CRIME DETECTION AND INVESTIGATION WITH FORENSIC

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CRIME DETECTION AND INVESTIGATION
FUNDAMENTALS OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION AND INTELLIGENCE
PLANNING AND Conducted in this stage are intelligence usage, determination of intelligence requirements, development of appropriate intelligence
DIRECTION architecture, preparation of a collection plan, and issuance of orders and requests to information collection agencies.
In this stage, also known as data gathering, intelligence is acquired through activities, such as interviews, technical and physical
COLLECTION surveillance, human source operations, searches, and liaison relationships. Information can be gathered from open, covert, electronic,
and satellite sources.
PROCESSING AND This stage involves the translation of raw intelligence materials from a foreign language, evaluation of relevance and reliability, and
EXPLOITATION collation of the raw data in preparation for exploitation.
ANALYSIS AND This stage involves the conversion of basic information from all sources into finished intelligence. It includes integrating, evaluating,
PRODUCTION and analyzing all available data which is often fragmentary and even contradictory, and preparing intelligence products.
This stage involves the distribution of raw or finished intelligence to those policymakers whose needs initiated the intelligence
DISSEMINATION
requirements from the start of the process. Basically, it is the process of moving intelligence from the producers to the consumers.
HISTORY
EUROPEAN ORIGIN- During the middle ages, criminal detection shifted from government responsibility to its ancient predecessor group responsibility.
FRANKPLEDGE SYSTEM - This system placed control of fellow human beings on the shoulder of each individual (system mutual protection).
TITHING - Communities were subdivided to smaller groups consisting of ten families responsible for detecting and controlling any negative behavior on the
part of the group members.
1066 - The Duke of Normandy conquered England and criminal detection and public protection shifted back to the government.
1700 - Duke of Normandy reigned in this early era. Criminal investigation was largely unknown, efforts aimed mainly at crime prevention.
WATCHES- They performed law enforcement in the 17th century with the conglomeration of the government. They were composed of the dregs of society.
They were ill-paid and usually lacked even the barest elements of honest character and were ineffective. They failed to detect criminal activity, but were
able to aid some cases through their participation.
● 18th Century - The Industrial Revolution was at hand and would be in effect until into the 19th century. Rapid social and cultural changes marked the
beginning of the growth of modern industrialism.
● L.O Century - Happening in 1876 in England, it was recorded that “in practice there were criminal quarters where the officers of justice were set at
defiance, and where no man’s life was sake unless he had the privilege of being an inhabitant.”
● Parliamentary Reward System - This concept attached financial rewards to various felony crimes. The reward was paid to those officials who were
responsible for the apprehension and prosecution of the offender.

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● Thief-taking - As a direct result of London’s crime problems, the concept known in Europe as thief-catching or thief-taking, became widely accepted
in the early 1700s.
● Jonathan Wild - He was a master criminal. He became London’s most effective criminal investigator in the 1720’s. His action made popular the logic
of employing one who was a thief to catch a thief. Wild’s career came to an abrupt end when he was executed on May 24, 1725. After his death,
however, he became somewhat of a folk hero.
● Eugene Vidocg - He was a notorious thief catcher and former convict. He based his operation in Paris and was active around 80 years after the death
of Jonathan Wild. He was equally as successful and unscrupulous as his predecessor. He formed the first Paris Police Detective Bureau. He disguised
as often as ten (10) times a day, and continued to infiltrate criminal groups. Despite his tarnished criminal past, he is credited with founding “La
Suerte”, the France national detective organization.
● Henry Fielding - In 1748, the English author of the novel “Tom Jones” was appointed magistrate for the areas of Westminster and Middlesex. Shortly
after his taking office, the London population saw a group of police officers attached to the Bow Street Court, and not in uniform. Never before did
the English people experience police officers who were not readily identifiable.
● Sir John Fielding - In 1753, he took the responsibility as an investigator. Together with Henry Fielding, he founded what was known as “Bow Street
Runners” and they became quite effective. Many practices of his small group are still in effect, such as developing paid informants, printing wanted
notices, using criminal raids, and bearing firearms and handcuffs.
● Patrick Colquhom - He was a prominent London resident. In order to remedy the public outcry, he proposed the unique idea of a sizable uniformed
force to police in the city. His proposal was considered too radical and was dismissed.
● Sir Robert Peel - In 1829, his recommendations were reiterated and eventually passed in the House of Commons. It was known as the Metropolitan
Police Act. It had a tremendous impact in the history of Criminal Justice in general and development of criminal investigation specifically. From the
beginning, all police officers and the public at large referred to the London Metropolitan police as Scotland Yard, the officers were nicknamed
“bobbies”.
● Charles Dickens - As a famous English Novelist, he edited popular magazines in London which appeared in many articles describing the noble
investigative efforts of the “yard”. He introduced the term “detective,” the first recorded appearance in print of the word specifically meant
investigative Law Enforcer Officer.
● Mobsmen - Also known as light-fingered gentry, they were those who plunder by manual dexterity.
● Tail Buzzers - They were those who dove into coat pockets for snuff boxes and pocketbooks.
● Wires - They were the pickpockets (term is still in use today).
● Snoozer - They were those who sleep in railway hotels, and decamp with some passenger’s luggage in the morning.
● Star glazers - They were those who cut the panes out of shop windows.
● Dadlukers - They were those who steal coats and umbrellas from passages at dusk, or on Sunday afternoons.
● In 1877, the investigation in Scotland Yards was organized into a new section known as the Criminal Investigation Department, headed by Howard
Vincent.

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● U.S Origins - The growth of criminal investigation in the United States paralleled European development in a broad sense, with some notable
differences regarding particulars.
● Rattle watch - It was the first New York City Patrol in 1656, consisting of mere six men sounding rattles yelling phrases such as “By the grace of God
two o’clock in peace”
● Francis Tukey - He used many of the investigative methods pioneered by Quincy, such as the surprise police raid and soon hired three officers to
serve as Boston’s first detectives.
Allan Pinkerton - He is known as “America’s Founder of Criminal Investigation”. His fame as an inventive and effective investigator had already been
established prior to the U.S. Civil War. There were numerous methods pioneered by the Pinkerton Agency; one was "shadowing," the art of suspect
surveillance.

Detective Bureau - It was organized by the Mayor of Philadelphia in 1854. Early U.S cities had full time detectives operating from the police headquarters.
Inspector Thomas Byrnes - He was the Chief of detectives in New York City, also one of the famous investigators of the 19th century. He wrote
“Professional Criminals of America”. Published in 1886, it became a classic on operational methodology.
Raising the Hue and Cry - It was a throwback to the Ancient Anglo-Saxon practice of calling one’s neighbors to join in the pursuit by sounding an animal
horn
Vigilance Committees - They were composed of local citizens, an organized pursuit to possess and apprehend suspected criminal violators. This type of
unofficial law enforcement was quite common in the California mining areas during the gold rush in 1848.
Criminal Investigation on the Federal Level - It dates to September 24, 1789, when Congress created the Office of the Attorney General. Up to the close
of the Civil War in 1865, most federal investigators were contacted out to be private detectives from 1865 to 1870. The need for specialized agencies
within the government led to the creation of the U.S Secret Service, Internal Revenue Service, Custom Service, and finally to the Department of Justice.
CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
Legal Inquiry involving Criminal Activities - If the result of this inquiry is successful, it will answer the following questions:
1. Did a criminal violation occur as described by The Revised Penal Code or Special Laws?
2. Where and at what time and date, did the crime occur?
3. Who were the individuals involved in the planning, execution, and after effect of the violation?
4. Is a witness to the criminal activity present?
5. Is that evidence of a criminal offense?
6. In what manner, or by what method, was the crime perpetuated?
7. Is there an indication of guilt or innocence to aid judicial officials in determining a just solution to the case?
Critical Thinking - It is the ability to think clearly and rationally about what to do or what to Critical Thinkers - They must be able to recognize faulty logic
believe. It includes the ability to engage in reflective and independent thinking. It focuses on as inaccurate logic that only serves to divert an investigation.

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determination of how accurate and complete ones gathered facts are. By examining these Faulty reasoning usually centers on generalization,
factors, the investigator can be guided to gather additional information or move into another stereotyping, oversimplifying, or incorrect assumption
area of inquiry.

Detect Identify Reflect on

Identify, inconsisten
construct Solve the the
cies and justificatio
and common problems relevance
evaluate systematic and n of one’s
mistakes in ally importanc non beliefs
arguments reasoning
e of ideas and values

 Deductive Reasoning- It relies on a general statement in hypothesis  Inductive Reasoning - It is a method of reasoning in which the
sometimes called a premise or standard held to be true. The premise premises are viewed to supply some evidence for the truth of the
is used to reach a specific, logical conclusion. A common example is if conclusion. It is also described as a method where one’s experience
then statement. If A= B and B = C then deductive reasoning tells us and observation, including those learned from others, are
that A=C. synthesized to come with a
general truth.
 Intuition - It is regularly cited as a necessary quality of the  Curiosity - It is a desire to learn by being inquisitive, also having a
investigator. This trait is defined as immediate apprehension or strong desire to know or learn something.
cognition, quick and
ready insight with the conscious use of reasoning.
 Observation Skill - It is the act of observing, noting and recording  Organizational Ability - It is the ability that lets the investigator stay
facts. Criminal investigators must be able to note visual details while focused on different tasks, and uses his time, energy, strength, mental
observing the subject for only a brief time. Accurate descriptions are capacity, physical space, in processing various types of information.
significant in police works like facial features, clothing, automobiles,
and so forth. It is often of crucial importance in a criminal case.

 Substantial Legal Knowledge- Among the qualities, this is the most  Persistence - Police Investigators must be persistent to a degree
significant. Today's investigators must possess a solid grounding in beyond that of an average citizen - persist until all available facts of an
criminal law, and to a lesser degree in civil law. investigation are known and satisfied that further effort will be
unproductive.

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Criminal Investigator - a public safety officer who is tasked Police Investigator - a law Public Investigator - one Private Investigator - s
to conduct the investigation of all criminal cases as enforcement officer working who performs duties that utilized in three areas to
provided for and embodied under the Revised Penal toward the resolution of the are frequently similar to gather information of a
Code/Criminal Laws and Special Laws which are criminal in criminal matters though the methodology of police criminal and non-criminal
nature. He is a well-trained, disciplined, and experienced investigative actions investigators nature and to aid private
professional in the field of criminal investigation industries

THE INVESTIGATIVE METHOD

1. Identify how the scientific method applies to criminal investigation.
2. Explain the necessity of legal guidelines and restrictions of the investigative function.
3. Comprehend the significance and application of evidence to the criminal proceeding.
4. List and define the three major phases of a criminal investigation.
5. Familiarize the ways in which a criminal case can be brought to the attention of a law enforcement agency.
6. Appreciate the relationship of time to the probability of successful case solution.

STARTING POINT OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS

I. State the Problem
A. IDENTIFY SUSPECT(S) B. LOCATE SUSPECT(S) C. EFFECT ARREST D. RECOVER STOLEN PROPERTY
1. Witnesses 1. Immediate relatives / 1. Arrest without warrant. A peace officer or a Keep records - keep important
2. Fingerprint friends. private person may, without a warrant, arrest a information on hand like serial
3. Foot /Shoe print 2. Surveillance operators person. numbers and vehicle identification
4. Victim 3. Drones, facial numbers. These records make the
5. CCTV Footage recognition, and 2. Then in his presence, the person to be arrested search for stolen goods easier.
6. DNA Examination algorithm driven has committed, is actually committing, or is
attempting to commit an offense. Use digital trackers whether it is an
7. Circumstanced Evidence policing
app or a tracking device. Placing
8. Inculpatory Evidence 4. Social media 3. When an offense has just been committed, digital trackers on your valuable list
9. Immediate relatives of 5. Peers have knowledge of facts or circumstances that can help to recover them if they are
victim/ subject the person to be arrested has committed it. lost or stolen.

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10. Friends of the subject
11. Rogues gallery subject 4. When the person to be arrested is a prisoner Lock it - While locks aren't always
12. Modus Operandi File who has escaped from a penal establishment or fool proof, they at least discourage
place where he is serving final judgment or is theft, especially in public places.
temporarily confined while his case is pending.

II. Form the Hypothesis

● Motive - It is that which causes the person to act in a certain manner for every criminal activity motive. It usually will be self-explanatory, and
monetary consideration is the most common of all the various causative factors.
● Knowledge - It is needed in some criminal offenses, to commit the crime.
● Means - It is the least useful of the factors used to formulate a hypothesis. It involves the necessity to perpetrate the crime, because the majority of
crimes can be committed with means available to nearly every one.

III. Observe and Experiment

EVALUATE RESULTS State the Hypothesis/ Theory. Examples: Suicide case, the primary motivation is depression by emotional symptoms.
OF HYPOTHESIS
REJECT THEORY IF Example: A women alleged claims she was raped by the accused, but further examination and laboratory results shows that there is
NECESSARY no penetration in her sex organ.
Example: The building was totally burned by fire. According to the building administrator, he saw a spark of electrical wires near
EXPERIMENT WITH the junction box that connects to the adjacent room, so an arson investigation was conducted. They looked for the traces of fire
ANOTHER THEORY but it was not consistent with the traces they found. Then, to verify further the evidence recovered, they conducted an experiment
and it
coincided with the trace in the fire scene in which the fire started.

EVIDENCES
Evidence - It is the means sanctioned by these rules, of ascertaining in a judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact.
1. Inculpatory evidence is incriminating, for it tends to establish guilt.
2. Exculpatory evidence exonerates or clears a person of blame or legal guilt.
TYPES OF EVIDENCE
DIRECT EVIDENCE It is relatively important in a criminal trial and will normally prove a fact without support. Such evidence has been obtained from the
psychological senses of the individual giving direct personal knowledge of what is being testified to.

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PHYSICAL OR REAL It can be any kind of object associated with the investigation, but it must be a physical, tangible item unlike other forms of evidence
EVIDENCE that may result from sensory observations or inferences.

DOCUMENTARY Although this form of evidence is similar to real evidence in that the item must be of physical nature, this type of evidence need not
EVIDENCE be the actual item, but an acceptable representation of it.

COMPETENT It is responsible evidence, sufficient to prove a fact has a bearing on the case. This pertains to physical items, documents, and people
EVIDENCE

RELEVANT It is pertinent and relates directly to the matter under consideration. As long as a given item of evidence tends to prove and disprove
EVIDENCE any circumstances related to the criminal investigation, it is relevant to that proposition.

BURDEN OF It is the duty of a party to present evidence on the facts in issue necessary to establish his claim or defense by the amount of
PROOF evidence required by law.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF INVESTIGATION

Definition of Investigation- Investigation is the collection of facts to Procedures of Investigation
accomplish a three-fold aim: ● Jurisdictional Investigation by the Territorial Unit Concerned - The
● To identify the suspect Police Station, which has territorial jurisdiction of the area where the
● To locate the suspect crime incident was committed, shall immediately undertake the
● To provide evidence of his guilt necessary investigation and processing of the crime scene, unless
otherwise directed by higher authorities for a certain case to be
Tools of an Investigator in Gathering Facts investigated by other units/agency.
● Information - These are data gathered by an investigator from other ● Official Police Blotter - A police blotter is an 18" x 12" logbook with
persons including the victim himself and from: hard-bound cover that contains the daily register of all crime
✔ Public records incidents, reports, official summary of arrests, and other significant
✔ Private records events reported in a Police station.
✔ Modus Operandi file ● Investigation Team - All investigators in any police unit must be a
● Interview – This is the skillful questioning of witnesses and suspects. graduate of a prescribed investigation course with a rank of at least
P02 (prerequisite to assignment).

