Atomic structure

Dalton was the first scientist to give postulates on atom (valid for 100 years).
Atom are the smallest indivisible particle known. All matter consists of small particle called atom.
The atoms of particular element are identical in nature.

Discovery of electron
J.J Thomson discover the electron through cathode ray experiment

In this experiment a cathode ray discharge tube was used as shown in figure, here both cathode and
anode were connected to very high voltage about 1000V and the pressure inside the tube is kept
very low as possible (nearly vacuum). Due to high voltage invisible rays from cathode were emitted
towards anode, as the rays are moving from negative to positive charge so they are considered as
negatively charged rays and are named cathode rays. These rays are detected using perforated
anode (small hole on anode) and fluorescence material behind the anode which starts to glow when
electron strikes on it. The low pressure inside the tube eases the movement of rays inside the tube
towards anode.

Cathode ray properties:

They are negatively charged, they travel in straight line, they possess kinetic energy, they are
made up of small particles (as they possess kinetic energy), they deflect when placed within
magnetic field.
The properties of cathode ray do not change with change in electrode and nature of gas
inside the tube. This means the particles of cathode rays are fundamental particles and are
called electron.
Or
J.J Thomson also developed the charge to mass ratio. The charge to mass ratio of electron
does not depend on the nature of gas and electrode.
e/m = charge of electron/ mass of electron remains constant. so, it is called fundamental
particle (electron).

Discovery of proton
E. Goldstein discover the proton through some modification on discharge tube.
In this experiment he used the perforated cathode electrode and anode rays. The pressure inside
the discharge tube high compared to earlier experiment (10 to the power -1). when high potential
was applied to electrode than a coloured rays were emitted from the anode to cathode. As the
anode rays are moving towards cathode so, there are positively charged particles present In anode
rays.
Properties of anode rays:
 They are made up of charged particles (attracted towards cathode). They, deflect in
magnetic and electric field. So, that is the reason they are charged.
 They posse’s kinetic energy as with the application of potential on discharged tube the gas
molecules present inside the tube starts ionising and electron moves towards anode and
gaseous ions moves towards cathode. Here, the quantity of gas molecules is high so there is
large no of gaseous ions which are positively charged.

 The properties of anode rays depend upon the nature of gasses (the size of ion will be
different for different gasses)

The charge/mass ratio of anode rays are different for different gasses as the particles of each type
gasses are different. So, they are not fundamental particles. But, in case of hydrogen the anode rays
are made up of proton because hydrogen particles are made up of only 1 proton and 1 electron and
the charge/mass ratio is highest in case of hydrogen.

First atomic model with sub atomic particle Charge of proton=1.6 ×10^-19C
J. J Thomson proposed the atomic model. Also known as plum Mass= 1.625 ×10^-27 Kg
Pudding model. Here, the whole sphere is made up of positive Charge of electron=-1.6×10^-19C
Charge and the electron are embedded in it. But the model of Mass of electron=9.1×10^-31 kg
This atom field to explain many experimental values.

Rutherford experiment on α-scattering through thin gold foil

In this experiment α particles (α particles are He ions with atomic mass of +2 charge and 4 atm) were
passed through thin gold foil. When α particle were directed towards gold foil than they pass
through it which field the plum pudding model. If the Thomson model was right than it has been
deflected as α particles are positively charged. Then the α particles which has passed through gold

Were observed through fluorescence material and the observations were studied

Observation are :
 Maximum α particle pass through the gold foil without deflected near 99.9 percent.
 Some of the α particle were deflected by small angles.
 Very few particles were deflected by 180 degree ( 1 in a 20,000 ).

Rutherford atomic model

1. According to the this model most part of atom is empty with a concentrated positive
charged on its centre called nucleus and the size of nucleus is very small compared to size of
atom.
2. The positive charge (nucleus) is very heavy. There is something very heavy in atom
3. [Link] proton = no of electron
4. Electron revolve around the nucleus in a closed circular orbit.

The electron revolves around the

nucleus in a circular orbit because of
the electrostatic force of attraction
between the nucleus and electron act
as a centripetal force of attraction

Draw backs of rutherford model of atom:

 The electron revolve around the nucleus in circular orbit but according to the maxwell
theory any accelerated charged particle emits radiation and losses energy and electron fall
towards nucleus and atom will not exist. So, he cannot expalin the stability the atom.
 He cannot explain the line spectrum or discrete spectrum of atom.

Bhor atomic model:

 1. Atom has a centre called nucleus.
2. Electron revolves around the nucleus in a fixed circular orbit with fixed energy and fixed
velocity.
3. Quentisation: electron revolves around the nucleus only in those circular orbit whose
angular momentrum is the integral multiple of n h/2π.
4. The energy of electron in an orbit remains constant it means the energy in a particular orbit
does not change with time. It only changes when electron jumps from one orbit to another.
5. The energy is emitted or absorbed only when the electron jumps from one orbit to another.
The energy emitted or absorbed is same as compared to the energy difference between the

The electron is moving around the

nucleus with a velocity v, mass m,
and orbit radius r. then the
Momentum is mvr=n h/2π

two orbit.

The bhor explained the stability of atom : according to Bhor, the energy of electron revolveing in a
fixed orbit doesnot losses energy. So, the atom is stability.

