LECTURE NOTE

GET 207: Applied Mechanics

(3 Units)

PREPARED BY:

MR. IBIKUNLE, PETER DUNSIN,

CIVIL ENGINEERING,
LANDMARK UNIVERSITY.
 Overview
Basic engineering principles are taught in this course and how they are
applied in systems analysis are emphasized. Topics such as forces, moments,
couples, equilibrium of simple structures and machine parts. Friction, first and
second moments of area; centroids, kinematics of particles and rigid bodies in
plane motion, Newton's laws of motion, kinetic energy and momentum
analyze formed the robust synopsis of this course with wide practical
applications. The emphasis in this subject matter is in the correct
understanding of the principles of mechanics and on their application to the
solution of engineering problems.

Objectives
The objectives of this course are to:
1. explain forces, moments and couple;
2. describe the equilibrium of simple structures and machine
parts;
3. define friction and explain its applications;
4. analyze first and second moments of area; centroids,
kinematics of particles and rigid bodies in plane motion;
5. describe the Newton's laws of motion; and
6. illustrate kinetic energy and momentum.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the course, students will be able to:
1. explain three (3) fundamental principles of applied mechanics, particularly
equilibrium analysis, friction, kinematics and momentum;
2. identify and solve two (2) complex engineering problems by applying
principles of engineering, science, mathematics and applied mechanics;
3. define friction and state at least two (2) of areas of its applications;
4. analyze first and second moments of area; centroids, kinematics of
particles and rigid bodies in plane motion;
5. state the three (3) Newton's laws of motion; and
6. apply engineering design principles to rigid bodies.

Course Contents
Net forces. Static forces. Dynamic forces. Shear Forces. Torque forces.
Moments. Couples. Equilibrium of simple structures. Equilibrium of machine
parts. Friction. First moments of area. Second moments of area. Centroids.
Kinematics of particles. Kinematics of rigid bodies in plane motion. Newton's
laws of motion. Kinetic energy. Momentum analyses.
 Introduction
CONCEPT OF MECHANICS AND APPLIED MECHANIC
Mechanics is that branch of science which deals with the behaviour of a body when the
body is at rest or in motion. The mechanics may be divided into Statics and Dynamics.
The branch of science, which deals with the study of a body when the body is at rest, is
known as Statics while the branch of science which deals with the study of a body when
the body is in motion, is known as Dynamics. Dynamics is further divided into
kinematics and kinetics. The study of a body in motion, when the forces which cause
the motion are not considered, is called kinematics and if the forces are also considered
for the body in motion, that branch of science is called kinetics. The classification of
Applied Mechanics are shown in Fig. 1.1 below.

Applied mechanics deals with the application of principles and laws of mechanics to the
practical engineering problems. Actually, mechanics is a science which is based on a
systematic understanding and gathering of the facts, laws and principles governing
natural phenomenon. Applied mechanics is an art of utilization of the established facts,
laws and principles to create certain desired phenomenon,
Note. Statics deals with equilibrium of bodies at rest, whereas dynamics deals with the
motion of bodies and the forces that cause them.
1.2 IMPORTANCE AND NECESSITY OF APPLIED MECHANICS
These days, the young engineers should have sound knowledge of fundamental
subjects such as mechanics. They must have sound understanding of the fundamental
principles that apply and be familiar with various general methods of solution of
engineering problems rather than proficient in the use of anyone. The study of applied
mechanics makes the young engineers to build a strong foundation, to acquaint them
with as many general methods of solution as possible and to illustrate the application of
these methods to practical engineering problems. Applied mechanics deals with the
application of principles and laws of mechanics to the practical engineering problems.
1.3 BRANCHES OF MECHANICS
The mechanics is the branch of science which deals with the physical state of rest or
motion of bodies under the action of forces. Depending upon the nature of the body
involved, the mechanics can be divided into: (i) Mechanics of rigid bodies (known as
Applied Mechanics) (ii) Mechanics of deformable bodies (known as Mechanics of solids
or strength of materials) (iii) Mechanics of fluids.