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● Instrumentation - This is the scientific examination of real evidence,
application of instruments and methods of the Physical Sciences in
detecting
crime. (Forensic Sciences)
Phases of Investigations Standard Methods of Recording Investigative Data
The main objective of a police investigator is to gather all facts in order to:  Photographs
● Phase I - Identify the suspect/s through (1) confession, (2) eyewitness  Plaster cast
testimony, (3) circumstantial evidence, and (4) associate evidence;  Sketching crime scenes
● Phase II - Locate and apprehend suspect/s; and  Tape recording of sounds
● Phase III - Gather and provide evidence to establish the guilt of the  Written notes (what you have seen or observed)
accused.  Video tape recording of object; and
 Developing and lifting fingerprints found at the crime scene
 Written statements of subject/s (s) and witness/es)
 Gathering physical evidence
Crime Scene Processing Common Investigation Oversights
● Crime Scene Search ✔ Incomplete Case Folder - There is lack of materials documentation of
● Processing and Securing a Crime Scene - Processing a crime scene the case under investigation.
includes the application of diligent and careful methods by an ✔ No template for the conduct of investigation - police personnel are
investigator/ policemen to recognize, identify, preserve and collect not knowledgeable about crime scene preservation and basic
facts and items of evidentiary value that may assist in reconstructing investigation.
that which actually occurred. ✔ Inadequacy of coordination - The SOCO, investigators, prosecutors,
● Protecting the Crime Scene and the Evidence - This requires making and other concerned agencies work separately and independently in
careful and detailed notes and sketches; written statements and the conduct of their investigation.
transcribing verbal statements of witnesses, suspects and marking and ✔ Failure to prosecute - This pertains to absence of a police investigator
preservation of collected physical objects of evidentiary nature. during trial to act as prosecutor’s witness due to retirement and
● Laboratory examination of objects and substances located usually at transfer of concerned investigator.
the crime scene- Objects and substances needing examination in some ✔ Chain of Custody - This is the non-observance of proper
cases are carried, intentionally or unintentionally, by suspects from the documentation in the turn-over of evidence from one officer to
crime scene. another or one office to another.

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Investigator's Notebook ✔ Less appreciation of electronic evidence - This occurs when police
● Recording Note - The data of the investigation must be recorded investigators take for granted the electronic devices such as
in a completely accurate and legible fashion so that in the event cellphones, computers, and other electronic devices that can be
another investigator is required to assume responsibility for the processed to give investigative leads.
investigation, he can make intelligent use of the notebook.

GENERAL INVESTIGATIVE PROCEDURES

Upon receipt of call/walk-in complainants, the Duty Desk Officer shall:
● Record the time it was reported; ● Get the number of victim/s;
● Get the identity of the caller/complainant; ● Record a brief synopsis of the incident;
● Get the place of the incident; ● Direct the nearest mobile car/beat patrollers or the nearest police precinct to act as first
● Get the nature of the incident; responder equipped with "police line" to secure the place of incident a camera; and
● Inform the duty-assigned investigator
If the suspect is arrested at Upon arrival at the crime scene:
the scene: ● Receive the crime scene from the first responder.
✔ Get the names of the ● Record time/date of arrival at the crime scene, location of the scene, condition of the weather, condition, and type of
persons who turned- lighting, direction of wind and visibility.
over arrested the ● Photograph and/or video the entire crime scene.
suspect; ● Before entering the crime scene, all investigators must put on surgical gloves.
✔ Isolate the arrested ● Before touching or moving any object at the crime scene in a homicide or murder case, determine first the status of the
suspect/s and separate victim, whether he is still alive or already dead. If the victim is alive, the investigator should exert effort to gather
information from the victim himself regarding the circumstances of the crime, while a member of the team or someone
them from any witness
must call an ambulance from the nearest hospital.
of the incident;
● Before removing the victim, mark, sketch and photograph his/her relative position. Only a coroner or a medical
✔ Record what hint- the examiner shall remove the dead body unless unusual circumstances justify its immediate removal.
suspect was arrested; ● Designate a member of the team or ask other policemen or responsible persons to stand watch and secure the scene,
✔ Wait for the investigator and permit only authorized persons to enter the same.
to interview the suspect. ● Identify and retain for questioning the person who first notified the police, and other possible witnesses.
● Determine the assailant through inquiry or observe him if his identity is immediately apparent. Arrest him if he is still in
the vicinity.
● Separate witnesses in order to get independent statements

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● Recording - The investigator begins the process of recording pertinent  Collection of Evidence - This is accomplished after the search is
facts and details of the investigation the moment he arrives at the completed, the rough sketch finished, and photographs taken. Fragile
crime evidence should be collected as they are found.
scene.
Markings of Evidence- Any physical 1. Evaluation of Evidence - Each item of evidence must be evaluated in relation to all the evidence,
evidence obtained must be marked tagged individually and collectively. If necessary, these pieces of evidence must be subjected to crime
before its submission to the evidence laboratory examination. Example: firearms for ballistic examination, hair strands, etc.
custodian. Markings on the specimen must 2. Preservation of Evidence - Investigators have the responsibility to ensure that every precaution is
at least contain the following: exercised to preserve physical evidence in the state in which it was recovered/ obtained until it is
✔ Exhibit Case Number released to the evidence custodian.
✔ Initials and or signature of the 3. Releasing of Evidence - All collected evidence can only be released upon order of the court or
collecting officer prosecutor, as the case may be.
✔ Time and date of collection 4. Chain of Custody - This is a list of all persons who came into possession of an item of evidence,
NOTE: It is also important to note the place continuity of possession, or the chain of custody, must be established whenever evidence is
or location where the evidence was presented in court as an exhibit. As a role, all seized evidence must be in the custody of the evidence
collected. custodian
and deposited in the evidence room or designated place for safekeeping.

METHODS OF CRIME SCENE SEARCH

Strip Search Method
- In this method, the area is blocked out in the Zone Search Method
form of a rectangle. The three (3) Searchers A,
B, and C, proceed slowly at the same pace - In this method, one searcher is assigned to each
subdivision of a quadrant, and then each
along paths parallel to one side of the
quadrant is cut into another set of quadrants.
rectangle
Spiral Search Method
- In this method, the three
searchers follow each other
along the path of the spiral,
Double Strip Search Method beginning on the outside
spiraling in toward the Wheel Search Method
- The double strip or grid method of search is a center. - The searchers gather at the center and proceed
modification of the Strip Search Method. Here, the outward along radii or spokes.
rectangle is traversed first parallel to the base then
parallel to a side.

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BIBLICAL BEGINNINGS
MOSES - One of the first recorded formalized intelligence efforts with format, can be also found in the Holy Bible in Numbers 13:17 "And Moses sent
them to spy out the land of Canaan…" The scripture also named the twelve intelligence agents whom the Lord directed Moses to send into the land of
Canaan and records that "those men were heads of the children of Israel".
RAHAB - The Harlot of Jericho (Joshua 2:1-21)" who sheltered and concealed the agents of Israel made a covenant with the agents and duped their
pursuers.
DELILAH - The Philistines used her when she allowed Philistine spies to hide in her house (Judges 16). Delilah was an impromptu intelligence agent.
EVENTS AND PERSONALITIES IN THE WORLD OF INTELLIGENCE
He was a Chinese philosopher who took a more practical view. According to him, what is called “foreknowledge” cannot be elicited from
SUN-TZU spirits, gods, analogy with past events, nor from calculations. He wrote, "It must be obtained from men who knew the enemy's situation.
He wrote the book “The Art of War”. He further wrote the saying “Know thy enemy and know yourself”.
ALEXANDER While he was marching to Asia, there were rumors of disaffection growing among his allies and mercenaries. He sought the truth, and
THE GREAT got it by simplest expedient by devising the "first letter sorting and opening" to obtain information.
He was the Roman Commander in Spain who possessed a White Fawn and allowed it to become widely-known, deriving secrets and
SERTORIUS
guidance from the fawn. His intelligence agents credited their information to the supernatural power of animals.
He was known to be the sagacious master of the Hindustan. He employed more than 4,000 agents for the sole purpose of bringing him
AKBAR
the truth that his throne might rest upon it.
GENGHIS He was known as "The Great Mongol”, who used intelligence to conquer China and invade Cathay. He instructed his Generals to send out
KHAN spies and used prisoners as sources of information.
In England, during the Renaissance Period under Queen Elizabeth, he organized the first National Intelligence Service. He employed spies
SIR FRANCIS
on the staff of the Admiral in Command of the Spanish Army and was able to obtain information regarding the Spanish Army as to their
WALSINGHAM
ships, equipment, forces and stores.
He introduced in France the network of covert collectors who transmitted prompt and accurate information to Paris regarding the
RICHELIEU
activities of the rebels and dissidents of the kingdom.
LOUIS XIV He systematized political policy, continuous surveillance, postal censorship, and military intelligence organization.
SINCE THE 15TH CENTURY, THE FRENCH INTELLIGENCE SYSTEM CONTINUED. THE FOLLOWING WERE NOTABLE CONTRIBUTORS
NAPOLEON He once said, "One spy in the right place is worth 20,000 men in the field". He maintained Military Intelligence and Secret Political Police
BONAPARTE Service all over Europe. His main arm was spy against spy concept.
FREDERICK He was known as the "Father of Organized Military Espionage".
THE GREAT

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He was considered one of the brilliant military strategists in the history of military intelligence.
HANNIBAL
He usually roamed around the city, often disguised himself as a beggar to gather first-hand information.
During his time, the staff of each Roman Legion included ten "speculators” who served as an information-collecting agency. The
JULIUS CAESAR
"speculators" were the first intelligence personnel to appear in military organization.
GEORGE He was a conspirator under oath in the history of every nation and was grand master in intelligence. He mobilized the Free Masons of
WASHINGTON the colonies at the outbreak of the American War of Independence.
KARL He began his career in offensive espionage under a covert role. He was able to infiltrate the Austrian General Staff, and he was
SCHULMEISTER Napoleon’s
eye.
WILHELM He introduced milt as censorship, and organized military propaganda.
STIEBER
He was one of the most brilliant intelligent agents. He became a double agent of Russia. In 1913, his treason was discovered and he was
ALFRED REDI forced to commit suicide. His treason also led to the death of almost 500,000 agents and soldiers combined in his 13 years espionage
episode.
MAJ. GENERAL He was the organizer of the OSS, whose exploits became legendary in World II and he was the builder of a central intelligence system.
DONOVAN
V2-RACKETS The V2 guide missile was a research project of Nazis in Germany. It resulted to its destruction and heavy bombing.
BATTLE OF In June 1442, the turning point of the Naval in the Pacific, the victory gained by the Americans was due to the disrupted messages from
MIDWAY the Imperial Japanese Navy.
ADMIRAL In April 1943, The cryptanalysts of the U.S. Navy Communications Intelligence interpreted a top secret signal relaying the travel of the
ISOROKU admiral. En route, he was intercepted and crashed in the Jungles of Bougainville.
YAMAMOTO
STATE Edward 1, King of England in 1725 organized a systematic police system so-called Witch and Ward. By Royal proclamation, the profession
INFORMER "State Informer "was created in 1734 enjoining all informers to expose criminal activities and be compensated.
FOUCHE OF He was a Frenchman born in 1759, rose to become the most feared and respected intelligence director in French history. He created a
FRANCE network of agents.
JOSEPH He was a member of the New York Police Department in the early 1900s. Through an extensive intelligence network, he was credited to
PETROSINO smash and neutralize the Black Society.
Federal Bureau of Investigation - First established in 1908 as an investigative arm of the U.S Department of Justice and became what is known as the F.B.I.
under its first director John Edgar Hoover in 1924.
Central Intelligence Agency - The agency was created under the US National Security Act of 1947. It was the Central Intelligence group established during
the time of President Truman in January 1946.

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London Metropolitan Police Force - It was established by Sir Robert Peel in 1829 which signaled the beginning of a colorful legendary police force and
considered one of the most efficient in the world today. Their headquarters is in Scotland Yard, Britain.
INTELLIGENCE IN THE WORLD WARS
World War I
● 1900 - European powers developed modern staff systems and placed intelligence in the same level with personnel, operations, and logistics.
Intelligence then functioned during peace and war. Intelligence during this period, concentrated on information about the armed forces of the
enemy and their capabilities.
● German Intelligence - It gained a high reputation for its offensive effectiveness throughout Europe, but declined at the outset of the war.
● British Intelligence - It succeeded greatly by means of censorship and its code room combined with skillful use of covert agents.
World War II
● German Intelligence - They started the war with the world's best organized Intelligence service through advance preparation of intelligence
accompanied by troop movements.
● Japanese Intelligence - It failed because it was not provided with a sufficient number of trained personnel to assemble and evaluate the mass of
materials which were collected. Japanese Intelligence was still involved in short wars and was defensive in nature.
● British Intelligence - The delay in the use of German V-BOMB against them was their main achievement during this time.
● US Intelligence - In 1941, the US Strategic Service was established to research and analyze military, political, and economic information as it affected
the security of the country.
● Chinese Intelligence - In 1932, TaiI Li organized China's Secret Police to conduct espionage and counterespionage against Japanese spies and Chinese
communists.
ESSENTIAL INTERESTS IN INTELLIGENCE
● Intelligence is defined as the capacity for understanding and for other forms of adaptive intellect of behavior the mind in operation.
● Based on Psychology, intelligence is the capacity of a person to adjust to new situations through the use of what has been previously learned.
● According to Military Terminologies, it is the end product resulting from the collection, evaluation, integration, and interpretation of all available
information which may have immediate or potential significance development and execution of plans, policies, and programs of the users.
● According to Police Parlance, it is the end product resulting from the collection, evaluation, analysis, integration, and interpretation of all available
information regarding the activities of criminal and other law violators for the purpose of affecting criminals and other law violators for the purpose
of affecting their arrest, obtaining evidence, and forestalling plan to commit crime.
PRINCIPLES OF INTELLIGENCE
● Objectivity - Intelligence should interact and condition the decision. Intelligence must be adapted to the needs of the decision; it is both a giver and
taker. Action or decision is planned by knowledge and guided by it at every step.
● Interdependence - Intelligence is artificially subdivided into the components elements to insure complete coverage, eliminate duplication, and
reduce the overall task or manageable sizes.

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● Continuity - Intelligence must be continuous. It is necessary that coverage be continuous so that the shape of what happens today could be studied
in the light of what happened before,
● Communication - Intelligence adequate to their needs must be communicated to all the decision makers in a manner that they will understand and
form that will permit its most effective use.
● Usefulness - Intelligence is useless if it remains in the minds, or in the files of its collectors or its producers.
● Selection - Intelligence should be essential and pertinent to the purpose at hand.
● Timelines - This is one of the most important and most obvious, for Intelligence that is too soon or too late are equally useless. Timeliness is one
principle that complements all the others.
● Security - Security is achieved by the measures which intelligence takes to protect and preserve the integrity of its activities.
GENERAL ACTIVITIES IN POLICE INTELLIGENCE
1. Strategic Intelligence- It is an intelligence activity which is primarily long range in nature with little practical immediate operation value.
2. Line Intelligence- It is an intelligence activity that has the immediate nature and value necessary for more effective police planning and operation.
3. National Intelligence- It is the integrated product of intelligence developed by all the governmental branches, departments concerning the broad
aspect of national security and policy.
4. Counter-Intelligence- It is the phase of intelligence covering the activity devoted to destroying the effectiveness of hostile foreign activities and to
the protection against espionage, subversion and sabotage.
5. Undercover Work- Is an investigative process in which disguises and pretext cover and deception are used to gain the confidence of criminal suspects
for the purpose determining the nature and extent of any criminal activities
Counterintelligence (Cl) - This kind of intelligence covers the activity devoted to destroying the effectiveness of hostile foreign activities and to the
protection
of info against espionage, subversion, and sabotage.
Measures in Counterintelligence
1. Passive measures are those measures which seek to conceal information from the enemy.
2. Active measures are those which seek actively to block the enemy's efforts to gain into or engage in espionage, subversion, or sabotage.