It also explained the hydrogen spectrum of atom: when the electron gains or absorb energy the
electron jumps to higher orbit which is known as excited state sience, the electron in a excited is
unstable so it retruns to its orginal state releasing energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.

Atomic spectrum: when the atom of a substance absorbed or emitt radiation then we obtained a
spectrum of coloured or dark lines.

The electron gains or losses only those energy

which are equal to the energy difference between
the two energy levels. Only particular energy result
in the transfer of electron from one shell to
another
There are two types :
1. Emission spectrum: when the radiation is emitted by the atom of a substance which has gain
enery through heat of electric discharge and the radiation emitted is anylised under
spectroscope then we obtained a discrete colour spectrum.
When the electron gets heated the electron absorbed energy and goes to excited state, the
electron in this state is unstable so, returns to orginal state releasing energy in the form of
radiation ( electromagnetic waves ). The coloured reprasents the radiation emiited and they are
discountonous [Link] are different types of series in which electron losses energy to
move back to its orginal state.

As shown in the figure there are different types of

series as the electron moves from n=2,3,4,5….to n=1
(Lyman series), n=3,4,5 to n=2(Balmer series), n=4,5,
6….to n=3 (Paschen series), and Brakett and pfund
series.
 2. Absorption spectrum : when the radiation is pass through a substance like salt solution and
the radiation is observed under spectroscope than we obtained dark lines which resembles
that some particular energy is absorbed. Every atom has different spectrum and so, it is also
known as the finger print of atom.
In the emmision spectrum the atom of a particular element radiates particular colour of light like
hydrogen emits red, sodium emits yellow etc. it means when the electron in an atom moves towards
lower energy level than energy is emitted in the form of red light (v=E/h) and in adsorption spectrum
the partcular atom reabsorb that energy (red in case of hydrogen).so, that’s why the in adsorption
spectrum the coloured area in emmission spectrum is dark line.

De-broglie wavelength : All moving particle consist of wave nature and wavelength is inversely
proportional to the momentrum. Lambda=h/p the wave associated with each moving particle are
called matter waves.
Derivation of Bhor quentisation of angular momentrum property using de-broglie wavelength: the
wave of electron revolve around the nucleus in a circular form. The electron may revolve as in phase
and out phase. When two end of electron met to form ragular crist and trough than it if called in
phase. When two end of electron doesnot met and do not form ragular crist and trough than it is out
phase. The electron to be in in phase the circumfarence should be the integral multiple of no. of
wavelength and if is in out phase than the motion will interfere distructively and will distroy itself.

circumference of circle = 2πr, wavelength = ⴍ,

2πr = nⴍ, ⴍ = h/mv, so, 2πr = nh/mv,
So, mvr = nh/2π, were mvr is the angular
momentum

Heisenberg’s uncertainly principle : it is not possible to simultanously determine the exact position
and momentum of an moving microscopic particle. Let αx and αp be the eror in position and
momentum. Then, αx × αp ≥ h/4π.
Physically: when photon of light is directed towards electron then the electron are displaced from
their initial position due to change in momentum so, it is impossible to measuere the exact position
and momentum. As in case of macroscopic object the uncertainty in position and momentum are
negligable. This theory rule out the well defined circular orbit of Bhor postulates.

Quantum mechanical model of atom : it is also known as wave mechanical model. The revolving
around the nucleus has a wave character also, so it is impossible to determine the exact location of
electron. But the probability of finding electron in a orbital region can be determine using matter
wave. The electron revolve around the nucleus in 3D space. So, there are three variables which will
help in determining the position of electron around the nucleus.
These quantum numbers are( n, l, m, s ) = Helps in determining location of electron. in 1926 first
quantum machanics was developed and this quantum model consider both wave-particle duality of
electron. Schrodinger developed a wave equation that described the wave motion in 3D space i.e
along x, y, z axis around the nucleus.
Quantum numbers:
Principal quantum number (n): it gives information about the size of orbital and energy of orbital.
n = 1, 2, 3, 4,……∞ (shell)
-----------------increase in energy
Decrease in energy  ----------------

Azimuthal quantum numbers: it defines the shape of orbital ( L ) ,

l Sub-shell shape
0 s spherical
1 p Dumb-bell
2 d Double dumb-bell
3 f Complecated shpe

No. of subshell = no of shell (n)

n l Sub-shell
1 o 1s
2 0,1 2s, 2p
3 0,1,3 3s, 3p, 3d
4 0, 1, 2, 3, 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f

Magnetic quantum number : it gives the no. of orbitals in given sub-shell ( -l to +l ).

n l Sub-shell orbitals Electronic confurigation
1 0 s o 1s
2 0,1 p -1,o,1 1s, 2s, 2p
3 0, 1, 2 d -2,-1,o,1,2 1s, 2s, 3s, 3p, 3d

Spain quantum number : the electron not revolve only around the nucleus but also spain or revolve
by itself. It revolve only in two direction i.e clockwise and anti-clockwise.

Pauli-exclusion principle : only two electron can be present in one orbital and two electron can never
have same sets of four quantum numbers.

Aufbau principle : the electrons in the orbital are filled according to the increasing energies. Like 1s,
2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, the energy of orbital is determined by n+l rule (bhor bury’s rule) and the
orbital with same value of n+l the electrons are first filled to orbital having lower value of n.