Net forces
The net force is a fundamental concept in physics that describes the overall force acting on an object. It is the
vector sum of all the individual forces acting on the object. When multiple forces are applied to an object, they
can either work together to produce a larger net force (resultant force) or cancel each other out. The net force
determines the object’s acceleration and is directly related to Newton’s second law of motion.
A force is a push or pull that can cause an object to accelerate or change its state of motion. When multiple
forces act on an object, they can either cancel each other out or combine to produce a net force. If the forces
are balanced, meaning they are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, the net force is zero and the
object remains at rest or continues to move at a constant velocity. On the other hand, if the forces are
unbalanced, the net force is non-zero and the object will experience acceleration or a change in its motion.
Net force plays a crucial role in understanding the dynamics of various phenomena. It is governed
by Newton’s laws of motion, which describe the relationship between force, mass, and acceleration. The net
force acting on an object is directly proportional to its acceleration and inversely proportional to its mass. This
means that a larger net force will cause a greater acceleration, while a larger mass will require a larger net
force to produce the same acceleration. By analyzing the net force, we can determine the resulting
motion of an object and explain various phenomena such as the gravitational force, frictional force,
and tension force.
The net force acting on an object can be calculated using the formula:
Net Force = Σ (F)
Where Σ (F) represents the sum of all the individual forces acting on the object. This formula takes into
account both the magnitude and direction of each force, allowing us to determine the overall effect on the
object’s motion. By calculating the net force, we can determine whether an object is in equilibrium (when the
net force is zero) or experiencing acceleration (when the net force is non-zero).
How Net Force Affects the Motion of an Object
When multiple forces act on an object, their combined effect is known as the net force. This net force
determines the object’s acceleration and ultimately affects its motion. The net force is a force vector, meaning
it has both magnitude and direction. To understand how net force affects motion, we need to consider the
concept of balanced and unbalanced forces.
In the case of balanced forces, the net force is zero. This means that the forces acting on the object cancel each
other out, resulting in no acceleration. When an object experiences balanced forces, it remains at rest or
continues to move at a constant velocity. For example, if you push a book on a table with a force of 5
Newtons to the right, and someone else pushes it with an equal force of 5 Newtons to the left, the net force is
zero, and the book remains stationary.
On the other hand, when an object experiences unbalanced forces, the net force is non-zero. This causes the
object to accelerate in the direction of the net force. The acceleration is directly proportional to the net force
and inversely proportional to the mass of the object, as described by Newton’s second law of motion. For
instance, if you push a car with a force of 1000 Newtons to the right, and there are no opposing forces, the car
will accelerate in the direction of the applied force.
The Relationship between Net Force and Acceleration
The relationship between net force and acceleration is described by Newton’s second law of motion, which
states that the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on it and inversely
proportional to its mass. Mathematically, this relationship can be expressed as:
F_net = m * a
Where F_net represents the net force, m represents the mass of the object, and a represents the
acceleration. This equation highlights the fundamental connection between net force and acceleration. If the
net force acting on an object increases, its acceleration will also increase, assuming the mass remains
constant.

Static forces
Static forces are those forces acting on the members whose magnitude doesn’t depend
on acceleration and mass of the component.

Dynamic forces.
Dynamic forces are forces produced due to dynamic action of machine element or
inertia.

Shear Forces.
A shear force (SF) is defined as the algebraic sum of all the vertical forces, either to the
left or to the right-hand side of the section.
Shear Force Diagram: is graph connecting Shear Forces at various locations on the
beam.
A shear force which tends to rotate the beam in clockwise direction is positive and vice
versa

General Guidelines on Construction of SFD and BMD

• The load, shear and bending moment diagrams should be constructed one below the
other, in that order, all with the same horizontal scale.
• The dimension on the beam need not be scaled but should be relative and
proportionate
• Ordinates (i.e., BM and SF values) need not be plotted to scale but should be relative.
Curvature may need to be exaggerated for clarity.
• Principal ordinates (BM and SF values at salient points) should be labeled on both SFD
and BMD.
• A clear distinction must be made on all straight lines as to whether the line is
Government college of Engineering and Research Awasari (kh), Pune horizontal or has a
positive or negative slope.

Torque forces.
Torque is the measure of the force that can cause an object to rotate about an axis.
Force is what causes an object to accelerate in linear kinematics. Similarly, torque is
what causes an angular acceleration. Hence, torque can be defined as the rotational
equivalent of linear force. The straight line about which the object rotates is called
the axis of rotation. In physics, torque is simply the tendency of a force to turn or twist.
Different terminologies such as moment or moment of force are interchangeably used
to describe torque. The distance of the point of application of force from the axis of
rotation is sometimes called the moment arm or lever arm.

In circular motion, the force applied at a radial distance that changes the direction of
motion of a rotation; torque can stop, start, or change the direction of circular motion; it
is the "unbalanced force" of circular motion
τ=Fd
where τ is the torque in Newton meters (or N m), F is the perpendicular component of
the applied force, and d is the radial distance (note: you may also think of d as being r,
for radius)
Tangential and radial components of force A force F acts at an angle at a point P
on a rigid body that is free to rotate about an axis through O a distance r from the axis
of rotation. Only the tangential component of F or F T can have any effect on the rigid
body. FR (the radial component) passes through the axis of rotation and cannot cause
the object to rotate.

Torque (τ) Torque is the "turning agent," or what causes the rotation about an axis

Moment Arm (r perpendicular) Perpendicular distance of the line of action of the

force from the axis of rotation.

Or, you may find the component of the force causing the torque.

Resolve the force into its x and y components. Only the component that is
perpendicular to the lever arm, or moment arm, causes a torque. In the image below,
the vertical component F sin θ is perpendicular to the moment arm and thus causes a
torque. The horizontal component F cos θ is parallel to the moment arm and does not
cause a torque.
When a torque is applied, rotation occurs around a pivot point, or fulcrum. When more
than one torque acts on a body, the acceleration produced is proportional to the net
torque.
Center of gravity
The point at which the entire weight of an object seems to act.
Moments.
The moment of a force is a measure of its tendency to rotate an object about some
point. The physical significance of a moment will be discussed later. We begin by stating
the mathematical definition of the moment of a force about a point.

To calculate the moment of a force about some point, we need to know three things:
1. The force vector, expressed as components in a basis (Fx, Fy, Fz), or better as F =
Fxi+Fyj+Fzk
2. The position vector (relative to some convenient origin) of the point where the force
is acting (x, y, z) or better r = xi+ yj+ zk
3. The position vector of the point (say point A) we wish to take moments about (you
must use the same origin as for 2) (x(A), y(A), z(A)) or rA = x(A)i +y(A)j + z(A)k

The moment of F about point A is then defined as

MA = (r− rA) x F
We can write out the formula for the components of MA in longhand by using the
definition of a cross product.