FORMS OF INTELLIGENCE
SOCIOLOGICAL
It deals with the demographic and psychological aspects of groups of people; includes the population and manpower.
INTELLIGENCE
BIOGRAPHICAL
It deals with individuals’ personalities who have actual possessions of power.
INTELLIGENCE
ARMED FORCE It deals with the armed forces of the nation. It includes the position of the armed forces, the constitutional and legal basis of its-creation
INTELLIGENCE and actual role, the organizational structure and territorial disposition, and the military manpower recruitment and Order of Battle.

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FIVE CATEGORIES OF CI OPERATIONS

It encompasses the measures taken by a command to protect itself against espionage, enemy operation, sabotage, subversion,
MILITARY SECURITY
or surprise.
PORT FRONTIER AND It has something to do with application of both military and civil security measures for Cl control at point of entry and departure,
TRAVEL SECURITY international borders, or boundaries.
It encompasses active and passive Cl measures affecting the non-military nationals residing in an area either permanently or
CIVIL SECURITY
temporarily residing in an area under military jurisdiction.
CENSORSHIP It is the control and examination of the civil, national, armed forces, field press, and POWs.
SPECIAL OPERATIONS This concerns counter subversion, sabotage, and espionage.

THREE CATEGORIES OF CI MEASURES

● Denial Measures - secrecy, discipline, document security, camouflage and concealment, communication security, military censorship, counter
reconnaissance
● Detection Measures - PSI, security tag or pass card, challenge or password reconnaissance
● Deception Measures - ruse use of escape and evasion, dummy position, fabricated information
THE INTELLIGENCE CYCLE
Planning the Collection Effort - It is concerned with identifying the so-called Essential Element of Information (EEI) - an item of intelligence or information
of the characteristics of the area of operations and the enemy, which the commander feels he needs before he can reasonably arrive at a decision.
Collection of Information - It is concerned with identification of the collecting agency, the formulation of procedures on the manner, or collecting the
information in conjunction with the plans as achieved in phase one.
● Factors in Choosing Collection Agents - Collection agents must be selected according to their capability. Agent's placements or access to the target,
multiplicity- more agents; and must be able to balance the number of agents needed per operation.
● Methods of Collection -The collection of information can be done through overt method (open system) or covert method (secret / clandestine).
● Collecting Agencies - Depending on the type of operation, the collecting agency could be Government Agencies, Intelligence units, or Organizations.
● Trade Crafts - These include the use of photography, investigations, elicitation, interrogation, surveillance, sound equipment, surreptitious entry keys
and locks, use of artist, communication, etc.
Processing the Collected Information - This is concerned with the examination and collation of all collected information.

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STEPS IN PROCESSING RAW INFORMATION
It is the organization of raw data and information into usable form and the grouping of similar items of information so that they will be
COLLECTION
readily accessible.
It is the reduction of info into writing or some other form of graphical representation and the arranging or this info into writing or some
RECORDING
form of graphical representation and the arranging of this into groups of related items

It is the pertinence of the information, reliability of the source and agency, and its credibility or truth of information. Evaluation is the
EVALUATION
determination of the pertinence of the info to the operation, reliability of the source of or agency and the accuracy of the info.

THE EVALUATION GUIDE:

ACCURACY OF INFORMATION RELIABILITY OF INFORMATION SOURCE OF INFORMATION
Confirmed by other sources Complete Reliable Direct Observation by Commander/Chief
Probably True Usually, Reliable Report by DPA or Resident Agent
Possibly True Fairly Reliable Report by PNP/ AFP Troops
Doubtfully True Not Usually Reliable Interrogation of Captured Enemy
Improbable Unreliable Observation of gov’t/civilian employee
Truth cannot be judged Reliability cannot be judged Documentary

Interpretation - It is establishing the meaning and significance of the Dissemination and Use of Information - This refers to the activities of
information. transferring the processed information to the proper users most
It involves the following activities: particularly the authority that requires the activity. Processed information
● Analysis - shifting and isolating those elements that have can be disseminated through' annexes, estimates, briefing, messages,
significance in light of mission or national objective reports, overlays, and or summaries
● Integration - combining the elements isolated in analysis and Methods of Dissemination:
known information to form a logical picture or theory 1. Fragmentary orders from top to bottom of the command
● Deduction - formulating conclusions from the theory developed, 2. Memorandum, circulars, special orders
tested, and considered valid in determination of effort and 3. Operations order, oral or written
meaning of information 4. Conference staff members
5. Other report and intelligence documents

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Information - These refer to all evaluated materials of Overt Intelligence - It is the gathering of Covert Intelligence - It is the secret
every description including those derived from information or documents procured openly procurement of information, which is
observation, reports, rumors, imagery, and other sources without regard as to whether the subject or obtained without the knowledge of the
from which intelligence in produced and it is a target become knowledgeable of the person or persons safeguarding vital
communicated knowledge by others obtaining by purpose. intelligence interest.
personal study,
investigation, research, analysis, observation.
TWO GENERAL CLASSIFICATIONS OF SOURCES OF PERSONS AS SOURCES OF INFORMATION
INFORMATION
● Open Sources - 99% of the information ● Informant Net - It is a controlled group of people who work through the direction of the
collected are coming from open sources agent handler. The informants, principle, or cut outs supply the agent handler directly or
● Close Sources - 1% of information are collected indirectly with Intel information
from close sources. Sources include information ● Informants (Asset) - These are people selected as sources information, which could be
which may be taken through: voluntary, or in consideration of a price,
● Informant - He/She is a person who gives information to the police voluntarily or
involuntarily without any consideration.
● Informer - They are those who give information to the police for price or reward.

TYPES OF INFORMANTS:
Criminal Informant - are those who give information to the police pertaining to the underworld about
Confidential Informant - similar to the former, he/she gives information that violate the law to
Anonymous Informant - are those who give information through telephone with the hope that the
Special Informant - are those who give information concerning specialized cases only and it is
Voluntary Informant - are those who give information freely and willfully as a witness to a certain act

Subtypes of Informants: Categories of Recruited Informants

● Incidental Informant - a person who casually ● Spontaneous or Automatic Informant - They are informants who by the nature of their work
imparts information to an officer with no or position in society have a certain legal, moral, or ethical responsibility to report into to the
intention of providing subsequent information police.
● Ordinary (Out-of-their-will) Informants - They are informants that are under the compulsion
to report information to the police.

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● Recruited Informant - a person who is ● Special Employee - They are informants who are of a specific operational nature
selected, cultivated, and developed as a
continuous source of information

INFORMANT RECRUITMENT:
SELECTION Identify and recruit an informant who has access to many criminal in-group or subversive organizations.
INVESTIGATION Investigation of the potential informant that has been tentatively identified as "probable" must be as thorough as possible.
Approach must be done in a setting from which might include pleasant surroundings, any probability of compromise preferably in an
APPROACH
adjacent city or a remote area foreign to the informant's living pattern.
TESTING Testing programs should begin, of course, with the limited assignment with a gradual integration into the more important areas.

14 OPERATIONAL CYCLES COVER AND UNDERCOVER ACTIVITIES

1. Mission and Target ● Cover - the means by which an individual group of organization
Infiltration - insertion of action agent inside the target organization observer conceals the true nature of its acts and or existence from the
Penetration - recruitment of action agent inside the target organization observer
2. Planning ● Cover story - a biographical data through fiction that will portray the
3. Spotting personality of the agent he assumed; scenario to cover up the
4. Partial Background Investigation (PBI) or Complete Background operation.
Investigation ● Cover support - an agent assigned in target areas with the primary
5. Recruitment - the only qualification of an agent is to have access to mission of supporting the cover story
the target ● Organizational Cover - is an account consisting of as biographical
6. Training which when adopted by an individual will assume the personality he
7. Briefing wants to adopt
8. Dispatch ● Objectives - to camouflage and protect operational personnel and
9. Communication - technical method like telephone/ radio, non-technical their activities, protect installation on which clandestine activities are
method like personal meeting, live drop, or dead drop based
10. Debriefing ● Under Assignment - is an investigative technique in which agents
11. Payments depends upon the motivation of informant conceal their official identity and obtain information from that
Regulatory - pay no bonuses organization
Supplemental - income that is enough to ease his financial worries ● Use of Undercover Assignment - Use independently to get firsthand
12. Disposition - involve activity on rerouting, retraining, retesting, information about the subject of investigation.
termination

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13. Reporting ● Undercover Agent - Their special qualifications include knowledge of
14. Operational Testing the language, area background regarding events, knowledge about the
customs and habits, physical appearance, and must be an artist.

Agent in Place - an agent who

has been recruited by an
intelligence service within a
Double Agent - an enemy agent who highly sensitive target who is Penetration Agent - an agent who has
was has been captured, turned around, just beginning a career or have such reached the enemy gets
and sent back where he came from as been
information and would manage to get
an agent of his captors
back alive
Procuring
Different
Expandable Agent - an agent who leaks Type of Agent of Influence - an agent who
false information to the enemy Agents uses influence to gain information

Agent Provocation - one who

provokes the enemy to give
information

METHODS OF COVERT INTELLIGENCE

Surveillance - a form of clandestine investigation which consists of keeping persons, places, or other targets under physical observation in order to obtain
evidence or information pertinent to an investigation
CONSIDERATIONS IN SURVEILLANCE PLANNING
 Pre-Surveillance Conference - a conference held among the team  Safe house - a place, building, or an apartment, where police undercover
members the police intelligence unit before surveillance is men meet for debriefing or reporting purposes
conducted  Drop - a convenient, secure and unsuspecting place where police
 Surveillance Plan - a plan established as required according to undercover men meet his action agent for reporting purposes
type of personnel, and the general and specific instructions for  Convoy - an accomplice or associate of the subject used to avoid or elude
surveillance surveillance
 Area Target Study - refers to the area of operation of surveillance  Decoy - a cover supporting the surveillance who can become a convoy

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activities whenever surveillant is burned
 Surveillant - a person who conducts surveillance which includes  Contact - any person whom the subject picks or deals with while he is
only observations under observation and identifies the observer
 Shakeout or Plant - is the observation of places or areas from a  Made - It is when the subject under surveillance becomes aware that he is
fixed point under observation and identifies the observer.
 Tailing or Shadowing - is the observation of a person's movement  Lost - It is when the surveillant does not know the whereabouts of his
 Liaison Program - the assignment of trained intelligence subject or the Subject had chided the surveillance.
personnel to other agencies to obtain information of police  Undercover Man - a person trained to observe and penetrate certain
intelligence value (Agencies like the press, credit agencies, labor organization suspected of illegal activities and later reports the observation
unions, telephone and information that proper operation can be made
Companies)

TYPES OF SURVEILLANCE
DISCREET subject person to be watched is unaware that he is under observation
CLOSE subject is aware that he is under observation varied on each occasions
LOOSE applied frequently or infrequently, period of observation varied on each occasion

METHODS OF SURVEILLANCE
STATIONARY observation of place usually a bookie stall, gambling joint, a residence where illegal activities are going on (Fixed position)
MOVING follows the subject from the place to place to maintain continuous watch of his activities
TECHNICAL surveillance by the use of communications and electronic hardwares, gadgets, system equipment

BASIC PREPARATIONS IN SURVEILLANCE

STUDY THE SUBJECT name, address, description, family and relatives, associates, character and temperament, vice, hobbies, education, etc.
KNOWLEDGE OF THE maps, national and religious backgrounds, transportation, public utilities
AREA AND TERRAIN
SUBVERSIVE history and background, biography of the official identity and background of members and former members, method of
ORGANIZATION identification employed by the members, files and records, nature, location and accessibility, meeting
COVER STORY The scenario must be appropriate to cover up operation and avoidance of identification of mission.

Counter Surveillance - The conduct of operation is coupled Casing or Reconnaissance - Casing or reconnaissance is the surveillance of a building place
with intelligence measures such as window shopping) Use of or area to determine its suitability for Intel use or its vulnerability in operation. It aids the

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convoys and decoy, stopping immediately on bind comes, planning of an operation by providing needed information. Casing is also considered a
getting out immediately on public conveyances, retracing, security measure because it offers some degree of protection for those operating in an area
entering mobile housing. unfamiliar to them.
METHODS OF CASING
● Personal Reconnaissance - It is the most effective method and will produce the most information since you know just what you're looking for.
● Map Reconnaissance - It may not be sufficient, but it can produce a certain amount of usable information.
● Research - Much info can be acquired through research.
● Prior Information - Your unit will have a file report that they may provide you with information.
● Hearsay Information - These are usually gained by the person operating in the area and performing casing jobs.

INFORMATION DESIRED IN CASING

AREA CONDITION AND a description of the locality as to whether the place is a residential, commercial, highly urbanized, rural; the living conditions,
HABIT income of population, operational data (time where the area seemed to be useful Close time)
ACTIVE OPPOSITION all organs of every security system whose task to prevent intelligence activity in the given area
DISPOSAL PLAN disposal of the information and materials in case of possible compromise
ESCAPE AND EVASION Exit planning in case of emergencies, from immediate focal point, the general area, and completely from the area.

Elicitation - It is a system or plan whereby information of intelligence value is obtained through the process of direct intercommunication in which one or
more of the parties to the common is unaware of the specific purpose of the conservation.

Approach - process of setting people to Probe - to keep the people taking

Two Devices in the Elicitation start talking incessantly

Tracing the Fugitive – It depends upon the character of the subject. In case the fugitive is exclusive rather elusive, discreet methods must be employed. With
the experienced criminal, a more direct approach is permissible. The following are to be taken:
DATA COLLATION It is the process of comparing texts carefully to clarify or give meaning to information.
AND ANALYSIS
This stage of the intelligence process is the final stage, in which the process most commonly “breaks down”. It is the distribution of
DISSEMINATION
the finished intelligence to the consumers.

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ANALYZING THE The purpose of analysis is to make fragmented information flow in a logical sequence to make it purposeful to the user, such as
INFORMATION taking a group of surveillance reports and arranging them.

LINK ANALYSIS Accordingly, this is one of the most common methods of data description and integration. To make sense out of the multitudes of
information, a process known as description and integration is used.
It is another common technique used in the data description and integration phase. It demonstrates a chain of events or activities
FLOWCHARTING
over a period.
It is usually conducted early in an investigation.
EVENT FLOW
Example: Flow analysis includes charting such as a brief description of an event enclosed in a symbolic area such as a circle or
ANALYSIS
rectangle.
COMMODITY FLOW It greatly simplifies the investigation process by starting the logical flow of such commodities as drugs, money, and illegal arms
ANALYSIS shipment.

