computer to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and

applications...
The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources among various devices.
In the case of computer network technology, there are several types of networks that vary
from simple to complex level.
Major components of a computer network are

NIC (National interface card)

NIC is a device that helps the computer to communicate with another device.
The network interface card contains the hardware addresses, the data-link layer protocol
uses this address to identify the system on the network so that it transfers the data to the
correct destination.

There are two types of NIC: wireless NIC and wired NIC.

Wireless NIC: All the modern laptops use the wireless NIC. In Wireless NIC, a connection
is made using the antenna that employs the radio wave technology.
Wired NIC: Cables use the wired NIC to transfer the data over the medium.

Hub

Hub is a central device that splits the network connection into multiple devices. When
computer requests for information from a computer, it sends the request to the Hub. Hub
distributes this request to all the interconnected computers.

Switches

Switch is a networking device that groups all the devices over the network to transfer the
data to another device.
A switch is better than Hub as it does not broadcast the message over the network, i.e., it
sends the message to the device for which it belongs to.
Cables and connectors

Cable is a transmission media that transmits the communication signals. There are three types of
cables:

Twisted pair cable: It is a high-speed cable that transmits the data over 1Gbps or more.
Coaxial cable: Coaxial cable resembles like a TV installation cable. Coaxial cable is more
expensive than twisted pair cable, but it provides the high data transmission speed.
Fiber optic cable: Fiber optic cable is a high-speed cable that transmits the data using light
beams. It provides high data transmission speed as compared to other cables. It is more
expensive as compared to other cables, so it is installed at the government level.

Router

Router is a device that connects the LAN to the internet.

The router is mainly used to connect the distinct networks or connect the internet to
multiple computers.

Modem

Modem connects the computer to the internet over the existing telephone line. A modem
is not integrated with the computer motherboard.
A modem is a separate part on the PC slot found on the motherboard.

Uses Of Computer Network

Resource sharing Server-Client model

Communication medium
E-commerce

1.1 Network Hardware

A computer network can be categorized by their size.

A computer network is mainly of four types:

1. LAN (Local Area Network)
2. PAN (Personal Area Network)
3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
4. WAN (Wide Area Network)

Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such
as building, office.
LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication
medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and
ethernet cables.
The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
Local Area Network provides higher security.
Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically
within a range of 10 meters.
Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use
is known as Personal Area Network.
Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal
Area Network.
Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are
the laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.
Examples Of Personal Area Network:

Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a person. For
example, a mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a person establishes a network
connection and then creates a connection with another device to share the information.
Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also known
as a home network. A home network is designed to integrate the devices such as printers,
computer, television but they are not connected to the internet.
Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and to a
corporate network using a VPN.

A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by

interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.
The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3,
ADSL, etc.
 It has a higher range than Local Area Network (LAN).

Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.

It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
It can be used in a college within a city.
It can also be used for communication in the military.

A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as
states or countries.
A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education.
Examples Of Wide Area Network:

Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.

Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the customers in
hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices. This
network is made by using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom company.

An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network LANs or WAN or computer

network segments are connected using devices, and they are configured by a local
addressing scheme. This process is known as internetworking.
An interconnection between public, private, commercial, industrial, or government
computer networks can also be defined as internetworking.
An internetworking uses the internet protocol.
The reference model used for internetworking is Open System Interconnection (OSI).
1.2. NETWORK SOFTWARE

To reduce their design complexity, most networks are organized as a stack of layers or
levels, each one built upon the one below it.
The number of layers, the name of each layer, the contents of each layer, and the function
of each layer differ from network to network.
The purpose of each layer is to offer certain services to the higher layers while shielding
those layers from the details of how the offered services are actually implemented.
When layer n on one machine carries on a conversation with layer n on another machine,
the rules and conventions used in this conversation are collectively known as the layer n
protocol.
Basically, a protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how
communication is to proceed.
A five-layer network is illustrated in Fig
the entities comprising the corresponding layers on different machines are called peers.
The peers may be software processes, hardware devices, or even human being.
Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which actual communication occurs.
virtual communication is shown by dotted lines and physical communication by solid
lines.
Between each pair of adjacent layers is an interface.
A set of layers and protocols is called a network architecture.
A list of the protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per layer, is called a
protocol stack.
In this example, M is split into two parts, M 1 and M 2 , that will be transmitted

separately.

