1.
Temperature Measurement
Definition
Temperature is a physical quantity that indicates the degree of hotness or coldness of a body
and determines the direction of heat flow (from higher to lower temperature).
Principles of Measurement
Temperature measurement is based on properties of materials that change with
temperature, such as:
• Expansion of liquids or solids
• Change in electrical resistance
• Generation of thermoelectric voltage
• Radiation emitted by hot bodies
Instruments and Working
1. Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer
• Uses mercury or alcohol
• Works on thermal expansion
• As temperature increases, liquid expands and rises in a calibrated tube
2. Thermocouple
• Based on Seebeck effect
• Two different metals joined together generate voltage when heated
• Voltage is proportional to temperature difference
3. RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector)
• Works on change in electrical resistance
• Resistance increases with temperature
• Platinum is commonly used
4. Thermistor
• Semiconductor device
• Highly sensitive to temperature changes
Units
• Kelvin (K) – SI unit
• Celsius (°C)
• Fahrenheit (°F)
• 2. Pressure Measurement
• Definition
• Pressure is defined as the force exerted per unit area on a surface.
Types of Pressure
• Atmospheric pressure
• Gauge pressure
• Absolute pressure
• Vacuum pressure
Instruments and Working
1. Manometer
• Uses liquid column (water/mercury)
• Pressure measured by height difference
2. Bourdon Tube Gauge
• Curved tube straightens under pressure
• Movement linked to pointer
3. Barometer
• Measures atmospheric pressure
• Mercury column height indicates pressure
Units
• Pascal (Pa)
• Bar
• Atmosphere (atm)
3. Velocity Measurement
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement with respect to time and has both
magnitude and direction
Methods of Measurement
• Direct measurement
• Indirect calculation
Instruments
1. Speedometer
• Measures linear velocity of vehicles
2. Tachometer
• Measures rotational speed (RPM)
3. Anemometer
• Measures wind velocity
Units
• m/s (SI unit)
• km/h
4. Flow Measurement
Flow measurement determines the quantity of fluid passing through a cross-section
per unit time.
Types of Flow
• Volumetric flow rate: volume/time (m³/s)
• Mass flow rate: mass/time (kg/s)
Principles
• Based on Bernoulli’s theorem
• Pressure difference indicates flow rate
Instruments
1. Venturimeter
• Uses converging-diverging pipe
• Pressure difference used to calculate flow
2. Orifice Meter
• Flow measured using restriction plate
3. Rotameter
• Float rises in tapered tube
• Height indicates flow rate
Units
• m³/s
• L/s
Applications
• Water supply systems
• Oil pipelines
• Chemical industries
5. Strain Measurement
Strain is defined as the deformation per unit length of a material when subjected to stress.
Types of Strain
• Tensile strain
• Compressive strain
• Shear strain
Instrument
Strain Gauge
• Works on change in electrical resistance
• When stretched, resistance increases
• When compressed, resistance decreases
6. Force Measurement
Force is an external action that changes or tends to change the state of rest or motion of a
body.
F=m×a
Instruments and Working
1. Spring Balance
• Based on Hooke’s Law
• Extension proportional to applied force
2. Load Cell
• Uses strain gauges
• Converts force into electrical signal
Applications
• Weight measurement
• Mechanical testing
• Industrial automation
7. Torque Measurement
Torque is the turning effect of a force about an axis.
T=F×r
Types of Torque Measurement
• Static torque
• Dynamic torque
Instruments
1. Torque Wrench
• Measures applied torque during tightening
2. Dynamometer
• Measures torque in rotating systems
Working Principle
Based on mechanical deformation or strain measurement
Applications
• Engine testing
• Power transmission systems
• Mechanical assembly