SPECIALIZED CRIME INVESTIGATION 1 WITH LEGAL MEDICINE

BRIEF HISTORY OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
The origins of America’s system of criminal investigation can be traced back to the towns and cities in England throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. The
ensuing crime wave forced law enforcement officials to take extreme measures. As a result, thief-catchers were recruited from the chaff of the streets to
assist law enforcement officials in tracing criminals.
TWO TYPES OF THIEFCATCHERS:
1. Hirelings- those whose motivations were just for the benefit of monetary considerations or mercenary in nature
2. Social climbers- those who would connect their conspirators in order to move up the social ladder
 Bow Street Runners - The Bow Street Runners were forerunners of a trend in policing for specialization within the police force. In England, the first
police worked only at night and were originally called the Watchmen of London.
 London Metropolitan Police - In 1829, with the beginning of the London Metropolitan Police Department, officers of the Department were called
“Bobbies” or “constable”.
 Edmond Locard - He was a French criminologist, the pioneer in Forensic Science who became known as the “Sherlock Holmes of France”. He
formulated the basic principles of Forensic Science.
 The Pinkerton National Detective Agency - Founded in 1850 by Scottish immigrant Allan Pinkerton, the Agency was called on by communities to
handle cases that local law enforcement officers were incapable to investigate due to incompetency or limited resources.

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 Federal Bureau of Investigation - It was created probably as the single most major development in criminal investigation in the United States. It was
established in 1924, originating as the Justice Department's Bureau of Investigation in 1907.
LEGAL SAFEGUARDS OF PERSON UNDER CUSTODIAL INVESTIGATION
If an individual faces himself into a certain situation that results in his arrest, it is important for persons of authority such as the public officers, to inform
the arrested person about his/her rights. This Act provides a comprehensive explanation about the rights of an arrested person and the penalties for public
officers who violate the law.
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 7438- An Act defining certain rights of person arrested, detained or under custodial investigation as well as the duties of the arresting,
detaining and investigating officers, and providing penalties for violation thereof
Rights of the Person Under Custodial Investigation (Violations under RA 7438):
● Any arresting public officer or employee or any investigating officer, who fails to inform any person arrested, detained or under custodial
investigation of his rights to remain and to have competent and independent counsel preferably of his own choice; and
● Any person who obstructs, prevents or prohibits any lawyer, any member of the immediate family of a person arrested, detained or under custodial
investigation, or any medical doctor or priest or religious minister or by his counsel, from visiting and conferring privately chosen by him or by any
member of his immediate family with him, or from examining and treating him or from ministering to his spiritual needs.
What are the rights guaranteed to a person under custodial investigation?
● Right to remain silent - A person under custodial investigation has the right to refuse answering any question. If he indeed refuses, this may not be
used against him.
● Right to competent and independent counsel (preferably of his own choice) - If the person cannot afford services of counsel, he must be provided
with one.
● Right to be informed of these rights - In affording this right to a person under custodial investigation, it is not sufficient that the investigating officer
reads out the rights, or merely repeats what is stated in the constitutional provision. The officer is duty-bound to also explain the effects of these
rights
and ensure the person's understanding thereof, in a language known to and understood by him.

CRIME SCENE RESPONSE PROCEDURES

1. Crime Scene Investigation - It is multidisciplinary and involves a systematic search of the crime scene: meticulous observation and documentation of
the scene.
2. Crime Scene Reconstruction - It is the forensic science discipline in which one gains "explicit knowledge of the series of events that surround the
commission of a crime using logical and inductive reasoning, physical evidence, scientific methods, and their interrelationships”.
3. Crime Scene - It is any location that may be associated with a committed crime. Crime scenes contain physical evidence that is pertinent to a criminal
investigation.

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4. Autopsy - It is the process by which the pathologist, the medico-legal officer conducts an examination on the cadaver to determine the exact cause
of death.
5. Postmortem Examination - It is the cursory examination of the dead body by the medico-legal officer at the crime scene.
6. Autolysis - It refers to the action of digestive enzymes or ferments that break down the complex protein and carbohydrate molecules in the body
to simpler compounds.
PROCEDURE OF PROCESSING THE CRIME SCENE
Crime Scene Security — Perimeter Management Officers
Officers must contain the crime scene and secure it from persons with unnecessary access. A perimeter should be established around the crime scene as
soon as possible. The establishment of the initial perimeter can and should be taking place as the scene is being made safe and aid is being rendered to the
victims.
DEATH INVESTIGATION (HOMICIDE INVESTIGATION)
The Three Bridges in Homicide Investigation which shall not be crossed:
1. The first bridge is the body that has been moved.
2. The second bridge is when the cadaver has been embalmed.
3. The third bridge is when the dead person is burned or cremated.
Autopsy - It is the process by which the Postmortem Examination - Post- Autopsy or Necropsy Cause of Death vs. Manner of
pathologist or medico-legal officer conducts an mortem examination is the cursory Report - It is the medical Death
examination on the cadaver to determine the examination of the dead body by document or report The cause of death is the specific
exact cause of death. Autopsy should be the medico-legal officer at the crime stating the cause of injury or disease that leads to
performed at once when there is the slightest scene. death of the victim. death. While the manner of death
reason to suspect the probability of homicide. is the determination of how the
injury or disease leads to death.
CATEGORIES OF DEATH
1. Natural Causes: This is when the body ceases to function of its own accord 2. Homicide: This is the taking of one human life by another
or if there are mitigating medical factors such as termination illness, heart human being by means of pre-meditated murder. The term pre-
disease or the like, which would bring about death. This is generally meditated means to have purposely planned and executed the
referred to as death by natural causes. murder of another human being in cold blood whilst trying to
elude capture by the authorities.
3. Accidental Death: This is when the death of an individual by means other 4. Suicide: This is the deliberate taking of one's own life due
than natural death, murder or suicide. Accidental death can sometimes to extreme emotional distress often brought about by
be severe
manslaughter - murder, but committed out of an involuntary act of violence depression. Suicide is neither accidental nor is it classified as

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towards another. Likewise, accidental death can also be categorized as death by misadventure simply because, the individual has set
death by misadventure. about on a Course of action that would end with their own
inevitable death.
Death Scene Investigation - For the pathologist and criminal investigation to perform a thorough investigation, the death scene must be well-documented.
POSTMORTEM CHANGES IN THE BODY
POSTMORTEM It is in reference to events or changes that occur after death.
ANTEMORTEM It is in reference to events or changes that occur before death.
ALGOR MORTIS (BODY COOLING) Algor mortis (Latin: algor—coldness; mortis—of death), the second stage of death, is the change in body
temperature post mortem, until the ambient temperature is matched.
PRIMARY FLACCIDITY (SOFTNESS) Starting between two and six hours the following death the body mortis begins with the eyelids, neck, and jaw.
 Algor mortis is the process by which the body cools after death.  Livor Mortis (hypostasis) - It is a purplish discoloration of the body
Cooling takes place only if the ambient temperature is cooler than and organ surfaces. It results when blood settles to the lower parts of
the Jody temperature at the time of death. While livor mortis on the body. It becomes visible in the skin between half an hour and two
the posterior aspects of the body is caused by settling of the blood hours after death. Gravity will make the blood settle and the areas
because of gravity when the body is in a supine (in active) position. where it settles turns to a dark blue or purple color, which is termed
lividity.
 Rigor Mortis - (Latin: rigor "stiffness", mortis "of death"), or  Pallor Mortis - (Latin: pallor "paleness", mortis "of death"), the first
postmortem rigidity stage of death, is an after-death paleness that occurs in those with
light/white skin.
Rigor mortis is the post mortem stiffening of the body's muscles. It may or may not involve some degree of actual shortening of the muscles. Algor mortis
is the process by which the body cools after death. Cooling takes place only if the ambient temperature is Cooler than the body temperature at the time
of death
DESICCATION It occurs most prominently on the mucous membranes, which during life are kept moist (by blinking, lip licking, etc.) And are
(DEHYDRATION) no longer protected from drying.
DECOMPOSITION Lt is a sequence of physicochemical events that begins with death and ends with the dissolution of the nondurable parts of
(PUTREFACTION) the body.
AUTOLYSIS It refers to the action of digestive enzymes or ferments that break down the complex protein and carbohydrate molecules in
simpler compounds.
PURGE As the body begins to transform into a liquid state and gasses build within the body, the gasses force the fluid from the body.
This fluid ranges from dark red and dark brown to black and has a very unpleasant odor.
MUMMIFICATION This occurs when the body dries out faster than decomposition takes place usually in hot, dry environments.

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PATHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATIONS OF THE CAUSES OF DEATH
1. Death from Syncope - Syncope is a temporary loss of consciousness usually related to insufficient blood flow to the brain. It's also called fainting or
"passing out." It most often occurs when blood pressure is too low (hypotension) and the heart doesn't pump enough oxygen to the brain
2. Death from Asphyxia
3. Death from Coma
4. Other special types of death:
a. Euthanasia - It is otherwise known as mercy killing. It is the deliberate and painless acceleration of death of a person usually suffering from an
incurable and distressing disease.
TypTyepseosfoEfuEtuhtahnana
assiaia:

Active euthanasia - It is the intentional or deliberate Passive euthanasia - There is absence of the application of the
application of the means to shorten the life of person. means to accelerate death the natural course of the disease is
It may be done with or without the consent or allowed to have its way to extinguish the life of a person.
knowledge of the person.

DEATH BY ASPHYXIATION
Dysthanasia - In medicine, dysthanasia means "bad death" and is considered a common fault of modern medicine. Dysthanasia occurs when a person who
is dying has their biological life extended through technological means without regard to the person's quality of life.
TYPES OF DEATH BY ASPHYXIATION
ASPHYXIA OR is a condition of deficient supply of oxygen to the body that arises from abnormal breathing
ASPHYXIATION
STRANGULATION is a form of asphyxiation from compression of the neck; hard blows to the neck may also cause strangulation
HYOID is a U-shaped neck bone which supports the tongue
LIGATURE is a cord or wire used for tying; strangulation by ligature may be homicide or suicide
1. Anoxic Death - This is associated with the failure of the arterial blood to become normally saturated with oxygen. Anoxia happens when your body or
brain completely loses its oxygen supply.
2. Anoxic brain injuries - These are caused by a complete lack of oxygen being provided to the brain, which results in the death of brain cells after
approximately four minutes of oxygen deprivation.
3. Anemic Anoxic Death - This is due to a decreased capacity of the blood to carry oxygen
4. Drowning - This is death as caused by suffocation when a liquid causes interruption of the body's absorption of oxygen from the air leading to
asphyxia.

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5. Secondary drowning - This is death due to chemical or biological changes in the lungs after a near drowning incident.
Death from Coma - Coma is the state of unconsciousness and with insensibility of the pupil and conjunctive, and inability to swallow, resulting from the
arrest of the functions of the brain.
DEATH BY INJURY
TYPES OF WOUND INJURIES:
These wounds are any type of injuries that result from an It is produced by penetration of sharp pointed and sharp-
DEFENSE STAB
attempt, or repeated attempts to defend against an edged instruments.
WOUNDS WOUND
assailant.
Coup signifies that the injuries are located beneath the This wound is a tear of the skin and the underlying tissues
COUP AND
impact (usually caused by blow). due to forcible contact with a blunt instrument.
CONTRECOUP LACERATED
Contrecoup - the injuries are on the opposite side from
INJURIES
where the blow was initiated.
These are open wounds brought about by a penetrating A laceration is a torn ragged wound to the skin or internal
power of the projectile propelled by an expansive force organs. Lacerations can occur as a result of a blow with a
GUNSHOT
of gas or gunpowder. blunt instrument (club, fist, stick) or from extreme trauma
AND
Shrapnel wounds, commonly referred to as wounds LACERATIONS as would be found in all automobile accidents.
SHRAPNEL
which is usually produced by a fragments of a high or
WOUNDS
low velocity of an explosive; such as grenade and or
Improvised Explosive Device (IED).
When a person is struck with a blunt object, such as a This is the result of a thrust of a sharp pointed instrument.
BLUNT FORCE PUNCTURE
pipe, club, or fist, the severity of the injury can range from The external injury is quite small but the depth is to a
WOUND WOUND
mild to severe. certain
degree.
These are scratches and scrapes involving outer layers of INCISED These wounds are usually longer than they are deep. They
ABRASIONS
the skin, including grazes and impact impressions. WOUNDS are caused by a sharp cutting or slashing into the skin
It is an injury that does not break the skin, but results in This wound represents a combination of sharp and blunt
CONTUSION CHOPPING
some discoloration. force injuries typically produced by a heavy or "powerful"
(BRUISE) WOUNDS
object.

INJURIES AND DEATHS DUE TO EXTREME OF TEMPERATURES

Thermal injuries - is caused when the human body is exposed to a high or low environmental temperature
Effects of Cold Temperature

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● If the human body is exposed to a severe cold or freezing it may result in a disassociation power of oxygen from hemoglobin and may weaken
the tissue to utilize or develop oxygen, long exposure of the human body causes necrosis and gangrene of the human flesh.
Effects of Frostbite
● Long exposure to a severe cold temperature may result in a mechanical description of cell structure due to lowering of body temperature. The
internal tissue and muscle of a person will cause rigidity or stiffening of the body or pallor (Paleness)
Trench Foot
● It is a condition of a human tissue whose foot is exposed to a high temperature of freezing like walking barefooted to a snow person whose foot
is exposed to a severe cold temperature may result in stiffening of the muscle cramps.
EFFECTS OF HEAT TO THE HUMAN BODY
1. Specific Heat - a volume of required calories to raise the temperature of the gram of a particular substance temperature of one degree centigrade
2. Sensible Heat - a type of heat which is absorbed by the body produce a rise temperature
3. Heat Cramps - a painful contraction or tightening of the skeletal muscle due to dehydration and loss of sodium chloride due to excessive sweating
4. Heat Stroke - a breakdown of sweating mechanism usually common to a workers who are exposed to a warm environment or having a direct
exposure to extreme heat of sun rays and may displayed by increase of the body temperature mental injuries to central nervous system, congestion
and hemorrhages in various organ
5. Scald - a type of skin injury due to strong contact with hot object or boiling liquid that characterized by redness, pain, and blistering formation
6. Burned Injury - The possibility of a person to die due to burned injury will depend on the severity of burns; it depends directly on intensity of fire and
the duration of exposure.
7. Exhaustion (Heat Collapse) - It is a physiologic breakdown following exposure to heat triggered by exertion and warm clothing that is
characterized by peripheral or outer vasomotor (relating to nerve and muscle that cause blood vessels to tighten or expand).
BURNS
1. First Degree Burn - A type of burn that involves the superficial layer of the skin characterized by redness and pain. If only the surface of the skin, the
top layer was burned, we call that a first degree.
2. Second Degree Burn - A skin burn which involves the superficial layer of the tissues and skin and nerve endings characterized by blister formation.
The effect is serious because it is painful and it will irritate the nerve endings.
3. Third Degree Burn - A type of skin injury involving the nerves, muscles and bones which is usually met in victims of conflagration.

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CLASSIFICATION OF WOUNDS

Non-mortal wound - a
Self-inflicting wound - a
Mortal wound - a wound which wound which is not Defense wound - a
wound produced on one's
is caused immediately after capable of producing wound which is the result
self. As distinguished from
infliction or shortly thereafter death immediately after of a person's instinctive
suicide, the person has no
that is capable of causing death infliction or shortly reaction of self-protection
intention to end his life.
thereafter

Histotoxic Anoxic Death - This is due to the failure of the cellular oxidative process, although the oxygen is delivered to the tissues, it cannot be utilized properly
Cyanide and Alcohol are common agents responsible for histotoxic.

CRIMES AGAINST PROPERTY

Theft - Committed when personal properties are taken without Robbery - Any person who, with intent to gain, shall take any personal property
the consent or knowledge of the owner. Occurs where no force belonging to another, by means of violence or intimidation of any person, or using
or threat of force is directed against an individual. force upon anything shall be guilty of robbery.