The moment of F about the origin is a bit simpler

Mo = r × F
or, in terms of components
Example 1: The beam shown below is uniform and has weight W. Calculate the moment exerted by the
gravitational force about points A and B.

We know (from the table provided earlier) that the center of gravity is half-way along the beam. The force (as
a vector) is
F = −Wj
To calculate the moment about A, we take the origin at A. The position vector of the force relative to A is
L
r = ( )i
2
The moment about A therefore
MA = r × F = (L / 2)i × (-W)j = -(WL/2)k
To calculate the moment about B, we take B as the origin. The position vector of the force relative to B is
r = −(L / 2)i
Therefore
MB = r × F = (-L / 2)i × (-W)j = (WL / 2)k

Example 3. The structure shown is subjected to a force T acting at E along the line EF. Calculate the moment
of T about points A and D.

Solution
This example requires a lot more work. First we need to write down the force as a vector. We know the
magnitude of the force is T, so we only need to work out its direction. Since the force acts along EF, the
direction must be a unit vector pointing along EF. It’s not hard to see that the vector EF is
EF = ai – 3aj + 2ak
We can divide by the length of EF (a√ 4 ) to find a unit vector pointing in the correct direction
eEF = (i- 3j + 2k) / √ 14
The force vector is
F = T(i – 3j + 2k) / √ 14
Next, we need to write down the necessary position vectors
Force: r = 2ai + 3aj
Point A: rA = -2ai
Point D: rD = 4aj
Finally, we can work through the necessary cross products
MA= (r – rA) × F
= (4ai + 3aj) × T(i – 3j + 2k) / √ 14

i j k
= (Ta / √ 14) 4 3 0
1 −3 2

= Ta ( 6i- 8j – 15k) / √ 14

MD= (r – rD) × F
= (2ai – aj) × T(i – 3j + 2k) / √ 14

i j k
= (Ta / √ 14)2 −1 0
1 −3 2

= Ta ( -2i- 4j –5k) / √ 14

NB: Clearly, vector notation is very helpful when solving 3D problems!

Couples.
COUPLE: A pair of two equal and unlike parallel forces ([Link] equal in magnitude, with lines of
action parallel to each other and acting in opposite directions) is known as a couple.
As a matter of fact, a couple is unable to produce any translatory motion (i.e., motion in a straight line).
But it produces a motion of rotation in the body, on which it acts. The simplest example of a couple is
the forces applied to the key of a lock, while locking or unlocking it.
ARM OF A COUPLE:
The perpendicular distance (a), between the lines of action of the two equal and opposite parallel
forces, is known as arm of the couple as shown in Fig.

MOMENT OF A COUPLE: The moment of a couple is the product of the force (i.e., one of the forces
of the two equal and opposite parallel forces) and the arm of the couple.
Mathematically:
Moment of a couple = P × a

where P a == Arm of the couple. Magnitude of the force, and

CLASSIFICATION OF COUPLES:
The couples may be, broadly, classified into the following two categories, depending upon their
direction, in which the couple tends to rotate the body, on which it acts:

1. Clockwise couple, and 2. Anticlockwise couple

CLOCKWISE COUPLE:
A couple, whose tendency is to rotate the body, on which it acts, in a clockwise direction, is known as a
clockwise couple as shown in Fig. (a). Such a couple is also called positive couple.

ANTICLOCKWISE COUPLE:
A couple, whose tendency is to rotate the body, on which it acts, in an anticlockwise direction, is
known as an anticlockwise couple as shown in Fig. (b). Such a couple is also called a negative couple.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A COUPLE:
A couple (whether clockwise or anticlockwise) has the following characteristics:

1. The algebraic sum of the forces, constituting the couple, is zero.

2. The algebraic sum of the moments of the forces, constituting the couple, about any point is the
same, and equal to the moment of the couple itself.
3. A couple cannot be balanced by a single force. But it can be balanced only by a couple of
opposite sense.
4. Any no. of co-planer couples can be reduced to a single couple, whose magnitude will be equal
to the algebraic sum of the moments of all the couples.
EXAMPLE: A square ABCD has forces acting along its sides as shown in Fig. 4.13. Find the values of
P and Q, if the system reduces to a couple. Also find magnitude of the couple, if the side of the square
is 1 m.

Equilibrium of simple structures.

Engineering structures must remain in equilibrium both externally and internally when subjected to a system
of forces. The equilibrium requirements for structures in two and three dimensions are stated below.
Equilibrium in Two Dimensions
For a structure subjected to a system of forces and couples which are lying in the xy plane to remain at rest, it
must satisfy the following three equilibrium conditions:

∑Fx = 0; ∑Fy = 0; ∑Mz = 0

The above three conditions are commonly referred to as the equations of equilibrium for planar structures.
∑ Fx and ∑ Fy are the summation of the x and y components of all the forces acting on the structure, and
∑ Mz is the summation of the couple moments and the moments of all the forces about an axis z, perpendicular
to the plane xy of the action of the forces.
Equilibrium in Three Dimensions
A structure in three dimensions, that is, in a space, must satisfy the following six requirements to remain in
equilibrium when acted upon by external forces:

∑Fx = 0; ∑Fy = 0; ∑Fz = 0

∑Mx = 0; ∑My = 0; ∑Mz = 0

Types of Supports and Their Characteristics

The type of support provided for a structure is important in ensuring its stability. Supports connect the member
to the ground or to some other parts of the structure. It is assumed that the student is already familiar with
several types of supports for rigid bodies, as this was introduced in the statics course.
Pin or Hinge Support
A pin support allows rotation about any axis but prevents movement in the horizontal and vertical directions.
Roller Support
A roller support allows rotation about any axis and translation (horizontal movement) in any direction parallel
to the surface on which it rests. It restrains the structure from movement in a vertical direction.
Rocker Support
The characteristics of a rocker support are like those of the roller support.
Link
A link has two hinges, one at each end. It permits movement in all direction, except in a direction parallel to its
longitudinal axis, which passes through the two hinges. In other words, the reaction force of a link is in the
direction of the link, along its longitudinal axis.
Fixed Support
A fixed support offers a constraint against rotation in any direction, and it prevents movement in both
horizontal and vertical directions.
Determinacy and Stability of Beams and Frames
Prior to the choice of an analytical method, it is important to establish the determinacy and stability of a
structure. A determinate structure is one whose unknown external reaction or internal members can be
determined using only the conditions of equilibrium. An indeterminate structure is one whose unknown forces
cannot be determined by the conditions of static equilibrium alone and will require, in addition, a
consideration of the compatibility conditions of different parts of the structure for its complete analysis.
Furthermore, structures must be stable to be able to serve their desirable functions. A structure is considered
stable if it maintains its geometrical shape when subjected to external forces.
Formulations for Stability and Determinacy of Beams and Frames
The conditions of determinacy, indeterminacy, and instability of beams and frames can be stated as follows:

Where:
r = number of support reactions.
C = equations of condition (two equations for one internal roller and one equation for each internal pin).
m = number of members.
j = number of joints.

Equilibrium of machine parts.

If the resultant of a number of forces, acting on a particle is zero, the particle will be in equilibrium.
Such a set of forces, whose resultant is zero, are called equilibrium forces. The force, which brings the
set of forces in equilibrium is called an equilibrant.
\

PRINCIPLES OF EQUILIBRIUM:
Though there are many principles of equilibrium, yet the following three are important from the subject
point of view:
1. Two force principle:
As per this principle, if a body in equilibrium is acted upon by two forces, then they
must be equal, opposite and collinear.
 2. Three force principle:
As per this principle, if a body in equilibrium is acted upon by three forces, then the resultant of any
two forces must be equal, opposite and collinear with the third force.
3. Four force principle:
As per this principle, if a body in equilibrium is acted upon by four forces, then the resultant of any
two forces must be equal, opposite and collinear with the resultant of the other two forces.

METHODS FOR THE EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR FORCES:

Though there are many methods of studying the equilibrium of forces, yet the following are important
from the subject point of view : 1. Analytical method. 2. Graphical method.

LAMI’S THEOREM:
It states, “If three coplanar forces acting at a point be in equilibrium, then each force is
proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two.” Mathematically,
EXAMPLE: An electric light fixture weighting 15 N hangs from a point C, by two strings AC and BC.
The string AC is inclined at 60° to the horizontal and BC at 45° to the horizontal as shown in Fig.
Using Lami’s theorem, or otherwise, determine the force in the strings AC.
EXAMPLE: Two equal heavy spheres of 50 mm radius are in equilibrium within a smooth cup of 150
mm radius. Show that the reaction between the cup of one sphere is double than that between the two
spheres.
GRAPHICAL METHOD FOR THE EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR FORCES:
We have studied that the equilibrium of forces by analytical method. Sometimes, the analytical method
is too tedious and complicated. The equilibrium of such forces may also be studied, graphically, by
drawing the vector diagram. This may also be done by studying the
1. Converse of the Law of Triangle of Forces
2. Converse of the Law of Polygon of Forces

CONVERSE OF THE LAW OF TRIANGLE OF FORCES:

If three forces acting at a point be represented in magnitude and direction by the three sides a triangle,
taken in order, the forces shall be in equilibrium.

CONVERSE OF THE LAW† OF POLYGON OF FORCES:

If any number of forces acting at a point be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a
closed polygon, taken in order, the forces shall be in equilibrium.
EXAMPLE: An electric light fixture weighing 15 N hangs from a point C, by two strings AC and BC.
The string AC is inclined at 60° to the horizontal and BC at 45° to the horizontal as shown in Fig.

SOLUTION: Given. Weight at C = 15 N

TAC = Force in the string AC, and TBC
= Force in the string BC.
First of all, draw the space diagram for the joint C and name the forces according to Bow’s notations as
shown in Fig. The force TAC is named as RQ and the force TBC as PR.

Now draw the vector diagram for the given system of forces as shown in Fig. (b) and as discussed
below;
1. Select some suitable point p and draw a vertical line pq equal to 15 N to some suitable scale
representing weight (PQ) of the electric fixture.
2. Through p draw a line pr parallel to PR and through q, draw a line qr parallel to QR. Let these
two lines meet at r and close the triangle pqr, which means that joint C is in equilibrium.
3. By measurement, we find that the forces in strings AC (TAC) and BC (TPC) is equal to 1.0 N
and 7.8 N respectively.

CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM: If the body is completely at rest, it necessarily means that there
is neither a resultant force nor a couple acting on it. A little consideration will show, that in this case the
following conditions are already satisfied:

∑ H = 0 ∑ V = 0 and ∑ M = 0

The above mentioned three equations are known as the conditions of equilibrium.

TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM:
 1. STABLE EQUILIBRIUM: A body is said to be in stable equilibrium, if it returns back to its
original position, after it is slightly displaced from its position of rest. This happens when some
additional force sets up due to displacement and brings the body back to its original position. A
smooth cylinder, lying in a curved surface, is in stable equilibrium. If we slightly displace the
cylinder from its position of rest (as shown by dotted lines), it will tend to return back to its

original position in order to bring its weight normal to horizontal axis as shown in Fig. (a).

2. UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM: A body is said to be in an unstable equilibrium, if it does not

return back to its original position, and heels farther away, after slightly displaced from its
position of rest. This happens when the additional force moves the body away from its position
of rest. This happens when the additional force moves the body away from its position of rest. A
smooth cylinder lying on a convex surface is in unstable equilibrium. If we slightly displace the
cylinder from its position of rest (as shown by dotted lines) the body will tend to move away

from its original position as shown in Fig. (b).

3. NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM: A body is said to be in a neutral equilibrium, if it occupies a

new position (and remains at rest in this position) after slightly displaced from its position of
rest. This happens when no additional force sets up due to the displacement. A smooth cylinder
lying on a horizontal plane is in neutral equilibrium as shown in Fig. (c).

Friction.
INTRODUCTION:
If a block of one substance is placed over the level surface of the same or different material, a
certain degree of interlocking of the minutely projecting particles takes place. This does not
involve any force, so long as the block does not move or tends to move. But whenever one of
the blocks moves or tends to move tangentially with respect to the surface, on which it rests, the
interlocking property of the projecting particles opposes the motion. This opposing force, which
acts in the opposite direction of the movement of the block, is called force of friction or simply
friction. It is of the following two types:
1. Static friction. 2. Dynamic friction

STATIC FRICTION:
It is the friction experienced by a body when it is at rest. Or in other words, it is the friction
when the body tends to move.

DYNAMIC FRICTION:
 It is the friction experienced by a body when it is in motion. It is also called kinetic friction.
The dynamic friction is of the following two types:
1. Sliding friction: It is the friction, experienced by a body when it slides over another body.
2. Rolling friction: It is the friction, experienced by a body when it rolls over another body.

LIMITING FRICTION: The maximum value of frictional force, which comes into play, when a body
just begins to slide over the surface of the other body, is known as limiting friction. It may be noted that
when the applied force is less than the limiting friction, the body remains at rest, and the friction is
called static friction, which may have any value between zero and limiting friction.

COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION:
It is the ratio of limiting friction to the normal reaction, between the two bodies, and is generally
denoted by μ.
Mathematically, coefficient of friction,

ANGLE OF FRICTION: Consider a body of weight W resting on an inclined plane as shown in Fig.
We know that the body is in equilibrium under the action of the following forces:
1. Weight (W) of the body, acting vertically downwards, 2. Friction force (F)
acting upwards along the plane, and 3. Normal reaction (R) acting at right
angles to the plane.

Let the angle of inclination (α) be gradually increased, till the body just starts sliding down the plane.
This angle of inclined plane, at which a body just begins to slide down the plane, is called the angle of
friction. This is also equal to the angle, which the normal reaction makes with the vertical.
ANGLE OF REPOSE: Angle of repose is defined as the angle of the inclined plane with horizontal
such that a body placed on it just begins to slide.

LAWS OF FRICTION:
Prof. Coulomb, after extensive experiments, gave some laws of friction, which may be grouped
under the following heads : 1. Laws of static friction, and
2. Laws of kinetic or dynamic friction

LAWS OF STATIC FRICTION:

Following are the laws of static friction :

1. The force of friction always acts in a direction, opposite to that in which the body tends to
move, if the force of friction would have been absent.
2. The magnitude of the force of friction is exactly equal to the force, which tends to move the
body.
3. The magnitude of the limiting friction bears a constant ratio to the normal reaction between the
two surfaces. Mathematically:
F/R = CONSTANT
4. The force of friction is independent of the area of contact between the two surfaces.
5. The force of friction depends upon the roughness of the surfaces

LAWS OF KINETIC OR DYNAMIC FRICTION:

Following are the laws of kinetic or dynamic friction:

1. The force of friction always acts in a direction, opposite to that in which the body is
moving.
2. The magnitude of kinetic friction bears a constant ratio to the normal reaction between
the two surfaces. But this ratio is slightly less than that in case of limiting friction.
3. For moderate speeds, the force of friction remains constant. But it decreases slightly
with the increase of speed.

ADVANTAGES OF FRICTION:
1. Friction is responsible for many types of motion
2. It helps us walk on the ground
3. Brakes in a car make use of friction to stop the car
4. Asteroids are burnt in the atmosphere before reaching Earth due to friction.
5. It helps in the generation of heat when we rub our hands.
DISADVANTAGES OF FRICTION:
6. Friction produces unnecessary heat leading to the wastage of energy.
7. The force of friction acts in the opposite direction of motion, so friction slows down the
motion of moving objects.
8. A lot of money goes into preventing friction and the usual wear and tear caused by it by
using techniques like greasing and oiling.