Layer 3 decides which of the outgoing lines to use and passes the packets to layer 2.

Layer 2 adds to each piece not only a header but also a trailer, and gives the resulting

unit to layer 1 for physical transmission.

1.2.2 Design Issues for the Layers

Error detection and Correction

During transmission, digital signal suffer from noise that can introduce error in binary bits
traveling from sender to receiver i.e, 0 bit may change to 1 or vice-versa.

One mechanism for finding errors in received information uses codes for error detection.

Information that is incorrectly received can then be retransmitted until it is received correctly.
More powerful codes allow for error-correction, where the correct message is recovered from
the possibly incorrect bits that were originally received.

Routing

One of the issue to finding network path. There may be a multiple paths from source to the
destination.

Routing involves choosing an optimal path among all possible path in terms of cost and time.
There are several routing algorithms that are used in network system.

Protocol Layering

A design issues concerns the evolution of the network.

It provides interfaces between the layers. So that change in one layer does not affect an an
adjacent layers.

Scalability

When network get large, new problem arises, thus scalability is important so that network can
continue to work well when it gets large.

Networks are continuously evolving. The sizes are continually increasing leading to
congestion.
Addressing/Naming

At a particular time, innumerable messages are being transferred between large numbers
of computers.

So a naming or addressing system should exist so that each layer can identify sender and
receiver of each message.

Error Control

Unreliable channels introduce a number of errors in the data streams that are
communicated.

Flow Control

If the rate at which data is produced by the sender is higher than the rate at which data is
received by the receiver, there are chances of overflowing the receiver.
So, a proper flow control mechanism needs to be implemented.

Statistical Multiplexing

It is not feasible to allocate a dedicated path for each message while it is being transferred
from the source to the destination.
So, the data channel needs to be multiplexed, so as to allocate a fraction of the bandwidth
or time to each host.
Security

A major factor of data communication is to defend it against threats like eavesdropping

and surreptitious alteration of messages.
So, there should be adequate mechanisms to prevent unauthorized access to data through
authentication and cryptography.
1.2.3 Connection-Oriented Versus Connectionless Service
A service is formally specified by a set of primitives (operations) available to user processes to
access the service. The set of primitives available depends on the nature of the service being
provided. The primitives for connection-oriented service are different from those of connectionless
service. As a minimal example of the service primitives that might provide a reliable byte stream,
consider the primitives listed in Fig. 1-17

These primitives might be used for a request-reply interaction in a client-server environment. To

illustrate how, We sketch a simple protocol that implements the service using acknowledged
datagrams. First, the server executes LISTEN to indicate that it is prepared to accept incoming
connections. Next, the client process executes CONNECT to establish a connection with the server.
The CONNECT call needs to specify who to connect to, so it might have a parameter giving the

as shown by (1) in Fig. 1-18. The client process is suspended until there is a response.
The model is called the ISO OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model

because it deals with connecting open system that is, systems that are open for

communication with other systems.

OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how

information from a software application in one computer moves through a physicalmedium

to the software application in another computer.

OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.

OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in

1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer

communications.
7 Layers of OSI Model

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven layers are
given below

1. Physical Layer
2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
1. Physical layer

The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel.
The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one node
to another node.
It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.

2. The Data Link Layer

This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.
It defines the format of the data on the network.
It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a local
network.

3. The Network Layer

It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the
network.
It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the
network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the
routing services within an internetwork.
The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols.
Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.
4. The Transport Layer
The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in
which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as
segments.
This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point
connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.

5. The Session Layer

It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.
The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction
between communicating devices.