Carnapping is the unlawful taking, with intent to gain, a motor Burglary means the unlawful entry such as home or building commit a crime.
vehicle belonging to another without the latter's consent or by Likewise, larceny is the unlawful taking of property, but does not involve unlawful
means of violence against or intimidation of a person using force entry. Larceny is an unlawful taking and carrying away of another person's property
upon things. with the intent
never to return it to the owner.

MACRO ETCHING MICRO ETCHING

It is the chemical process of determining the authenticity of the It is the chemical process of restoring an erased or tampered engine and chassis
engine and chassis numbers of a motor vehicle which is required number. The process is by continuous application of strong acid on the suspected
before a clearance is used for registration of newly transferred tampered or erased numbers.
vehicles from the dealers, owners or buyers.

HOW TO DETECT STOLEN VEHICLES MODUS OPERANDI OF CARNAPPERS

1. No license plate number 1. Selection of car make or model.
2. Sporting improvised plates

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3. Sporting plates which are for specific vehicles like yellow plate 2. Collusion of carnappers with sales agents of car dealers who furnished a copied
attached to private vehicle key and the address of buyers
4. Abandoned vehicles 3. Use of a false key while parked unattended.
5. Fake license plates or stickers 4. Carnappers sporting as police officers who will check and confiscate Purportedly
6. No sticker for the current year carnapped vehicles.
Haphazardly painted 5. By the use of firearms to intimidate or exact violence on the driver.
7. Plates do not correspond to the year or model of the vehicle. 6. Going around early morning where they will drive away cars being washed and
while the ignition key is on the switch.
7. Waiting at the gate for the car to arrive or leave where carnappers use violence or
intimidation to the driver.

CRIMES AGAINST PERSONS

REPUBLIC ACT 8353 - ANTI-RAPE LAW OF 1997
An Act expanding the definition of the crime of rape, reclassifying the same as a crime against persons, amending for the purpose Act No. 3815,
as amended, otherwise known as the Revised Penal Code, and for other purposes
 Rape is now classified as crime against persons. Previously, it was a crime against chastity. The insertion of the penis or objects into the mouth,
genitals, or anal orifice of another person with carnal knowledge is rape.
 Rape violates a woman's wellbeing and not just virginity or purity. The law considers that any woman, whether prostituted woman, non-virgin or one
who has an active sexual life may be victimized by rape.
 Public Offense - By declaring that rape is a crime against persons the law no longer considers it as a private crime. Anyone who has knowledge of the
crime may file a case on the victim's behalf. Prosecution continues even if the victim drops the case or pardons the offender.

WHAT A man has sexual intercourse with a woman; Through force, threat or intimidation; When the victim is deprived of reason or is
CONSTITUTES unconscious; Through fraudulent machination or grave abuse of authority; and When the victim is under 12 years of age or is
RAPE? demented
(Brainsick), even if none of the above conditions are present
WHO CAN BE Anyone can be a rape victim but the incidence of rape is more rampant in women and girls.
RAPED?
WHO CAN Any man or woman may be held liable for rape. It is possible that a man may rape his own wife, an act deemed as "marital rape.
COMMIT RAPE?

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HOW IS THE The penalty varies depending on the Act itself and the circumstances surrounding:
CRIME ● Reclusion perpetua (imprisonment from 20 to 40 years) is imposed on the offender if rape is committed through sexual
PUNISHED? intercourse
● Prision mayor (imprisonment from 6 to 12 years) is imposed on the offender if rape was committed through oral or anal
sex or through the use of any object or instrument that was inserted into the mouth or anal orifice of the woman or a man.
● This may also be elevated to reclusion temporal (imprisonment from 12 to 20 years) or reclusion perpetua depending on the
circumstances surrounding the crime.
WHAT TO DO IF 1. Advise the victim to seek the help of a counselor or a therapist who is an expert in handling cases of sexual abuse.
SOMEONE IS 2. Assist her in securing a safe and temporary shelter if she needs to move to another place for security reasons.
RAPED? 3. Make sure that evidence is safe and intact. This would help in case the victim decides to file a case.
4. Secure a medico-legal certificate from a medico-legal officer.
5. Support the victim along the way when she decides to file a case.
6. Support the victim along the way when she decides to file a case.
7. Ensure that she is prepared in all aspects. Make her understand the overall picture of the case.
8. Help the victim choose the lawyer who understands her most.
9. Coordinate with people who can assist or support her all throughout.
STATUTORY When the victim of rape is twelve years of age and below, it is statutory rape. The reason for this is that even if the child consented to
RAPE the sexual intercourse her consent is not valid because by her age, she could not give a valid consent.
EVIDENCES IN ● Physical examination of the victim - to determine signs of force such as injuries or the presence of seminal fluids inside her organ
THE ● Physical examination of the suspect and the examination of his clothing - relevant matters are the scene of the crime
INVESTIGATION ● Testimonies of witnesses if there are any
OF RAPE ● Written complaint of the victim

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9208 - ANTI-TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS ACT OF 2003

An Act to institute policies to eliminate trafficking in persons especially women and children, establishing the necessary institutional mechanisms for the
protection and support of trafficked persons, providing penalties for its violations, and for other purposes
1. Trafficking in Persons - refers to the recruitment, transportation, transfer or harboring, or receipt of person with or without the victim's consent or
knowledge, within or across national borders by means of threat or use of force
2. Forced Labor and Slavery - refers to the extraction of work or services from any person by means of enticement, violence, intimidation or threat, use
of force or coercion, including deprivation of freedom, abuse of authority or moral ascendancy, debt-bondage or deception
3. Sex Tourism - refers to a program organized by travel and tourism-related establishments and individuals which consists of tourism packages or
activities, utilizing and offering escort and sexual services as enticement for tourists

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4. Sexual Exploitation - refers to participation by a person in prostitution or the production of pornographic materials as a result of being subjected to a
threat, deception coercion abduction force abuse of authority, debt bondage fraud or through abuse of a victim's vulnerability
5. Debt Bondage - refers to the pledging by the debt or of his/her personal services or labor or those of a person under his/her control as security or
payment debt, when the length and nature of services is not clearly defined or when the value of the services as reasonably assessed is not applied
toward the liquidation of the debt
6. Pornography - refers to any representation, through publication, exhibition, cinematography, indecent shows information technology or by whatever
means of a person engaged in real or simulated explicit sexual activities or any representation of the sexual parts of a person for primarily sexual
purposes
7. Council - shall mean the Inter-Agency Council Against Trafficking created (IACAT) under Section 20 of this Act
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9262 - ANTI-VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND THEIR CHILDREN ACT OF 2004
An Act defining violence against women and their children, providing for protective measures for victims,
prescribing penalties therefore, and for other purposes
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND CHILDREN (VAWC)
Any act or a series of acts committed by any person against a woman who is his wife, former wife, or against a woman with whom the person has or had a
sexual or dating relationship, or with whom he has a common child, or against her child.
1. Physical violence - refers to acts that include bodily or physical harm
2. Sexual violence - refers to an act which is sexual in nature, committed against a woman or her
child It includes, but is not limited to the following:
● Rape, sexual harassment, acts of lasciviousness, treating a woman or her child as a sex object, making demeaning and sexually suggestive
remarks, physically attacking the sexual parts of the victim's body, forcing her/him to watch obscene publications and indecent shows or
forcing the woman or her child to do indecent acts and/or make films thereof, forcing the wife and mistress/lover to live in the conjugal home
or sleep together in the same room with the abuser;
● Acts causing or attempting to cause the victim to engage in any sexual activity by force, threat of force, physical or other harm or threat of
physical or other harm or coercion;
● Prostituting the woman or child.
3. Psychological violence - refers to acts or omissions causing or likely to cause mental or emotional suffering of the victim such as but not limited to
intimidation, harassment, stalking, damage to property, public ridicule or humiliation, repeated verbal abuse and marital infidelity
4. Economic abuse - refers to acts that make or attempt to make a woman financially
dependent It includes, but is not limited to the following:

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● withdrawal of financial support or preventing the victim from engaging in any legitimate profession, occupation, business or activity, except in
cases wherein the other spouse/partner objects on valid, serious and moral grounds as defined in Article 73 of the Family Code;
● deprivation or threat of deprivation of financial resources and the right to the use and enjoyment of the conjugal, community or property
owned in common;
● destroying household property;
● Controlling the victims' own money or properties or solely controlling the conjugal money or properties.

TECHNICAL ENGLISH 1 INVESTIGATIVE REPORT WRITING AND PRESENTATION (FIRST PART)

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD POLICE REPORT
A police report is a chronological account of an incident that happened at any given time and place
1. Clarity — the writer is duty-bound to serve his readers by letting them understand easily what he is trying to get across. If the writer is misunderstood,
he expects to receive a different response or answer: hence, he has to use clear and appropriate words.
2. Accuracy - Police communications should conform exactly to the truth or to a standard. They should be without error, precise, exact, and correct.
Accuracy has something to do on how the sentences in the paragraphs are written.
3. Brevity — saying much in fewer words
4. Specificity - It is giving life to a sentence by using particulars that call up shape, texture, color and movement; concretize abstract words.
5. Timeliness - Just like a spot report that should be submitted within twenty-four (24) hours, any other police report should be submitted on time in
order to serve its purpose.
6. Security - Most police reports are either classified as Restricted, Confidential, Secret or Top Secret. The purpose is to secure the given information from
unauthorized access; hence, the security classification of the document should be placed on top and below of the document, and police personnel are
prohibited from divulging classified information to unauthorized people - meaning they have a lower security clearance or none at all.
7. Impartiality - The report should be based on facts and not the opinions of the writer. The writer should then be always objective and avoid bias in
presenting his reports.
8. Completeness - Simple reports do not need all 5 W’s and 1 H, but as much as possible, the writer should use at least the 5 W’s and 1 H. The writer should
be aware that the reader, after reading the report should have no question hanging in his mind because all the necessary information he needs to know
are provided in the report.
5 W’S AND 1H OF POLICE REPORTS
Where? - This question answers the geographical How? - The How question answers the What? - In answering the What, the police officer
location of the crime scene, and personal evidence. manner the crime was committed. must see to it that he accurately names and
describes all material things relevant to the case.

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Who? – The question identifies a person. In police When? - This includes the date and time the crime Why? - The Why question answers the
communication, if we refer to one person, then we was committed, pieces of evidence discovered, motive of the perpetrator committing
should refer to him alone, and not to any other person. victim found suspect apprehended, etc. the crime.

Table - It is a collection of information expressed in numbers or words and presented in columns and rows. It shows the data that result from the
interaction
of an independent (the topic itself) and a dependent variable (the type of information you discover about the topic).
Line Graph - shows the relationship of two variables by a line connecting points inside an X (horizontal) and a Y (vertical) axis. A line graph usually shows
trends over time.
Bar Graph - It uses rectangles to indicate the relative size of several variables. It contrasts variables or shows magnitude. The independent variable is
named
along the baseline while the dependent variable runs parallel to the bars.
Pie Chart - It uses segments of a circle to indicate percentages of a total. The whole circle represents 100 percent, the segments of the circle represent each
item's percentage of the total, and the callouts identify the segments in the graph.
CHART It is the catchall name for many kinds of visual aids such as troubleshooting tables, flow charts, decision charts and layouts.
TROUBLESHOOTING It is usually in manuals that identify a problem and give its probable cause and cure.
TABLES
They show a time sequence or a decision sequence. The arrows indicate the direction of the action (process), and symbols
FLOW CHARTS
represent steps or particular points in the action.
DECISION CHART It is a flow chart that uses graphics to explain whether or not to perform a certain action in a certain action in a certain
(DECISION TREE) situation.
It represents the schedule of a project. Along the horizontal axis are the units of time; along the vertical axis are sub
GANTT CHART processes of the total project. The lines indicate the starting and stopping points of each sub process.

LAYOUTS It is a map of an area seen from the top.

A good photograph offers several advantages: it is memorable and easy to refer to, it duplicates the item discussed, and it
PHOTOGRAPH shows the relationships among the parts.

It could clearly represent an item and its relationship to other items. It eliminates unnecessary details so that the reader can
DRAWING
focus on what is important.
EXPLODED VIEW It shows the parts disconnected but arranged in the order in which they fit together.
Is a rendition of particular parts or assemblies. It could show only the items that the writer wishes, as well as the cross
DETAIL OF DRAWING
sections.

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MEMORANDUM
Memorandum - The Memorandum format is used within an organization and every organization has its own format, hence the Memorandum is only used
within the Philippine National Police (PNP). It is then inappropriate for the PNP to use the Memorandum format in communicating with other government
or non-government agencies: It should use the Civilian Business Letter format.
PARTS OF THE PNP MEMORANDUM
The heading includes the name of the organization, the unit or the police station, and the address. The name of the
HEADING
unit or police station is written boldly and all capitalized. The heading is aligned center
DATE The date should not be abbreviated. Do not forget that after the date is a line drawn from margin to margin.
ADDRESSEE The addressee is written after Memorandum For or Memorandum To.
ATTENTION LINE This is where the name of the specific person or office that will act on your report is boldly written.
Below the attention line is written "From". It is important that if the "From" is written, then the designation in the
SENDER OF THE COMMUNICATION
signatory should be omitted.
The subject is what the report is all about. It is written boldly and should not be very long. It is enough that the
SUBJECT reader, upon reading the subject, knows already what the report is all about. The most important word or words
should be mentioned first.
REFERENCE This is the basis for the report.
This part consists of what the writer would like to tell the reader. In most police reports, especially in Special
BODY Reports, the first paragraph usually contains the problem: the second and succeeding paragraphs, the rationale: and
the last
paragraph, the action.
PARAGRAPHING
● Problem paragraph - It contains what the writer would like the reader to know.
● Rationale Paragraph - These are the explanations to the problem.
● Action paragraph - This is what the receiver of the communication will do after reading it.
Signature- Any document without the signature is of no value. (First name, Middle name, Last name) with the rank typed below it, and the designation or
position type below the rank. The name, for clarity, should be capitalized and written boldly whether the signatory is a Police Commissioned Officer, Police
Non-Commissioned Officer or even a civilian.
CIVILIAN BUSINESS LETTER
Parts: Salutation: Take note:
1. Heading 1. Personal ● The beginning letters of the salutation are capitalized and a colon is used if the letter is
2. Inside Address 2. Informal formal. If it is personal, use the comma.
3. Salutation 3. Formal

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4. Complimentary Close 4. Extremely ● In civilian business letters, the salutation and the complimentary close should agree with
5. Signature each other.
● In the complimentary close, the first letter is only capitalized and the others not.
● Do not ever forget to place the complimentary close, as some police officers do. The
reason probably is that they are used to the memorandum format that has no
complimentary close.
● Thus, if you are writing a civilian business letter, you have to check whether all the parts are
present. Take note, however, a personal letter has no inside address.
Radiographic Communication- The radiographic form of communication is usually used to relay information to PNP units by means of two-way radios or
telephones. This is used to inform units which could hardly be reached by means of the Internet and written communications. It is written all in capital
letters without the punctuations, and the use of abbreviations and acronyms is allowed. A format is used but the most important is what to write in the
text
or body.
POLICE REPORTS
CLASSIFICATION OF POLICE REPORTS
Informal Reports- It is usually a letter or memorandum, or any of one of the many Formal Reports- This suggests the full-dress treatment,
prescribed in day-to-day police operations. It could contain many items of administrative including cover, title page, and letter of transmittal,
importance. Many police reports may be placed in this category. introduction, summary sheet, text, conclusions,
recommendations, appendices, index and bibliography.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF POLICE REPORTS ACCORDING TO PURPOSE