EQUILIBRIUM OF A BODY ON A ROUGH HORIZONTAL PLANE:

We know that a body, lying on a rough horizontal plane will remain in equilibrium. But whenever a
force is applied on it, the body will tend to move in the direction of the force. In such cases, equilibrium
of the body is studied first by resolving the forces horizontally and then vertically.
Now the value of the force of friction is obtained from the relation:
F = Μr

EXAMPLE: A body of weight 300 N is lying on a rough horizontal plane having a coefficient of
friction as 0.3. Find the magnitude of the force, which can move the body, while acting at an angle of
25° with the horizontal.
EQUILIBRIUM OF A BODY ON A ROUGH INCLINED PLANE:
Consider a body, of weight W, lying on a rough plane inclined at an angle α with the horizontal as
shown in Fig.(a) and (b).

A little consideration will show, that if the inclination of the plane, with the horizontal, is less the angle
of friction, the body will be automatically in equilibrium as shown in Fig. (a). If in this condition, the
body is required to be moved upwards or downwards, a corresponding force is required, for the same.
But, if the inclination of the plane is more than the angle of friction, the body will move down. And an
upward force (P) will be required to resist the body from moving down the plane as shown in Fig. (b).
Though there are many types of forces, for the movement of the body, yet the following are important
from the subject point of view :
1. Force acting along the inclined plane.
2. Force acting horizontally.
3. Force acting at some angle with the inclined plane.

EQUILIBRIUM OF A BODY ON A ROUGH INCLINED PLANE SUBJECTED TO A FORCE

ACTING ALONG THE INCLINED PLANE:
Consider a body lying on a rough inclined plane subjected force acting along the inclined plane,
which keeps it in equilibrium as shown in Fig.(a) and (b). Let W = Weight of the body,
α = Angle, which the inclined plane makes with the horizontal, R = Normal
reaction, μ = Coefficient of friction between the body and the inclined plane, and
φ = Angle of friction, such that μ = tan φ.
A little consideration will show that if the force is not there, the body will slide down the plane. Now
we shall discuss the following two cases:

1. Minimum force (P1) which will keep the body in equilibrium, when it is at the point of sliding
downwards:
EXAMPLE: A body of weight 500 N is lying on a rough plane inclined at an angle of
25° with the horizontal. It is supported by an effort (P) parallel to the plane as shown in Fig. Determine
the minimum and maximum values of P, for which the equilibrium can exist, if the angle of friction is
20°.
EQUILIBRIUM OF A BODY ON A ROUGH INCLINED PLANE SUBJECTED TO A FORCE
ACTING HORIZONTALLY:
Consider a body lying on a rough inclined plane subjected to a force acting horizontally, which keeps it
in equilibrium as shown in Fig.(a) and (b).

W = Weight of the body,

α = Angle, which the inclined plane makes with the horizontal, R = Normal
reaction, μ = Coefficient of friction between the body and the inclined plane, and
φ = Angle of friction, such that μ = tan φ.

A little consideration will show that if the force is not there, the body will slide down on the plane.
Now we shall discuss the following two cases:
EXAMPLE: A load of 1.5 kN, resting on an inclined rough plane, can be moved up the plane by a
force of 2 kN applied horizontally or by a force 1.25 kN applied parallel to the plane. Find the
inclination of the plane and the coefficient of friction.
EQUILIBRIUM OF A BODY ON A ROUGH INCLINED PLANE SUBJECTED TO A FORCE
ACTING AT SOME ANGLE WITH THE INCLINED PLANE:

Consider a body lying on a rough inclined plane subjected to a force acting at some angle with the
inclined plane, which keeps it in equilibrium as shown in Fig.(a) and (b).

Let W = Weight of the body, α = Angle which the inclined plane makes with the
horizontal, θ = Angle which the force makes with the inclined surface, R =
Normal reaction, μ = Coefficient of friction between the body and the inclined
plane, and φ = Angle of friction, such that μ = tan φ.
A little consideration will show that if the force is not there, the body will slide down the plane.
Now we shall discuss the following two cases :
EXAMPLE: Find the force required to move a load of 300 N up a rough plane, the force being applied
parallel to the plane. The inclination of the plane is such that when the same load is kept on a perfectly
smooth plane inclined at the same angle, a force of 60 N applied at an inclination of 30° to the plane,
keeps the same load in equilibrium.
Assume coefficient of friction between the rough plane and the load to be equal to 0.3.
APPLICATIONS OF FRICTION

LADDER FRICTION: The ladder is a device for climbing or scaling on the roofs or walls. It consists
of two long uprights of wood, iron or rope connected by a number of cross pieces called rungs. These
running serve as steps.

Consider a ladder AB resting on the rough ground and leaning against a wall, as shown in
Fig.

As the upper end of the ladder tends to slip downwards, therefore the direction of the force of friction
between the ladder and the wall (Fw) will be upwards as shown in the figure. Similarly, as the lower
end of the ladder tends to slip away from the wall, therefore the direction of the force of friction
between the ladder and the floor (Ff) will be towards the wall as shown in the figure.
Since the system is in equilibrium, therefore the algebraic sum of the horizontal and vertical
components of the forces must also be equal to zero.
Note: The normal reaction at the floor (Rf) will act perpendicular of the floor. Similarly, normal
reaction of the wall (Rw) will also act perpendicular to the wall.
EXAMPLE: A ladder 5 meters long rests on a horizontal ground and leans against a smooth vertical
wall at an angle 70° with the horizontal. The weight of the ladder is 900 N and acts at its middle. The
ladder is at the point of sliding, when a man weighing 750N stands on a rung 1.5 metre from the
bottom of the ladder. Calculate the coefficient of friction between the ladder and the floor.

