Microbodies
Microbodies are small membrane-bound vesicles containing enzymes. They are found in both
plant and animal cells and are involved in specific metabolic activities such as detoxification and
lipid metabolism
Chromosomes
Chromosomes carry genetic information. Each has a centromere and may have a satellite. Based
on centromere position, chromosomes are metacentric, submetacentric, acrocentric or
telocentric. Chromatin is made of DNA, histone and non-histone proteins, and RNA.
Centrosome and centrioles
Centrosomes contain two centrioles arranged perpendicularly. Each centriole has nine triplets of
microtubules arranged in a cartwheel pattern. They help in organizing spindle fibers during cell
division and form basal bodies for cilia and flagella.
Cilia and flagella
Cilia and flagella are hair-like projections aiding movement. Cilia are shorter and numerous;
flagella are longer. Both have a 9+2 arrangement of microtubules in their axoneme They are
anchored by basal bodies and are involved in locomotion and fluid movement over cell surfaces.
Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a network of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments in the
cytoplasm. It maintains cell shape, provides mechanical support, and facilitates intracellular
transport and movement of organelles and the cell itself .
Golgi apparatus
The Golgi apparatus modifies, packages, and transports proteins and lipids. It has flattened
cisternae with a cis face (receiving) and trans face (dispatching). Proteins from ER are processed
here into glycoproteins and glycolipids. It plays a central role in secretion and intracellular
transport.
The endoplasmic reticulum
The ER is a network of tubules dividing the cell into compartments. RER has ribosomes and
helps in protein synthesis. SER lacks ribosomes and is involved in lipid synthesis, including
steroidal hormones in animals. It connects to the nuclear envelope and assists in molecular
transport.
Endomembrane system
The endomembrane system includes endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes, and
vacuoles. Their functions are interrelated, especially in synthesis and transport. Mitochondria,
chloroplasts, and peroxisomes are excluded because they function independently.
Eukaryotic cells
Eukaryotic cells have membrane-bound organelles and a well-defined nucleus. They show
compartmentalisation, have complex locomotory structures, and chromosomes Plant cells have
cell walls, plastids, and large vacuoles, while animal cells lack these but have centrioles. This
structural variation supports diverse functions in plants and animals.
Ribosomes and inclusion bodies
Prokaryotic ribosomes are 70S type made of 50S and 30S subunits. They synthesize proteins
and often form chains called polysomes. Inclusion bodies store reserve materials like glycogen,
phosphate, and cyanophycean granules. Gas vacuoles are found in photosynthetic bacteria and
help in buoyancy. Inclusion bodies are non- membranous and free in cytoplasm
Flagella, pili and fimbriae
Flagella are long, thread-like structures that provide motility to bacteria. They consist of filament,
hook, and basal body. Pili are tubular protein structures involved in conjugation Fimbriae are
short, bristle-like structures helping in adhesion to surfaces like rocks or host tissues but do not
aid in movement .
Mesosome and chromatophores
Mesosomes are plasma membrane infoldings in prokaryotes that help in DNA replication,
respiration, secretion, and cell wall formation. They increase surface area for enzymatic
functions. Chromatophores are pigment- containing membranous structures found in
photosynthetic bacteria like cyanobacteria and are involved in photosynthesis
Cell envelope and its modifications
The cell envelope in bacteria consists of glycocalyx, cell wall, and plasma membrane, Glycocalyx
may be a slime layer or a capsule. The cell wall provides shape and support. The plasma
membrane is selectively permeable. Gram staining differentiates bacteria into Gram-positive and
Gram-negative based on their envelope structure and composition.
Prokaryotic cells
Prokaryotic cells include bacteria, blue-green algae, mycoplasma, and PPLO. They are small,
rapidly multiplying cells with varied shapes like bacillus, coccus, vibrio, and spirillum. They lack a
well-defined nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. DNA is circular and naked, Plasmids give
special traits like antibiotic resistance. Ribosomes are the only organelles present.