PERFORMANCE REPORT Contains information as to the status of an activity or operation
FACT-FINDING REPORT Involves the gathering and presentation of data in a logical order, without attempt to draw conclusions
TECHNICAL REPORT Presents data on a specialized subject
PROBLEM-DETERMINING Attempts to find out the causes of a problem or to find out whether a problem really exists
REPORT
PROBLEM-SOLUTION Analyzes the thought processes that lie behind the solution of a particular problem. It may include all of the elements found
REPORT in the other types of reports, including presentation of data collected, discussion of possible solutions to the problem, and
an identification of the best solution
CATEGORIES OF POLICE REPORTS
OPERATIONAL REPORTS INTERNAL REPORTS TECHNICAL REPORTS SUMMARY OF INFORMATION
Include those relating to the Relate to the reporting necessary to Present data on a specialized Furnish intelligence information necessary
reporting of police incidents, the management of police subject, but usually related to to the solution of crime accidents and police

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investigations, arrests, organization and include financial completed staff work, and add to administrative problems. It keeps executive
identification of persons, reports, personnel reports, the specific knowledge necessary to and legislative authority, and the general
and miscellaneous reports purchase reports, equipment proper police management. public informed of the problems, progress,
necessary to the conduct of report, property maintenance and needs of the police organization.
routine operations. reports, and general
correspondence.
TYPES OF POLICE REPORTS
It is done after an important incident takes place in a certain area at a given time. It is done within 24 hours in order to inform the
SPOT REPORT
immediate chief because of the principle of command responsibility. It is done using the memo form or the radiographic form.
SPECIAL REPORT It is done either because one feels he has some reporting to do, or a lower police unit is obligated based on directives.
PROGRESS This is a follow-up report to a report previously sent or it could be a. accomplishment report which may be analytical in nature and
REPORT may be comparatively longer
INVESTIGATION It is a report that is classified as Confidential and follows the following parts: Authority, Matters Investigated, Facts of the Case,
REPORT Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations.
BEAT INSPECTION This is submitted by the beat supervisor after inspecting those on the beat.
REPORT
AFTER PATROL This is submitted by the personnel on patrol immediately after their tour of duty.
REPORT
SITUATION This relates the present condition of a place or unit and could be submitted daily, hourly or as the need arises.
REPORT

TECHNICAL ENGLISH LEGAL FORMS (FIRST PART)

POLICE BLOTTER
It is a record of daily events occurring within the territory and jurisdiction of a given police unit or command. It contains
POLICE BLOTTER
material
details concerning the event for legal and statistical purposes.
FORM AND SIZE OF THE
The police blotter shall be a record book with hardcover and shall be 12 inches by 16 inches in size.
POLICE BLOTTER
WRITING A POLICE Before deciding to write reported information inside the police blotter, police officers, especially rookies or those who are not
BLOTTER ENTRY used to recording information inside police blotters, should get a piece of paper, jot down all 5 W’s and 1H.
INCIDENTS OR TRANSACTIONS IN A POLICE BLOTTER PROCEDURES IN MAKING ENTRIES INTO POLICE BLOTTERS
1. Violations of laws and ordinances reported and recorded 1. All entries into the police blotter shall be handwritten in clear, concise and
simple manner but must answer as far as practicable the 5 W’s and 1H.
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2. All calls in which any member of the PNP dispatched or taken 2. Only facts are entered into the blotter.
official action 3. No erasures shall be made on the entries. Corrections are made by drawing
3. All fire alarms, reports and information received by the station a horizontal line, across such a word or phrase and initiated by the police
4. Movements of prisoners with corresponding notations on the officer making the correction.
authority of such movement 4. A ball pen or pen with blue, black or blue-black ink is used for making the
5. Cases of missing and found persons, animals and properties entries
6. Vehicular and other types of accidents, which require police 5. Misrepresentation in the blotter or any attempt to suppress any information
action is punishable criminally and administratively
7. All personal injuries, bodies found, and suicides. 6. All entries must be legibly written in longhand and consecutively numbered.
8. Damage to properties 7. Every page of the blotter shall be consecutively and chronologically filled up.
9. All cases in which a police member is involved No line or space shall be left blank between any two entries.
10. All arrests and returns made 8. Any development of the case to be reflected in the blotter shall be a new
11. Miscellaneous cases, general and special orders, violation of entry at the time and day it was reported. A reference to the previous entry
rules and regulation number of the case should be made.
12. Any other reportable incident that the chief or higher authority 9. During every shift, the duty sergeant under the supervision of the duty
desires to be recorded officer or complaint desk officer shall make the actual entries on the blotter
and at the end of their tour of duty, both shall sign the police blotter.

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF A POLICE BLOTTER ENTRY:

Who – What – When – Where – Why – How – Motive – Officer on Case
Dying Declaration - This is prepared if the victim of a crime believes he will die as a result of the injuries he sustained. The questions should be simple, very
brief, and direct.
Contents of the Dying Declaration
1. Identity of the assailant 2. Consciousness of an impending death 3. Surrounding circumstances of the incident
● Endorsement - It is a written ● Investigation Report - This is fondly called IR in the PNP. It has a distinct format that should be
communication that usually consists of only followed. The main paragraphs are written boldly, all capitalized and numbered using Roman
one paragraph, but contains everything Numerals, and the paragraphs under each main paragraph are numbered using the Arabic
that the writer would like the reader to Numerals, The IR is usually used within the PNP organization hence, the Memorandum format is
know. used.

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MAIN PARAGRAPHS OF AN INVESTIGATION REPORT
The authority should contain the basis for the report. It could be verbal or handwritten instructions or directives from high-
AUTHORITY
ranking police or local government officials, and Standard Operating Procedures.
This made up of a single sentence which answers the purpose of the report or what has been investigated. Included in the
MATTERS INVESTIGATED
purpose are the answers to the what, where, when, and who questions.
This is the summary of the exact presentation of all information as narrated by the witnesses or based on documentary pieces
FACTS OF THE CASE
of evidence.
This is where the investigator-on-case (IOC) will discuss the facts of the case based on their evidentiary value. He may explain,
DISCUSSION
elaborate, analyze or interpret the facts, so that the case will be clearer to the reader.
CONCLUSION This is a statement that is deduced from the discussion.
RECOMMENDATION This is consistent with the conclusion which shows what the IOC likes to be done with the case or how it could be disposed of.

POLICE OPERATIONAL PLAN

PARTS OF A POLICE OPERATIONAL PLAN
1. Situation — this explains the current condition of an area of responsibility. It could also be a statement of all present circumstances in a given area
that might significantly affect the conduct of what the police had thought to accomplish.
2. Mission — this is a statement of what the police intend to accomplish. It could be to safeguard a VIP, conduct patrol for the preservation of peace
and order, conduct surveillance or undercover operations, etc.
3. Execution — this usually consists of two parts: the Concept of Operation, and the Tasks. The Concept of Operation generally shows how the
operational plan will be carried out in order to accomplish the stated mission, and the Tasks enumerate specific responsibilities of each of the
different divisions or units.
4. Administration and Logistics — this consists of a list of the names of those who will participate in the police operation, including the key officers. The
equipment needed for the operation will also be included.
5. Command and Signal — This shows how communication is done and passed during the police
OUTLINE OF POLICE OPERATIONS
TASKING OF POLICE PERSONNELS
TASK GROUP  Responsible for the overall direction, control and proper implementation of the POLICE.
COMMANDER
ASSISTANT TASK  Assists the task group commander in the implementation of the POLICE.
GROUP COMMANDER  Performs other tasks as directed.
LEGAL OFFICER  Assists the task group/investigating team in the legal aspect of the investigation especially in the filing of the case.

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 Performs other tasks as directed.
 Supervises the overall conduct of the investigation.
 Supplies the necessary requirements to the investigating team.
HEAD, INVESTIGATING
 Prepares and maintains case folders and other results of the investigation.
TEAM
 In-charge of all team's coordination and cooperation with other law enforcement units/agencies.
 Performs other tasks as directed.
 Supervises the team members in the conduct of investigation.
 Ensures the proper handling and processing of possible witnesses and other pieces of evidence essential in the filing of
TEAM LEADER
the case.
 Performs other tasks as directed.
 Responsible for the actual investigation process especially, but not limited to, the process/ control in coordination with
other law enforcement agencies and support counterparts.
 Responsible for the identification, location and collection of all pieces of evidence.
TASK GROUP
 Responsible for the identification, location and processing of all possible witnesses.
COMMANDER
 Conducts profiling of both victims and suspects.
 Supervises junior investigators in the conduct of investigation.
 Performs other tasks as directed
11 GENERAL ORDERS OF A SENTINEL
1. To take charge of this post and all government property in view.
2. To walk my post in a military manner, always on the alert and observing everything that takes place within sight or hearing.
3. To report all violations of orders I am instructed to enforce.
4. To repeat all calls from posts more distant from the guardhouse than my own.
5. To quit my post only when properly relieved.
6. To receive, obey, and pass on to the sentinel who relieves me of all orders from the Commanding Officer, Officer of the Day, and officers and
noncommissioned officers of the guard only.
7. To talk to no one except in the line of duty.
8. To give the alarm in case of fire or disorder.
9. To call the commander of the relief in any case not covered by instructions.
10. To salute all officers, and all colors and standards not cased.
11. To be especially watchful at night and during the time for challenging all persons on or near my post and to allow no one to pass without proper
authority.

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SOME IMPORTANT TERMS USED IN POLICE COMMUNICATION
Arrest - is the taking of a person into custody in order that he may be bound to answer for the commission of an offense
Child Abuse - refers to the maltreatment, whether habitual or not, of the child which includes any of the following:
Child in conflict with the law - refers to a child who is alleged as, accused of, or adjudged as, having committed an offense under Philippine laws
Child at risk - refers to a child who is vulnerable to and at the risk of committing criminal offenses because of personal, family and social circumstances,
Children - refers to persons below eighteen years of age or older but are unable to fully take care of themselves from abuse, neglect, cruelty, exploitation
or discrimination because of a physical or mental disability or condition
Conjugal Visit - refers to the visit of the spouse of the detainee for the purpose of fulfilling marital obligation.
Crime Scene - is the place from which most physical evidence associated with crime will be obtained.
Crime Scene Investigation - is the conduct of processes more particularly the recognition, search, collection, handling, preservation and documentation of
physical evidence to include identification of witnesses and arrest of suspects at the crime scene.
Custodial Investigation - investigation conducted by law enforcement officers after a person has been arrested or deprived of his freedom of action. It
includes an invitation to a person who is investigated in connection with an offense.
Detention - a restraint of personal liberty or deprivation of freedom of action in any significant manner
Detainee/Detention Prisoner - refers to a person arrested due to the commission of a crime/offense by the arresting unit for custodial investigation.
Detention/Custodial Center - an institution secured by the PNP Units for the purpose of providing short term custody of detention prisoner thereby
affording his safety and preventing escape while awaiting the court's disposition of the case or transfer to appropriate penal institution,
Detention Officer - a Police Commission Officer (PCO) or Police Non-Commissioned Officer (PNCO) directly responsible for the administration and
management of the detention facility and the detainees housed therein.
Dragnet Operation - is a police operation purposely to seal-off the probable exit points of fleeing suspects from the crime scene to prevent their escape.
Electronic blotter - is a computerized system that is now being used in Davao City Police Office which was accepted by the courts, prosecutors' office and
the public in general. Coordination with the Supreme Court administrator disclosed that they are amenable to the idea of using e-blotter for the PNP but
the project is stalled because of its prohibitive costs.
First Responder - refers to a Police Officer who is the first to arrive at the crime scene to provide initial police actions on the information or complaint
received.
Hasty Checkpoint - is an immediate response to block the escape of lawless elements from a crime scene, and is also established when nearby checkpoints
are ignored or during hot pursuit operations
High Risk Arrest - is the actual restraint of armed persons following a high-risk stop.
High Risk Stop - is the actual stopping or accosting of an armed and dangerous person or persons, aboard a vehicle or on foot, including the power to use
all necessary and legal means to accomplish such an end.
Hot Pursuit (Cross Jurisdictional Pursuit) - (also termed in the US as fresh pursuit) shall mean an immediate, recent chase or follow-up without material
interval for the purpose of taking into custody any person wanted by virtue of a warrant, or one suspected to have committed a recent offense while
fleeing

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from one police jurisdictional boundary to another that will normally require prior official inter-unit coordination but which the pursuing unit cannot, at
that moment, comply due to the urgency of the situation
Immediate Family Members - shall refer to the detainee's spouse, fiancé or fiancée, parent or child, brother or sister, grandparent or grandchild, uncle or
aunt, nephew or niece, and guardian or ward.
Imminent Danger - the danger is "imminent" if it is on the point of happening. It is not required that the attack already begins, for it may be too late. (The
Revised Penal Code, Book I, JBL Reyes).
Inquest proceedings - is the informal and summary investigation conducted by a public prosecutor, (called the inquest prosecutor) in criminal cases
involving a and be correspondingly warrant issued by the court, and thereafter detained, for the purpose of determining whether or not the warrantless
arrest is valid, said arrested person should remain arrested under custody and be correspondingly charged in court,
Investigator-on-Case (IOC) - is the police officer who determines the cause or motive of the crime, identifies and interviews witnesses, and effects the
arrest of suspect/s.
Maximum tolerance - means the highest degree of restraint that the police, military is and other peacekeeping authorities shall observe during a public
assembly or in the dispersal of the same,
Miranda Doctrine - a principle on the rights of a suspect from forced self-incrimination during Police interrogation as enshrined in the 1987 Philippine
Constitution's Bill of Rights (Article Ill, Sec. 12).
Pat-down Search - is a "frisk" or external feeling of the outer garments of an individual for weapons only
Police Checkpoint - a location where the search, which is duly authorized by the PNP, is conducted to deter/prevent the commission of crimes, enforce
the law, and for other legitimate purposes.
Predetermined Area - is the specific or projected spot where the armed and dangerous person or persons would pass or likely to pass and so tactically
located as to gain calculated advantage against said person or persons.
Public assembly - means any rally, demonstration, march, parade, procession or any other form of mass or concerted action held in a public place for the
purpose of presenting a lawful cause; or expressing an opinion to the general public on any particular issue; or protesting or influencing any state of affairs
whether political, economic or social, or petitioning the government for redress of grievances.
Public place - shall include any highway, boulevard, avenue, road, street, bridge or other thoroughfare, park, plaza, square, and/or any open space of
public ownership where the people are allowed access.
Reasonable Suspicion - facts that, within totality of the circumstances, lead an officer to reasonably suspect, or to have probable cause to believe, that
criminal activity has been, is being, or is about to be committed
Scene of the Crime Operation (SOCO) - is a forensic procedure performed by trained personnel of the PNP Crime Laboratory through scientific methods
of investigation for the purpose of preserving the crime scene, gathering information, documentation, collection and examination of all physical evidence.
Search Warrant - is an order in writing issued in the name of the People of the Philippines, signed by a judge and directed to a peace officer, commanding
him to search for personal property described therein and bring it before the court.

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Spot Check/Accosting - is the brief stopping of an individual, whether on foot or in a vehicle, based on reasonable suspicion/probable cause, for the
purpose of determining the individual's identity and resolving the officer's suspicion concerning criminal activity.
Stopping Zone - is the strategic predetermined area strongly sealed off, barricaded and occupied by tactical forces in a lawful display of authority to
maintain law and order or in defensive response to an event of criminal nature or of such gravity that occurred or likely to occur calling for a high risk stop
or arrest. Unlawful aggression refers to an attack amounting to actual or imminent threat to the life, limb, or right of the person claiming self -defense.

