path difference of N2, |.e., the wavelets from each half will reach point P in opposite phase. Hence, for second secondary minimum, 2h= singe => — sindp= 24 @ and sind, = "4 for nth secondary minima @ If ym is the distance of nth secondary minimum from the center of the screen, then tang, = GF = co dD For small value of Gs, sin, = tan@, parts to will cancel out leaving one part of wavelet fo produce the bright fringes.| Similarly, sino; -54 and . for the nth secondary minima Qn+pa a both # and f" are independent of value of n, Hence all the secondary maxima and minima are of the same width. Width of central maxima ‘The central maximum is twice as wide as any other secondary maximum or minimum. The angular ‘ea position (81) secondary minimum is called the half angular width of the central maximum. aa f am w Please note: oe rT ¥ Alens does not introduce any extra path differen. ina parallel beam. ¥ In interference and diffraction, light energy is redistributed. If it reduces in one region, producing a ‘dark fringe, it increases in another region, producing a bright fringe. There is no gain or loss of energy, which is consistent with the principle of conservation of energy. Dual nature of matter & radiation Preise ae aecas ‘When light of suitable frequency falls on a photosensitive surface, electrons in the atoms on the surface absorb energy of photons and they start coming out of the atoms. This phenomenon is called photoelectric, effect. Such electrons are called photoelectrons and current they constitute is called photocurrent. WORK FUNCTION Minimum energy required to remove an electron from a photosensitive surface is called work function. It ls denoted by Wo. THRESHOLD WAVELENGTH Minimum wavelength of incident radiation below which no ejection of photoelectrons will take place from a metal surface is called threshold frequency. It is denoted by v, . clearly, W, Vo If frequency of incident radiation is v(> v,). Then energy of photon is E =hv. Some part of this energy (= Wo) is used by electron to come out to the metal surface and restis used to provide kinetic energy to the electron. Thus, we can write =hv-w, +d, Sah, Ave he fe tie, nA 2 Equation (i) is called Einstein's photoelectric equation. Further, we can write above equation as Where A, Is threshold frequency. Light It is the maximum wavelength above which itive no ejection of photoelectrons will take place metal plate from a metal surface. Hf we connect the metal plate (say C) with negative terminal of a battery and positive plate (say A) is connected to the positive terminal then electrons ejecting from C will go straight towards A and complete the circuit and we will get + photoelectric current. Now if we start } =: tH] decreasing the positive Key potential of A and bring it down to a -ve value such that even the most energetic electron is unable to reach A, the photoelectric current will become zero. This potential of plate A is called stopping potential. Therefore, we can write Thus, we may define stopping potential as the negative potential of the plate ‘A’ at which the photo electric current becomes zero. In other words, stopping potential is that value of retarding potential difference between two plates which is just sufficient to halt the most energetic photo electrons emitted. ag omelet eae hme Cane) INTENSITY Intensity of light is the number of photons falling per unit time on a surface. It must be noted that when ‘one photon falls on the metal surface; it ejects one electron. So, if number of photons falling per unit time ono a metal surface increases, this means an increase in photoelectric current. Thus, we can say photelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light. Photoelectric Current —> Intensity of light —> FREQUENCY OF INCIDENT RADIATION As energy of photon is directly proportional to the frequency of light, so if frequency is increased the energy of photon increases. Now, since one photon can eject only one electron, and since the work function is constant, the extra energy will be used by electron in the form of kinetic energy. Thus, we can say that kinetic energy of ejected electron is directly proportional to the frequency of incident radiation. Now, of the energy of electron is more, more negative stopping potential is required to stop the electron. Therefore, we can also say that more the frequency of incident radiation, more negative is the stopping potential. t Frequency of “ incident radiation (9) > Atoms Cert) MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM Niels Bohr studied in Rutherford's laboratory for several months in 1912 and he was convinced about the validity of Rutherford nuclear model. Bohr, in 1913, concluded that in spite of the success of electromagnetic theory in explaining large-scale phenomena. Bohr combined classical and early quantum concepts and gave his theory in the form of three postulates. Bohr’s Three Postulates 4. First Postulate: Stable Orbits + Electrons can revolve in specific stable orbits without emitting radiant energy. * Atoms have definite stable states with specific total energies, termed as stationary states. 