6. The Presentation Layer

A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between the two systems.
It acts as a data translator for a network.
This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation
format to another format.
The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

7. The Application Layer

An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access
network service.
It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer
functions.
This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
1.3.2 The TCP/IP Reference Model

The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.

The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer, network
layer, data link layer and physical layer.
The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and
transport functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model and these four
layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a single layer called the application layer.
TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them
provides specific functionality.

The Link Layer

The lowest layer in the model, the link layer describes what links such as serial lines and
classic Ethernet must do to meet the needs of this connectionless internet layer.
It is not really a layer at all, in the normal sense of the term, but rather an interface between
hosts and transmission links.
 Internet Layer

An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.

An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network,
and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.

Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data which is
being sent over the network.

The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and Transmission control
protocol.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.

It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error to the
sender that user datagram has been damaged.

UDP consists of the following fields:

Source port address: The source port address is the address of the application program
that has created the message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of the application
program that receives the message.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
 UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it does not
contain any ID of a data segment.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

It provides a full transport layer services to applications.

It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the duration
of the transmission.
TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged frames.
Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be received and acknowledged before the
transmission is considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.
At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as segment,
and each segment contains a sequence number which is required for reordering the frames
to form an original message.
At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on sequence
numbers.

Application Layer

An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.

It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application layer,
it forwards its data to the transport layer.
There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot be placed
inside the application layer except those who interact with the communication system. For
example: text editor cannot be considered in application layer while web browser using
HTTP protocol to interact with the network where HTTP protocol is an application layer
protocol.
A Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models
 The physical layer is the first and lowest layer from the bottom of the 7-layered OSI
model and delivers security to hardware.
This layer is in charge of data transmission over the physical medium. It is the most
complex layer in the OSI model.
The physical layer converts the data frame received from the data link layer into bits, i.e.,
in terms of ones and zeros.
It maintains the data quality by implementing the required protocols on different network
modes and maintaining the bit rate through data transfer using a wired or wireless medium.

Media are roughly grouped into guided media, such as copper wire and fiber optics, and
unguided media, such as terrestrial wireless, satellite, and lasers through the air.

1.4.1 Twisted Pairs

Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other. A
twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media.
Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable. The frequency
range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.
A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.
Unshielded Twisted Pair:

An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. Following are the

categories of the unshielded twisted pair cable:
Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.

Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-distance
communication.

Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

It is cheap.
Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
It can be used for high-speed LAN.
Disadvantage:
This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.

Shielded Twisted Pair

A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that allows the
higher transmission rate.

Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:

The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.
An installation of STP is easy.
It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
It has a higher attenuation.
It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.
Disadvantages

It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.

It has a higher attenuation rate.

1.4.2 Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is
usually a coaxial cable.
The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each other.
It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer conductor is
made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-conductive cover that
separates the inner conductor from the outer conductor.
The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh prevents
from the EMI (Electromagnetic interference).

Coaxial cable is of two types:

Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at high

speed.
Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals
simultaneously.
Advantages Of Coaxial cable:

The data can be transmitted at high speed.

It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
It provides higher bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:

It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.

If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.
1.4.3 Fiber Optics

Fiber optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
Fiber optic is a cable that holds the optical fibers coated in plastic that are used to send
the data by pulses of light.
The plastic coating protects the optical fibers from heat, cold, electromagnetic
interference from other types of wiring.
Fiber optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.

Basic elements of Fiber optic cable:

Core: The optical fiber consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a core. A
core is a light transmission area of the fiber. The more the area of the core, the more light
will be transmitted into the fiber.
Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main functionality of
the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core interface as to cause the
reflection within the core so that the light waves are transmitted through the fiber.
Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The main
purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fiber strength, absorb shock and extra fiber
protection.
Fiber Cables

Fiber optic cables are similar to coax, except without the braid.
Figure shows a single fiber viewed from the side.
At the center is the glass core through which the light propagates. In multimode fibers,
the core is typically 50 microns in diameter, about the thickness of a human hair.
In single-mode fibers, the core is 8 to 10 micr