VICE AND DRUG EDUCATION AND CONTROL

Drug Abuse - It is any non-medical use of drugs that causes physical, psychological, legal, economic, or social damage to the user or to people affected by
the user’s behavior.
ADMINISTRATION OF DRUGS
1. Oral – most convenient and economical route whenever possible
2. Injection – directly into the body tissue and blood circulation
3. Inhalation – use of gaseous and volatile drugs are inhaled and absorbed rapidly through the mucous of the respiratory tract
4. Topical – application of drugs directly to a body site such as the skin and the mucous membrane.
5. Iontophoresis – introduction of drugs into the deeper layers of the skin by the use of special type of electric current for local effect
CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS
NATURAL DRUGS:
1. Marijuana – It is a plant that grows in tropical regions and attains an approximate height of 15 to 20 feet. The resin called “hashish’ can be found of
the most top portion of the female plant is called cannabin or the Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) – the concentrated alkaloid which is 5 to 20 times
stronger than the plain marijuana plant.
2. Opium Poppy – “Papaver Somniferum.” The word Papaver is a Greek term which means poppy while the word Somniferum is a Latin term
which means dream/induce sleep. (The dangerous drugs that can be derived from plants are morphine, heroin, and codeine).
3. Coca Bush Plant – It is scientifically known as Erythroxylon Coca and is common in South America.
STIMULANTS – gives increased alertness of physical disposition
1. Shabu (Methamphetamine Hydrochloride):
a. White odorless crystal/crystalline powder with a bitter numbing taste
b. Street Name: Poorman’s cocaine, shabs, ubas, siopao, sha, ice
c. How it is taken: ingestion, inhalation (chasing the dragon), sniffing, injection, smoked
2. Amphetamine:
a. Reduces appetite, Relieves mental depression, comfort fatigue and sleepiness
b. Street Name: eye opener, lid poppers, pep pills, uppers, hearts

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c. How it is taken: Orally as tablet or capsule
3. Cocaine:
a. Extraction from coca bush leaves, White (in pure form), odorless and bitter
b. Street Name: Coke, crack, gold dust, heaven’s dust, stardust, white girl, speedballs
c. How it is taken: Orally, by application, injection, sniffing
HALLUCINOGENS – affect sensation, thinking, self-awareness, and emotion
1. Ecstasy:
a. Street Name: XTC, Adam, essence, E-herbals
b. How it is being taken: Swallowing or inhalation
2. Marijuana:
a. Comes from Cannabis Sativa L.(Indian Hemp); looks like fine, green tobacco
b. Street Name: Mary Jane, Flower, pampapogi, brownies, damo, pot, tea, joint, Dope
c. How it is taken: Smoked in pipes/cigarettes; can be taken in food; made into candy; sniffed in powder form, mixed with honey or butter
3. Mescaline:
a. A chemical taken from peyote cactus; peyote buttons are brown in color and resemble the underside of a dried mushroom
b. Street Name: Cactus, buttons, beans
c. How it is taken: Swallowing
DEPRESSANTS – relaxes the body
Alcohol (King of all Drugs)- Street Name: Beer, whisky, Gin, brandy, wine
Effects: Sedation; impairs mental and physical functions; increases the risk of heart attack and stroke.
Dangers: Addiction; cirrhosis; brain damage; obesity; may lead to cancer of the esophagus, intestines, pancreas, thyroid, and breast.
NARCOTICS – relieves pain and often induces sleep
1. Codeine
a. A component of opium and derivative of morphine; ideal analgesic; found in some cough syrups.
b. Street Name: Schoolboy
c. How it is taken: Orally (tablet or liquid), by injection
2. Heroine
a. Alkaloid derived from morphine, white, off-white or brown crystalline powder
b. Street Name: Blanco, brown, sugar, kabayo, kengkoy, gamot, matsakao, pulbos, sapsap, tinik
c. How it is taken: Orally through inhalation, injection or by smoking
3. Morphine
a. Principal active component in opium; white crystalline powder, light porous cubes, small white tablets

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b. Street Name: M, dreamer, emma, emsel, pulbos
c. How it is taken: Any route, but mostly by intravenous injection
SEDATIVES – may reduce anxiety and excitement
1. Barbiturates:
a. Made from barbituric acid (“Barb”); prescribed to induce sleep or provide calming effect
b. Street Name: Lily, bala, downers, yellow jackets, blue heavens
c. How it is taken: Orally (tablet/capsule); sometimes intravenously
2. Volatile Substances:
a. Inhalants, Solvents, Aerosols, Bases
b. Liquid, solid or mixed substances having the property of releasing toxic vapors or fumes or any chemical substance which when sniffed, smelled,
inhaled, or introduced into the physiological system of the body produce/induce a condition of intoxication, inebriation, excitement,
stupefaction, etc.
c. How it is taken: Sniffing or inhaled directly through the container or from a bag or by holding a rag with the substance in the mouth
CHARACTERISTICS OF DRUG ADDICTION
UNCONTROLLABLE Addict feels a compulsive craving to take drugs repeatedly and tries to procure the same by any means.
CRAVING
TOLERANCE Increasing the dose of the drug to produce the same effect as that of the original effect.
 Users are powerless to quit drug use.
 Physical Dependence – body becomes sick, inactive and incapable of carrying out useful activity in the absence of the
ADDICTION drug. The withdrawal syndromes will occur once the drug use is stopped.
 Psychological Dependence – dependent feels he cannot do without the drug, consequently if he does not take the drug his
mental processes are affected. He cannot carry out his work efficiently.
 Situational Users – use drugs to keep them awake or for additional  Spree Users – school age users who take drugs for “kicks,”
energy to perform an important work an adventurous daring experience, or as a means of fun
 Hard Core Addicts – those whose activities resolves almost entirely  Hippies – those who are addicted to drugs believing that drugs are
around the drug experience and securing supplies an integral part of life
Pablo Escobar and the Medellin Cartel:
 In the late 1970s, the illegal cocaine trade became a major money making opportunity throughout the world. The Medellin Cartel, an organized
group of drug suppliers and smugglers based in the city of Medellin, Colombia, began operating during this time.
 In 1975, Colombian police seized 600 kilos of cocaine from a plane. Drug traffickers retaliated by killing 40 people during one weekend in what
became known as the “Medellin Massacre.” The event triggered years of violence that led to assassinations, kidnappings and raids.

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Cali Cartel:
 When the Medellin cartel was brought down, the Cali Cartel stepped up.
 This organized operation emerged in the early 90s and was based in Southern Colombia. Its founding leaders included brothers Gilberto and
Miguel Rodriguez Orejuela; Jose Santacruz Londoño (also known as “Chepe”); and Hélmer Herrera (also known as “Pacho'').
 At the peak of the Cali Cartel, it was thought to have control over about 80 percent of the cocaine supply to the United States.
 Golden Triangle - refers to the area where the borders of Thailand, Laos, and Myanmar meet at the confluence of the Ruak and Mekong Rivers. Most
of the world's heroin came from the Golden Triangle until the early 21st century when Afghanistan became the world's largest producer.
 Golden Crescent- It is a name given to one of Asia’s two principal areas of illicit opium production (with the other being the Golden Triangle), located
at the crossroads of Central, South, and Western Asia. This space overlaps three nations, Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan, whose mountainous
peripheries define the crescent
IMPORTANT TERMS
 Chemical Diversion – Sale, distribution, supply or transport of legitimately imported, in-transit, manufactured or procured controlled precursors and
essential chemicals, in diluted, mixtures or in concentrated form, to any person or entity engaged in the manufacture of any dangerous drug, and
shall include packaging, repackaging, labeling, relabeling or concealment of such transaction through fraud, destruction of documents, fraudulent
use of permits, misdeclaration, use of front companies or mail fraud.
 Clandestine Laboratory – Any facility used for the illegal manufacture of any dangerous drug and/or controlled precursor and essential chemical.
 Confirmatory Test – An analytical test using a device, tool or equipment with a different chemical or physical principle that is more specific which will
validate and confirm the result of the screening test. It refers to the second or further analytical procedure to more accurately determine the
presence of dangerous drugs in a specimen.
 Cultivate or Culture – Any act of knowingly planting, growing, raising, or permitting the planting, growing or raising of any plant which is the source
of a dangerous drug.
 Deliver – Any act of knowingly passing a dangerous drug to another, personally or otherwise, and by any means, with or without consideration.
 Dispense – Any act of giving away, selling or distributing medicine or any dangerous drug with or without the use of prescription.
 Drug Syndicate – Any organized group of two (2) or more persons forming or joining together with the intention of committing any offense
prescribed under this Act.
 Instrument – Anything that is used or intended to be used, in any manner, in the commission of illegal drug trafficking or related offenses.
 Planting of Evidence – The willful act of any person of maliciously and surreptitiously inserting, placing, adding or attaching directly or indirectly,
through any overt or covert act, whatever quantity of any dangerous drug and/or controlled precursor and essential chemical in the person, house,
effects or in the immediate vicinity of an innocent individual for the purpose of implicating, incriminating or imputing the commission of any violation
of the Act.
 Screening Test – Rapid test performed to establish potential/presumptive positive result

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 Trading – Transactions involving the illegal trafficking of dangerous drugs and/or controlled precursors and essential chemicals using
electronic devices such as, but not limited to, text messages, e-mail, mobile or landlines, two-way radios, internet, instant messengers
and chat rooms or acting as a broker in any of such transactions whether for money or any other consideration.
 Use – Any act of injecting, intravenously or intramuscularly, of consuming, either by chewing, smoking, sniffing, eating, swallowing, drinking
or otherwise introducing into the physiological system of the body, and of the dangerous drugs.
REPUBLIC ACT 9165 - COMPREHENSIVE DANGEROUS DRUGS ACT OF 2002
An Act instituting the Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002, repealing Republic Act No. 6425, otherwise known as the Dangerous Drugs Act of
1972, as amended, providing funds therefor, and for other purposes
POSSESSION OF DANGEROUS DRUGS
The penalty of life imprisonment to death and a fine ranging from P500,000.00) to (P10,000,000.00) shall be imposed upon any person, who,
unless authorized by law, shall possess any dangerous drug in the following quantities, regardless of the degree of purity thereof:
 10 grams or more of opium;
 10 grams or more of morphine;
 10 grams or more of heroin;
 10 grams or more of cocaine or cocaine hydrochloride;
 50 grams or more of methamphetamine hydrochloride or "shabu";
 10 grams or more of marijuana resin or marijuana resin oil;
 500 grams or more of marijuana; and
 10 grams or more of other dangerous drugs such as, but not limited to, methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDA) or "ecstasy,"
paramethoxyamphetamine (PMA), trimethoxyamphetamine (TMA), lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), gamma hydroxyamphetamine (GHB), and those
similarly designed or newly introduced drugs and their derivatives, without having any therapeutic value or if the quantity possessed is far beyond
therapeutic requirements, as determined and promulgated by the Board in accordance to Section 93, Article XI of R.A. 9165.

USE OF DANGEROUS DRUGS

A person apprehended or arrested, who is found to be positive for use of any dangerous drug, after a confirmatory test, shall be imposed a penalty of a
minimum of six (6) months rehabilitation in a government center for the first offense, subject to the provision of Article VIII of the Act. If apprehended
using any dangerous drug for the second time, he/she shall suffer the penalty of imprisonment ranging from six (6) years and one (1) day to twelve (12)
years and a fine ranging from Fifty thousand pesos (P50,000.00) to Two hundred thousand pesos (P200,000.00); Provided, that this Section shall not be
applicable where the person tested is also found to have in his/her possession such quantity of any dangerous drug provided for under Section 11 of the
Act, in which case the provisions stated therein shall apply.

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Punishable Attempt or Conspiracy Program for Treatment and Rehabilitation of Drug Dependents
1. Importation of any dangerous drug and/or A drug dependent or any person who violates Section 15 of the Act may, by himself/herself
controlled precursor and essential chemical or through his/her parent, spouse, guardian or relative within the fourth degree of consanguinity or
2. Sale, trading, administration, dispensation, affinity, apply to the Board or its duly recognized representative, for treatment and rehabilitation of
delivery, distribution and transportation of the drug dependency. Upon such application, the Board shall bring forth the matter to the court which
any dangerous drug and/or controlled shall order that the applicant be examined for drug dependency. If the examination by a DOH-
precursor and essential chemical accredited physician results in the issuance of a certification that the applicant is a drug dependent,
3. Maintenance of a den, dive or resort where he/she shall be ordered by the court to undergo treatment and rehabilitation in a Center designated
any dangerous drug is used in any form. by the Board for a period of not less than six (6) months: Provided, that a drug dependent may be
4. Manufacture of any dangerous drug and/or placed under the care of a DOH-accredited physician where there is no Center near or accessible to
controlled precursor and essential chemical the residence of the drug dependent or where said drug dependent is below eighteen (18) years of
5. Cultivation or culture of plants which are age and is a first-time offender and non-confinement in a Center will not pose a serious danger to
sources of dangerous drugs his/her family or community. (Confinement in a Center for treatment and rehabilitation shall not
exceed one
(1 year).
Exemption from the Criminal Liability under the Custody and Disposition of Confiscated, Seized and/or Surrendered Dangerous Drugs, Plant
Voluntary Submission Program Sources of Dangerous Drugs, Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals,
1. He/she has complied with the rules and regulations of Instruments/Paraphernalia and/or Laboratory Equipment (RA 10640)
the Center, the applicable rules and regulations of the The PDEA shall take charge and have custody of all dangerous drugs, plant sources
Board, including the after-care and follow-up program of dangerous drugs, controlled precursors and essential chemicals, as well as
for at least 18 months following temporary discharge instruments/paraphernalia and/or laboratory equipment so confiscated, seized and/or
from confinement in the Center or, in the case of a drug surrendered, for proper disposition in the following manner:
dependent placed under the care of the DOH-accredited The apprehending team having initial custody and control of the dangerous drugs, controlled
physician, the after-care program and follow-up schedule precursors and essential chemicals, instruments/paraphernalia and/or laboratory equipment
formulated by the DSWD and approved by the Board shall, immediately after seizure and confiscation, conduct a physical inventory of the seized
2. He/she has never been charged or convicted of any items and photograph the same in the presence of the accused or the person/s from whom
offense punishable under RA 9165. such items were confiscated and/or seized, or his/her representative or counsel, with an
3. He/she has no record of escape from a Center: elected public official and a representative of the National Prosecution Service or the media
Provided, that had he/she escaped, he/she surrendered who shall be required to sign the copies of the inventory and be given a copy thereof:
by himself/herself or through his/her parent, spouse, Provided, That the physical inventory and photograph shall be conducted at the place where
guardian or relative within the fourth degree of the search warrant is served; or at the nearest police station or at the nearest office of the
consanguinity or affinity, within 1 week from the date of apprehending officer/team, whichever is practicable, in case of warrantless seizures:
the said escape; Provided, finally, That

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noncompliance of these requirements under justifiable grounds, as long as the integrity and

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4. He/she poses no serious danger to himself/herself, the evidentiary value of the seized items are properly preserved by the apprehending
his/her family or the community by his/her exemption officer/team, shall not render void and invalid such seizures and custody over said items.
from criminal liability.