2. Second Postulate: Quantization of Angular Momentum + Electrons revolve around the nucleus in orbits where the angular momentum is quantized as an integral multiple of Planck’s constant divided by 2n i.e. ta) prone) L=n|—| or |mvr=n) — 2n., 2m, + This postulate defines the specific stable orbits permissible for electron movement. 3. Third Postulate: Quantum Transitions and Emission of Photons «Incorporates earlier quantum concepts from Planck and Einstein. + Specifies that an electron transitioning from a higher-energy non-radiating orbit to a lower- ‘energy orbit emits a photon. = The energy of the emitted photon equals the energy difference between the initial and final states: [nv=E,-E, ELECTRON ORBITS Consider an electron of mass m and charge e revolving with velocity v around a nucieus having atomic number z. Then the centripetal force required by the electron is provided by electrostatic force of attraction between nucleus and electron according to equation nll) Expression for velocity of an electron in an orbit From (i) i sveliy From (i) nh 2nmv r= iv) Therefore nh__kZe* 2nmv ‘mv? 2mkZe nh Putting .14,k = 9x 10°N’C®, Z =e = 1.810 C\n = 1 and h =6.62x 10 Js" T= we get 1 vole) Expression for radius of nth orbit Putting the value of v obtained above in equation (iv), we get Kinetic energy of electron in nth orbit ze") 2 KE=Jmv? [Using equation (i)] Potential energy of electron in nth orbit is 4 Zone) 1 2n’mk’Z*e* ITE = > he From Bohs theory, the energy of an electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen atom is given by 2n’mk'Z’et 4 BS ae electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen atom is given by armkZe* 4] Tg Z Putting the values of all constants in E, we get & Brae ‘According to Bohr’s condition, whenever an electron makes a transition from a higher energy level nz to lower energy level ns, the difference of energy appears in the form of a photon is given by ‘Above formula gives the wavelength of photon emitted when an electron makes a transition from higher state n. to a lower state mi. 2r’'mk’e! here R= where oH ls the Rydberg constant . Value of R is 1.097 x10" m". For example, If electron makes a transition from n2 = 3 to m = 1, wavelength 2 of photon is, ia ay @y SPECTRAL SERIES OVERVIEW ‘The study of atomic spectra reveals the fundamental behavior of atoms and their emitted light. Spectral series, notably observed in hydrogen atoms, elucidate the discrete energy transitions of electrons within the atom. These series, including the Lyman, Balmer, Paschen, Brackett, and Pfund series, represent distinct electron transitions and consequent emissions across the electromagnetic spectrum. SeriesName ‘Transition Emission Range Notation Level Lyman Series n> 1—n=1 Ultraviolet spectrum Lines in the ultraviolet region Balmer Series m>2—sn=2 Visible spectrum Lines in the visible light range Paschen Series 1>3—+n=3 Infrared spectrum Lines in the infrared region Brackett Series n>4>n=4 Infrared spectrum Lines in the infrared region Pund Series 505 | Far-inftared/Terahertz _Lines in far-infrared/Terahertz ‘These series denote specific electron transitions within hydrogen atoms. When electrons move from higher ‘energy levels (r1) to lower energy levels (n=1,2,3,4,5), they emit photons corresponding to these spectral series. The resulting emissions fall within distinct ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum, enabiing identification and characterization based on their wavelengths. EMISSION AND ABSORPTION SPECTRA IN BOHR'S MODEL Continuous spectrum Emission lines Absorption lines Emission Spectrum in Bohr's Model + Quantized Energy Levels: + Electrons orbit the nucleus in specific, quantized energy levels in Bohr's atomic model. * Photon Emission: + When an electron transitions from a higher to a lower energy level (0.9. n= 3ton=2orn= 4), itemits a photon. + Distinct Lines in Spectrum: + This emission of photons results in the creation of an emission spectrum, displaying distinct lines at precise wavelengths. + Quantized Energy Release: + Emitted photons correspond to the specific energy differences between electron energy levels, creating the observed discrete lines. Absorption Spectrum in Bohr's Model + Electron Energy Transitions: + When light passes through a substance, atoms absorb photons matching the energy Tequired to move electrons from lower to higher energy levels. + Dark Lines in Spectrum: » These absorbed wavelengths result in dark absorption lines in the spectrum where photons are absorbed by the atoms. += Correspondence with Emission Lines: ‘© Absorption lines align precisely with the wavelengths emitted in the emission spectrum, indicating the energy transitions of electrons within atoms. BOHR’S SECOND POSTULATE: QUANTIZATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM = Bohr proposed that the angular momentum of an electron in orbit is a ‘quantized, limited to integral multiples of 77 =~ Alan, oY * Questioned why angular momentum. should have only these specific values. de Broglie's Explanation + de Broglie's Hypothesis: » Proposed that material particles like electrons exhibit wave-particle duality. Astanding wave is shown on a circular = Electrons possess a wave nature, as orbit where four de Broglie wavelengths suggested by de Broglie in 1923. fit into the circumference of the orbit. + Experimental Validation: * C.J. Davisson and L. H. Germer experimentally verified electron wave nature in 1927. «Electron as a Particle Wave: * de Broglie argued that the electron, in a circular orbit as per Bohr, should be viewed as a Particle wave. * Analogous to standing waves formed by waves traveling on a string. = Electron i ircular Orbit: * Foran electron in the nth orbit of radius r,, the total distance around the orbit is 271». + Relating the distance to wavelength: 2nr, =n2., where at (ps the momentum). + Quantum Condition for Angular Momentum: * Deriving the quantum condition for the electron’s angular momentum: mvr, = oF}. i IMPLICATIONS AND LIMITATIONS OF BOHR'S MODEL 1) Applicable only to hydro-genic atoms, falls for more complex atoms due to electron-electron interactions. 2) Unable to explain relative intensities of frequencies In spectra, lacks explanation for intensity variations. 3) Predicts frequencies accurately but lacks comprehensiveness for explaining complex atomic. structures. 4) Bohr's model, while elegant, cannot be extended to complex atoms. Quantum Mechanics, a radical theory, offers a more comprehensive understanding of atomic structures beyond Bohr’s model. Nuclei Del nN ao). col Nuclear force is a strong attractive force that binds the protons and neutrons together inside a nucleus. Properties of nuclear force 1. It is the strongest force of nature. It is 10™ times stronger than gravitational force. 2. It isa short range force. It operates only up to a very short distance of about 2-2 fm from nucleon. 3. Variation with distance. Nuclear force is maximum when distance between nucleons is 0.8 fm. Graph showing the variation of PE of a system of two 08] 2 3 nucleons with their separation is shown below. rim) Clearly, when the distance between nucleons is 0.8 fm, their potential energy is minimum hence force is strongest. For distance of around 4 fm this force becomes zero. For distances less than 0.8 fm, strength nuclear force decreases. 4. Nuclear force does not depend on the charge of the particles. 5. Nuclear forces show saturation effect ie. anucleon interacts only with its neighbouring nucleons. TCT tac Oa vel) hay vealed Mass defect It is found that the rest mass of a nucleus and the sum of rest masses of its constituent nucleons is called mass defect. Consider the nucleus 4X. It has Z protons and (A 2) neutrons. Therefore, its mass defect is Am =2m, +(A-Z)m,—m Where mp, mp and m are the rest masses of a proton, neutron and the nucleus 4 X respectively. Packing fraction (P.F) ‘The packing fraction of a nucleus is mass defect per nucleon. Thus Mass defect _ Am PF. of a nucleus = Mass number” A If P.F is positive, the nucleus is unstable. If P-F. is negative, then it indicates that some mass has been converted into energy which binds the nucleons together and so the nucleus is stable. Thus the P.F. is directly related to the avai of nuclear energy and the stability of the nucleus. CITT ee atc} The binding energy of a nucleus may be defined as the energy required to break up a nucleus into