WEDGE FRICTION: A wedge is, usually, of a triangular or trapezoidal in cross-section. It is,

generally, used for slight adjustements in the position of a body i.e. for tightening fits or keys for shafts.
Sometimes, a wedge is also used for lifting heavy weights as shown in Fig.
It will be interesting to know that the problems on wedges are basically the problems of equilibrium on
inclined planes. Thus these problems may be solved either by the equilibrium method or by applying
Lami’s theorem. Now consider a wedge ABC, which is used to lift the body DEFG.
Let W = Weight fo the body DEFG, P = Force required to lift the body,
and μ = Coefficient of friction on the planes AB, AC and DE such that tan
φ = μ.
A little consideration will show that when the force is sufficient to lift the body, the sliding will take
place along three planes AB, AC and DE will also occur as shown in Fig.(a) and (b).

The three reactions and the horizontal force (P) may now be found out by analytical method as
discussed below:
Analytical method:
1. First of all, consider the equilibrium of the body DEFG. And resolve the forces W, R1
and R2 horizontally as well as vertically.
2. Now consider the equilibrium of the wedge ABC. And resolve the forces P, R2 and R3
horizontally as well as vertically.

EXAMPLE: A block weighing 1500 N, overlying a 10° wedge on a horizontal floor and leaning
against a vertical wall, is to be raised by applying a horizontal force to the wedge. Assuming the
coefficient of friction between all the surface in contact to be 0.3, determine the minimum horizontal
force required to raise the block.
SOLUTION: Given: Weight of the block (W) = 1500 N; Angle of the wedge (α) = 10° and coefficient
of friction between all the four surfaces of contact (μ) = 0.3 = tan φ or φ = 16.7° Let P = Minimum
horizontal force required to raise the block.

First of all, consider the equilibrium of the block. We know that it is in equilibrium under the action of
the following forces as shown in Fig. (a).
1. Its own weight 1500 N acting downwards.
2. Reaction R1 on the face DE.
3. Reaction R2 on the face DG of the block.
First moments of area.
1. Centroids and First Moments of Area

A moment about a given axis is something multiplied by the distance from that axis measured at 90o to the axis.

The moment of force is hence force times distance from an axis. The
moment of mass is mass times distance from an axis.

The moment of area is area times the distance from an axis.

 Figure 1

In the case of mass and area, the problem is deciding the distance since the mass and area are not
concentrated at one point.

The point at which we may assume the mass concentrated is called the centre of gravity. The

point at which we assume the area concentrated is called the centroid.

Think of area as a flat thin sheet and the centroid is then at the same place as the centre of gravity. You may think
of this point as one where you could balance the thin sheet on a sharp point and it would not tip off in any
direction.

This section is mainly concerned with moments of area so we will start by considering a flat area at some distance
from an axis as shown in Fig.1.2

Figure 2

The centroid is denoted G and its distance from the axis s-s is y. The axis drawn through G parallel to s-s is the axis
g-g. The first moment of area about the axis s-s is the product of area A and distance.

1st moment of area = A y

From this we may define the distance y.

y = 1st moment of area/Area.

For simple symmetrical shapes, the position of the centroid is obvious.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Find the formula for the 1st moment of area of a circular area about an axis touching its edge in
terms of its diameter d.

SOLUTION
The centroid is at the geometric centre distance one half diameter from the edge.

Figure 4

y = D/2 A = D2/4 1st moment = A y = (D2/4)/(D/2) = D3/8

 1. Complex Areas

In order to find the moment of area of more complex shapes we divide them up into sections, solve each section
separately and then add them together.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3

Calculate the 1st. moment of area for the shape shown about the axis s-s and find the position of the centroid.

Figure 5

SOLUTION

The shape is not symmetrical so the centroid is not half way between the top and bottom edges. First
determine the distance from the axis s-s to the centre of each part A, B and C. A systematic tabular method is
recommended.

Part Area y Ay
A 400 55 22000
B 400 30 12000
C 300 5 1500
Total 1100 35500

The total first moment of area is 35 500 mm3.

This must also be given by A y for the whole section hence

y = 35 500/1100 = 32.27 mm.

The centroid is 32.77 mm from the bottom edge.

Second moments of area.

2.2 General Theory

If any quantity is multiplied by the distance from the axis s-s twice, we have a second moment. Mass
multiplied by a distance twice is called the moment of inertia but is really the second moment of mass.
We are concerned here with area only and the area multiplied by a distance twice is the second moment of
area. The symbol for both is confusingly a letter I.

The above statement is over simplified. Unfortunately, both the mass and area are spread around and
neither exists at a point. We cannot use the position of the centroid to calculate the 2 nd. moment of area.
Squaring the distance has a greater effect on parts further from the axis than those nearer to it. The
distance that gives the correct answer is called the RADIUS OF GYRATION and is denoted with a letter
k. This is not the same as y .

The simplest definition of the 2nd moment of area is I = A k2

Whilst standard formulae exist for calculating the radius of gyration of various simple shapes, we should
examine the derivations from first principles. We do this by considering the area to be made up of lots of
elementary strips of width b and height dy. The distance from the axis s-s to the strip is y.

Figure 8

The area of the strip = dA = b dy

1st moment of area of strip = y dA = by dy

2nd moment of area of strip = y2 dA = b y2 dy

For the whole area, the 2nd moment of area is the sum of all the strips that make up the total area. This is
found by integration.
I =  b y2 dy

The limits of integration are from the bottom to the top of the area. This definition is important because in
future work, whenever this expression is found, we may identify it as I and use standard formulae when it
is required to evaluate it. We should now look at these.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Derive the standard formula for the second moment of area and radius of gyration for a rectangle of
width B and depth D about an axis on its long edge.

SOLUTION

Figure 9
b = constant = B
D D
I = ∫ by2 = B ∫
y2
00
y3 BD
I = B D[] = 3
3 0
3

I√BD3 √D2
I= 2 k = √= =3 =
A3BD
Ak 0.577D
Note y is 0.5 D and is not the same as k.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Derive the standard formula for the second moment of area and radius of gyration for a rectangle of
width B and depth D about an axis through its centroid and parallel to the long edge.

SOLUTION

Figure 10
b = constant = B

D D

I = ∫ by2 = B y2
2 2

∫ −2
D D
−2

D
y3 BD
I = B []=2 3
3D−2
12

I√ BD3 √D2
I= 2 k = √= =3 =
A12BD
Ak 0.289D
Note y is zero and not the same as
k.
CIRCLES

The integration involved for a circle is complicated because the width of the strip b varies with distance y.

Figure 11

𝛑D4 D
The solution yields the following result.

I= k=
64 4

2.2 Parallel Axis Theorem

If we wish to know the 2nd moment of area of a shape about an axis parallel to the one through the
centroid (g-g), then the parallel axis theorem is useful.

The parallel axis theorem states Iss = Igg + A ( y )2

Consider a rectangle B by D and an axis s-s parallel to axis g-g.

Figure 12

I = BD BD
A = BD Iss + BDy̅ 2
=
3 3

12 12
Consider when s-s is the top edge.

D
y̅ =
2
BD 3
D 2 BD3
Iss = + BD ( ) =
12 2 3

This is the result obtained previously and confirms the method.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6

Calculate the 2nd moment of area for the same shape as in worked example 3 about the axis s-s

Figure 13
SOLUTION

The table shows the previous solution with extra columns added to calculate the second moment of
area using the parallel axis theorem. In the new column calculate the second moment of area for each
part (A, B and C) about each’s own centroid using BD3/12. In the next column calculate Ay2.

Part Area y Ay Igg=BD3/12 Ay2 Iss

A 400 55 22 000 3 333 1 210 000 1 213 333
B 400 30 12 000 53 333 360 000 413 333
C 300 5 1 500 22 500 7 500 30 000
Total 1100 35 500 1 656 666

The total 2nd moment of area is 1 656 666 mm 4 about the bottom. We require the answer about the
centroid so we now use the parallel axis theorem to find the 2 nd moment about the centroid of the
whole section.

The centroid is 32.77 mm from the bottom edge.

Igg = Iss – A y 2

Igg = 1 656 666 – 1 100 x 32.772

Igg = 475 405.8 mm4= 475.4 x 10-9 m4

Note 1 m4 = 1012 mm4

WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Calculate the second moment of area of the shape shown about the axis s –
s.

Figure 14
SOLUTION

The shape is equivalent to a circle 1.2 m diameter and a rectangle 0.5 by 1.2. All have their centroids
located 3 m from the axis s – s.

πd4BD3 π× 0.5 ×
Igg + = 1.24 + 1.23 = 0.1018 + 0.072 =
6412 0.1738 m4
= 64 12
πd π×
Area 2 + BD 1.22 + 0.5 × 1.2 = 1.131 + 0.6 =
= 4 = 4 1.731 m2
y̅ = 3 mIss = Igg + Ay̅ 2

Iss = 0.1738 + 1.731 × 32 =

15.75 m4
 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

1. Find the second moment of area of a rectangle 3 m wide by 2 m deep about an axis parallel to
the longer edge and 5 m from it. (218 m4).

2. Find the second moment of area of a rectangle 5 m wide by 2m deep about an axis parallel to
the longer edge and 3 m from it. (163.33 m4).

3. Find the second moment of area of a circle 2 m diameter about an axis 5 m from the
centre. (79.3 m4).

4. Find the second moment of area of a circle 5 m diameter about an axis 4.5 m from the
centre. (428.29 m4).

5. Find the 2nd moment of area for the shape shown the about the axis s – s. All the dimensions are in
metres. (35.92 x 10-3 m4)

Figure 15

6. Find the 2nd moment of area for the shape shown the about the axis s – s. All the dimensions are in
metres. (79.33 x 10-3 m4)

Figure 16
[Link] the position of the centroid for the shape shown and the 2nd moment of area about the bottom
edge. (28.33 mm from the bottom and 2.138 x 10-6 m4)

Figure 17
Centroids.
The centroid, C, is a point which defines the geometric center of an object. The centroid coincides
with the center of mass or the center of gravity only if the material of the body is homogenous
(density or specific weight is constant throughout the body).
If an object has an axis of symmetry, then the centroid of object lies on that axis. In some cases,
the centroid is not located on the object (u-shape).

Example -1-
Locate the centroid of the area.

1
2
3
Kinematics of particles.

Kinematics of rigid bodies in plane motion.

Newton's laws of motion.
Kinetic energy.
Momentum analyses.