its constituent protons and neutrons and to separate them to such a large distance that they may not interact with each other. ‘An atomic nucleusis a stable structure. Inside it, the protons and neutrons are bound together by means of strong attractive nuclear forces so a defi amount of work is required to be done to break up the nucleus into its constituent particles and to place them at infinite distance from one another. This work gives a measure of the binding energy of the nucleus. The concept of the binding energy may also be understood in terms of Einstein's mass energy equivalence. Itis seen that the mass of a stable nucleus is always less than the sum of the masses of the constituent protons and neutrons in their free state. This mass difference is called mass defect, denoted by Am, so the bit ding energy is given by E=Amc? So binding energy may also be defined as the surplus energy which the nucleons give up by virtue of their attractions when they become bound together to form a nucleus. EXPRESSION FOR BINDING ENERGY Consider the nucleus $X. It has Z protons and (A 2} neutrons. Therefore, its mass defect is Am =Zm, +(A-Z)m, -m, Where my is the nuclear mass of 4X . From Einstein's mass-energy equivalence, the binding energy of the nucleus is E = Amo? =[Zm, +(A-Z)m, —my ] Masses are given in amu, so first convert them into kg and then multiply with c? to get the energy in joule (or you can directly multiple Am to 931.5 to get the bonding energy in MeV as 931.5 MeV energy is released when 1 amu mass is destroyed. Binding energy per nucleon The binding energy per nucleon is the average energy required to extract one nucleon from the nucleus. It is obtained by dividing the binding energy of a nucleus by its mass number. BINDING ENERGY CURVE The value of binding energy £10 per nucleon of a nucleus 3 : ug|*s_[ze | edgy gives a measure of the 3 Ni stability of that nucleus. i oie Greater is the binding f 4 energy per nucleon of a & ott nucleus, more stable is the alba nucleus. # op Ey 100 150 200 250 Mase number (A) Figure shows the graph of Binding energy v/s mass number graph binding energy per nucleon drawn against mass number A. Binding energy curve reveals the following important features: 1. Except for some nuclei like $He, "Cand 3°, the values of binding energy per nucleon lie on or near a smooth curve. 2. The B.E./nucleon is small for light nuclei like {H, 7H and fH. 3. In the mass number range 2 to 20, there are well defined maxima and minima on the curve. The maxima occur for 3He, °C and 50, indicating the higher stability of these nuclei than the neighbouring ones. The minima, corresponding to low stability, occur for SLi, "B and #N. 4, The curve has a broad maximum close to the value 8.5 MeV/nucleon in the mass number range from about 40 to 120 V. It has a peak value of 8.8 MeV/nucleon for Fe. 5. As the mass number increases further, the 8.£/ nucleon shows a gradual decrease and drops to 7.6 MeV/nucleon for 23*U. This decrease is due to coulomb repulsion between the protons which makes the heavier nuclei less stable. IMPORTANT OF BINDING ENERGY CURVE 1. Nuclear fission. Binding energy per nucleon is smaller for heavier nuclei than the middle ones, Le. heavier nuclei are less stable. When a heavier nucleus splits into the lighter nuclei, the B.E./ nucleon changes from about 7.6 MeV to 8.4 MeV. Greater binding energy of the product nuclei results on the liberation pf energy. This is what happens in the nuclear fission which is the basis of the atom bomb. 2. Nuclear fusion. The binding energy per nucleon is small for light nuclei, ie. they are less stable. So, when two light nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus, the higher binding energy per nucleon of the latter results in the release of energy. This is what happens in a nuclear fusion which is the basis of hydrogen bomb. Semiconductors PINE as Ta A half-wave rectifier is a type of rectifier that converts alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). Its one of the simplest forms of rectifier circuits. The main component of this rectifier is a diode, a semiconductor device that allows current to flow in only one direction. Construction: ‘The basic components of a half-wave rectifier are: 4. AG Input Source: Provides the alternating current that needs to be rectified. 2. Diode: Acts as the rectifying element. When forward-biased, it allows current to pass through; when reverse-biased, it blocks the current. 3. Load Resistor (RL): Connected across the output, it represents the load where the rectified DC is required. 4. Output: The output is taken across the load resistor, where the rectified DC Is obtained. Working: 1. Positive Half-Cycle: v Xe py A Do-+ Il * P, B ow Te Half wave rectifier with input and output wave forms, + When the AC supply is in its positive hatf-cycle, the diode becomes forward-biased. This means it allows the current to pass through it. * The current then flows through the load resistor, RL, and a voltage is developed across it + During this phase, the diode conducts and the circuit completes through the load resistor, resulting in a positive voltage across the output. 2. Negative Half-Cycle: ‘+ During the negative half-cycle of the AC supply, the diode becomes reverse-biased. + In this state, the diode does not conduct electricity as it blocks the current flow. » As a result, no current flows through the load resistor, and the voltage across the output is zero. Output: = The output of a half-wave rectifier is a pulsating DC, which consists of DC voltage with a series of pulses corresponding to the positive half-cycles of the AG input. + This output is not a pure DC but can be smoothed using capacitors or other filtering circuits to reduce the pulsating nature. + The efficiency of a half-wave rectifier is relatively low, and it's generally used for low-power applications due to its simplicity and the fact that it only utilizes half of the input AC cycle. Ripple Factor: + The pulsating nature of the output DC is characterized by a parameter called the ripple factor, which Isa measure of the residual periodic variation (ripples) in the rectified output. IFIER A full-wave rectifier is a device that converts the entire cycle of alternating current (AC) into pulsating direct current (DC). Unlike the half-wave rectifier which only uses one half of the AC cycle, the full-wave rectifier utilizes both the positive and negative halves of the AC waveform, making it more efficient. Construction: + AC Input Source: Provides the alternating current. + Transformer: Steps up or down the input voltage and provides two equal voltages out of phase with each other. + Diodes: Two diodes are used, each connected to one end of the transformer’s secondary winding. + Load Resistor (RL): Connected across the output Working: «The ac input voltage across secondary S; and S2 changes polarity after each half cycle. + Suppose during the first half cycle of input ac signal, the terminal S: is positive relative to centre tap O and S» negative relative to O. + Then diode Dy is forward biased and diode Dz is reverse biased. Therefore, diode Ds conducts whole diode Dz does not. The direction of current (ix) due to diode D; in load resistance R. is directed from Atos, + Innext half cycle, the terminal S1 is negative and S is positive relative to centre tap O. The diode Dy Is reverse biased and diode Dz Is forward biased. Therefore, diode Dz conducts while D; does not. The direction of current (ia) due to diode D. in load resistance RL is stil from A to B, + Thus, the current in load resistance [Link] in same direction for both half cycles of input ac voltage. + Thus for input ac signal the output current is a continuous series of unidirectional pulses. ROLE OF FILTER CIRCUIT: A filter circutt, typically a capacitor or an inductor, is used to smooth out the pulsating DC output of the rectifier. The filter reduces the ripple voltage and produces a steadier DC signal. 1. Capacitor Filter: When placed Parallel to the output, it charges during the peak of the output voltage and discharges when the output voltage falls, thereby reducing the voltage variation and smoothing the ‘output. InputAC signal toberectified 2. Inductor Filter: An inductor in series with the load resists changes in current and thus acts to smooth the output Full wave rectifier waveform, ADVANTAGES OVER HALF-WAVE RECTIFIE! 1. Efficiency: Fulkwave recifiers are more efficient as they utlize both halves of the AC cycle. 2. Output Voltage: The output voltage is higher and more stable in full-wave rectifiers. 3. Ripple Factor: Full-wave rectifiers have a lower ripple factor, implying smoother DC output. 4 |. Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF): Better in full-wave rectifiers, leading to more effective use of the transformer. 5. Reduced Harmonics: The full-wave rectifier design reduces harmonic distortion in the output. Input and output wave forms in full wave rectifier

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