DANGEROUS DRUGS BOARD

It is the policy-making and strategy-formulating body in the planning and formulation of policies and programs on drug prevention and control.
(Composed of 17 members wherein 3 of which are permanent members, the other 12 members shall be in an ex officio capacity and the 2 shall be regular
member):
 The 3 permanent members, who shall possess at least 7 year training and experience in the field of dangerous drugs and in any of the following
 fields: law, medicine, criminology, psychology or social work, shall be appointed by the President of the Philippines.
 The President shall designate a Chairperson, who shall have the rank of a secretary from among the 3 permanent members who shall serve for 6 years.
 Of the 2 other members, who shall both have the rank of undersecretary, 1 shall serve for 4 years and the other for 2 years.
 Thereafter, the persons appointed to succeed such members shall hold office for a term of 6 years and until their successors shall have been duly
appointed and qualified.
 The other 12 members who shall be ex-officio members of the Board are the following:
 Secretary of the Department of Justice or his/her representative;
 Secretary of the Department of Health or his/her representative;
 Secretary of the Department of National Defense or his/her representative;
 Secretary of the Department of Finance or his/her representative;
 Secretary of the Department of Labor and Employment or his/her representative.
 Secretary of the Department of the Interior and Local Government or his/her representative;
 Secretary of the Department of Social Welfare and Development or his/her representative;
 Secretary of the Department of Foreign Affairs or his/her representative;
 Secretary of the Department of Education or his/her representative;
 Chairperson of the Commission on Higher Education or his/her representative;
 Chairperson of the National Youth Commission;
 Director-General of the Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency. Cabinet secretaries who are members of the Board may designate their duly authorized
and permanent representative whose ranks shall in no case be lower than undersecretary.
The two (2) regular members shall be as follows:
a) The president of the Integrated Bar of the Philippines; and

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b) The chairperson or president of a non-government organization involved in a dangerous drug campaign to be appointed by the President of the
Philippines.
The Director of the NBI and the Chief of the PNP shall be the permanent consultants of the Board, and shall attend all the meetings of the Board.
All members of the Board, as well as its permanent consultants, shall receive a per diem for every meeting actually attended subject to the pertinent
budgetary laws, rules and regulations on compensation, honoraria and allowances: Provided, that where the representative of an ex-officio member or of
the permanent consultant of the Board attends a meeting in behalf of the latter, such representative shall be entitled to receive the per diem.
Some of the Powers and Duties of the Board:
1. Formulate, develop and establish a comprehensive, integrated, unified and balanced national drug abuse prevention and control strategy;
2. Promulgate such rules and regulations as may be necessary to carry out the purposes of the R.A. 9165 including the manner of safekeeping,
disposition, burning or condemnation of any dangerous drug and/or controlled precursor and essential chemical under the charge and custody
of DDB, PDEA and other concerned agencies, and prescribe administrative remedies or sanctions for the violations of such rules and regulations;
3. Conduct policy studies, program monitoring and evaluations and other researches on drug prevention, control and enforcement;
4. Initiate, conduct and support scientific, clinical, social, psychological, physical and biological researches on dangerous drugs and dangerous
drugs prevention and control measures.
PHILIPPINE DRUG ENFORCEMENT AGENCY (PDEA)
It shall be headed by a Director-General (appointed by President) with the rank of Undersecretary, who shall be responsible for the general
administration and management of the agency.
 PDEA Academy shall be responsible for the recruitment and training of all PDEA agents and personnel. The Board shall provide for the qualifications
and requirements of its recruits who must be at least 21 years old, of proven integrity and honesty and a Baccalaureate degree holder.
Some of the Powers and Duties of the PDEA
a) Implement or cause the efficient and effective implementation of the national drug control strategy formulated by the Board thereby carrying
out a national anti-drug campaign program which shall include drug law enforcement, control and prevention campaign with the assistance of
concerned government agencies.
Undertake the enforcement of the provisions of Article II of the RA 9165 relative to the unlawful acts and penalties involving any dangerous drug and/or
controlled precursor and essential chemical and investigate all violators and other matters involved in the commission of any crime relative to the use,
abuse or trafficking of any dangerous drug and/or controlled precursor and essential chemical as provided for in the RA 9165 and the provisions of
Presidential Decree No. 1619;
c. Administer oath, issue subpoena and subpoena duces tecum relative to the conduct of investigation involving the violations of the RA 916
d. Arrest and apprehend as well as search all violators and seize or confiscate, the effects or proceeds of the crimes as provided by law and take
custody thereof, for this purpose the prosecutors and enforcement agents are authorized to possess firearms, in accordance with existing laws;
e. Take charge and have custody of all dangerous drugs and/or controlled precursors and essential chemicals seized, confiscated or surrendered to
any national, provincial or local law enforcement agency, if no longer needed for purposes of evidence in court.

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FIRE PROTECTION AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

IMPORTANT TERMS
 Approved Supervised Sprinkler System (ASSS) – an integrated network of hydraulically designed piping systems installed in a building, structure or
facility with outlets arranged in a systematic pattern. It automatically discharges water when activated by heat or combustion products of fire
 Automatic Fire Suppression System – an integrated system of underground or overhead piping connected to a source of extinguishing agent or
medium, designed in accordance with fire protection engineering standards to include, but not limited to Automatic Fire Sprinkler System which
when actuated by its automatic detecting device suppresses fire within the area protected even without human intervention
 Alternative and/or Remedial Fire Safety Measures – sets of fire safety rules, regulations, and standards specifically applied to existing public or
private buildings, structures or facilities and their premises or portion thereof constructed or erected prior to the implementation of RA 9514, which
has no existing ASSS required under the said law
 Backdraft – It is the sudden and rapid (violent) burning of heated gasses in a confined area that occurs in the form of explosion. This may occur
because of improper ventilation. If a room is not properly ventilated, highly flammable vapors may accumulate, such that when a door or window is
suddenly opened, the room violently sucks the oxygen from the outside and simultaneously, a sudden combustion occurs, which may happen as an
explosion (combustion explosion).
 Boiling Point – constant temperature at which the vapors of the liquid is equal to the atmospheric pressure
 Combustible, Flammable or Inflammable – descriptions of materials that are easily set on fire
 Combustible Liquid – any liquid having a flash point at or above 37.8OC (100OF)
 Corrosive Liquid – any liquid which causes fire when in contact with organic matter or with certain chemicals
 Damper – normally open device installed inside an air duct system which automatically closes to restrict the passage of smoke or fire
 Duct System – continuous passageway for the transmission of air
 Endothermic Reaction – These are changes whereby energy (heat) is absorbed or is added before the reaction takes place.
 Evidence Spoliation – loss, destruction or material alteration of an object or document which can be used in a legal proceeding by a person who has
the responsibility for its preservation
 Exothermic Reaction – These are reactions or changes that release or give off energy (heat), thus they produce substances with less energy than the
reactants.
 Fire Safety Technical Committee – a group created to evaluate and recommend appropriate action relative to application for Alternative and/or
Remedial Fire Safety Measures
 Fire Spread – the movement of fire from one place to another
 Fire Pattern – the visible or measurable physical changes, or identifiable shapes, formed by a fire effect or group of fire effects
 Fire Point – temperature at which a material will give off ample vapors to keep burning

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 Flash Fire – It is better known as dust explosion. This may happen when the metal post that is completely covered with dust is going to be hit by
lightning. The dust particles covering the metal burn simultaneously thus creating a violent chemical reaction that produces a very bright flash
followed by an explosion.
 Flashover – It is the sudden ignition of accumulated radical gasses produced when there is incomplete combustion of fuels. It is the sudden burning
of free radicals, which is initiated by a spark or flash produced when temperature rises until the flash point is reached. When an accumulated volume
of radical gasses suddenly burns, there will be a very intense fire that is capable of causing flames to jump at a certain distance in the form of a
fireball. Fireballs can travel to a hundred yards within a few seconds.
 Flash Point – minimum temperature at which any material gives off vapor in sufficient concentration to form an ignitable mixture with air
 Ignition Temperature or Kindling Temperature – lowest temperature at which a fuel when heated will ignite in the air and continue to burn; the
temperature required to cause ignition of a substance
 Incident Command Post (ICP) – The designated area for planning and communication point for members of the Fire Arson Investigation.
 Inductive Reasoning – This is the process by which a person starts from a particular experience and proceeds to generalizations. The process by
which hypotheses are developed based upon observable or known facts and the training, experience, knowledge, and expertise of the observer.
 High profile cases – Cases considered to invite too much public attention in view of the magnitude of its casualties and fatalities and unconscionable
amount of insurance coverage, or that public clamor calls for such reinvestigation
 Methodical Examination – the systematic approach in all relevant details found at the fire scene during the actual conduct of investigation
 Scientific Method – the analytical process necessary in a successful conduct of investigation Sprinkler System – integrated network of hydraulically
designed piping installed in a building, structure or area with outlets arranged in a systematic pattern which automatically discharges water when
activated by heat or combustion products from a fire
 Standpipe System – system of vertical pipes in a building to which fire hoses can be attached on each floor, including a system by which water is
made available to the outlets as needed
 Point of Fire Origin/Base of Fire – exact physical location where a heat source and a fuel came in contact with each other and where the fire begins.
 Vertical Shaft – enclosed vertical space of passage that extends from floor to floor, as well as from the base to the top of the building

THE FIRE TETRAHEDRON

The fire tetrahedron is useful in illustrating and remembering the combustion process because it
has room for the chain reaction and because each face touches the other three faces. The basic difference
between the fire triangle and the fire tetrahedron is that: The tetrahedron illustrates how flaming
combustion is supported and sustained through the chain reaction. In this sense, the chain reaction face
keeps the other three faces from falling apart.

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Categories of Products of Combustion:

● Heat – a form of energy characterized by vibration of molecules and capable if initiating and supporting chemical changes of state
● Smoke – matter made up of very fine solid particles and condensed vapor as a result of combustion
● Fire Gases – gasses that remain when the products of combustion are cooled to normal temperature
● Flame – incandescent gasses that cause rapid oxidation of combustible material; The burning gas or vapor of a fire that is visible as light of various
colors.
ELEMENTS OF FIRE METHOD OF FIRE EXTINGUISHMENT
FUEL – anything that will burn when heated with sufficient oxygen STARVING/SEPARATION – removing the fire by means of removing the fuel
HEAT – source of ignition or any device to start a fire COOLING – reducing the heat to below the ignition temperature
OXYGEN – aids in combustion or comes from the atmosphere we SMOTHERING – expelling oxygen
breathe (21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen and 1% inert gas)

METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER

Conduction - heat travels through solids Convection - heat travels from one molecule to another, Radiation - heat energy is through
or between solids in contact with each but the particles or molecules are themselves in motion. intervening space by heat rays or
other or through intervening heat Gasses, in particular, being heated tend to circulate and electromagnetic waves without an
conducting medium. spread the heat through the circulating medium. intervening medium.
CLASSES OF FIRE BASED ON BURNING FUEL
CLASS A – Fires involving CLASS B – Fires CLASS C – Fires involving CLASS D – Fires involving CLASS K – Fires in cooking
ordinary combustible involving flammable energized electrical combustible materials, such as appliances that involve
materials such as wood, cloth, liquids and gasses. equipment. sodium, magnesium, potassium, combustible cooking media
rubber and plastics. and other similar materials. (vegetable or animal oils and
fats).

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FIREFIGHTING OPERATIONS AND EXTINGUISHMENT
Firefighting is an activity intended to save lives and property. It is one of the most important emergency services in a community while Fire Prevention and
Suppression refers to the various safety measures utilized to stop harmful or destructive fires from starting.
The Bureau Of Fire Protection (BFP)- Republic Act 6975, known as the DILG Act of 1990 (Chapter 4, Section 53-59) created the Bureau of Fire Protection
(BFP) to be responsible for the prevention and suppression of all destructive fires and to enforce the laws on fire.
Fire Protection is the descriptive term referring to the various methods used by the bureau to stop, extinguish and control destructive fire for eventual
prevention of loss of life and property. It has the following objectives:
 To prevent destructive fire from starting
 To extinguish (stop or put out) on-going destructive fire
 To confine a destructive fire at the place where it began
 To prevent loss of life and property when fire starts

PRE-FIRE This activity involves developing and defining a systematic course of actions that may be performed in order to realize the
PLANNING objectives of fire protection: involves the process of establishing the sop in case fire breaks out.
EVALUATION SIZE-  On-the-spot planning or sizing-up the situation. This is the process of knowing the emergency situation. It involves
UP mental evaluation by the operation officer-in-charge to determine the appropriate course of action that provides the
highest probability of success.
 Evaluation of the situation:
 Learn the facts of the situation – by answering the 5 w’s – 1h
 Understand the probabilities of fatal behavior of fire
 Know your own situation or capabilities – weaknesses and
 Strengths: available manpower and equipment
 Determine the specific course of action – entry or rescue

EVACUATION This is the activity of transferring people, livestock, and property away from the burning area to minimize damage or destruction
that the fire might incur in case it propagates to other adjacent buildings.

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 This is the process of accessing the burning structure. Entry may be done in a forcible manner. Purposes of conducting
ENTRY forcible entry:
 To provide access for fire fighters with equipment for fire extinguishments
 To provide rescue
 To aid in ventilation
This is the operation of removing (extricating), thus saving, people and other livestock from the burning building and other involved
RESCUE properties, conveying them to a secure place.
EXPOSURE Also called “cover exposure,” this is the activity of securing other buildings near the burning structure in order to prevent the fire
from extending to another building.
This is the activity of restricting the fire at the place (room) where it started: the process of preventing fire from extending from
CONFINEMENT another section or from one section to another section of the involved building.
VENTILATION This operation is purposely conducted to displace toxic gasses. It includes the process of displacing the heated atmosphere within
the involved building with normal air from the outside atmosphere.
SALVAGE The activity of protecting the properties from preventable damage other than the fire. The steps are a) remove the material
outside the burning area, and b) protect or cover the materials by using tarpaulins (cotton canvass treated with waterproofing).
EXTINGUISHMENT This is the process of putting out the main body of fire by using the 4 general methods of fire extinguishments.
This is the complete and detailed check of the structure and all materials therein to eliminate conditions that may cause re-flash;
OVERHAUL involves complete extinguishments of sparks or smoldering (glowing) substances (embers) to prevent possibilities of re-ignition or
rekindling.
FIRE SCENE This is the final stage of fire suppression activities. It is an inquiry conducted to know or determine the origin and cause of fire.
INVESTIGATION
WHAT ARE THE GENERAL OPERATING PROCEDURES IN FIRE EXTINGUISHMENT?
 P - pull the pin at the top of the extinguisher that keeps the handle from being pressed. Press the plastic or thin wire inspection band.
 A - aim the nozzle or outlet towards the fire. Some hose assemblies are dipped to the extinguisher body. Released it and then point at the
 S - squeeze the handle above the carrying handle to discharge the extinguishing agent inside. The handle can be released to stop the discharge at
any time.
 S - sweep the nozzle sideways at the base of the flame to disperse the extinguishing agent.
After the fire is out, probe for remaining smoldering hot spots or possible re-flash of flammable liquids. Make sure the fire is out before leaving the

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burned area

PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND GADGETS

Any other type of truck used to carry equipment or people to a fire or emergency. (Daniel D. Hayes invented the first fire truck in
FIRE TRUCKS
1868)
These are equipped with portable ladders of various types and sizes. They also carry forcible entry tools which firefighters use to
gain entry into a building and to ventilate it to let out smoke.
LADDER TRUCKS Two Types:
Aerial Ladder truck
Elevating-platform truck
A device with rungs to climb on is also a portable piece of equipment with rungs attached to sides made of metal, wood, or rope,
LADDERS
used for climbing up or down.
These are generally used to lie flat on the roof surface, so that firefighters may stand on the ladder for roof work and the ladder
ROOF LADDER
will distribute their weights and help prevent slipping.
It provides a means of reaching through opening into attics and other areas which are somewhat difficult to reach without a special
FOLDING LADDER
ladder.
COMBINATION
These are designed so that they may be used as single extension or “A” frame ladder.
LADDER
A type of ladder that is non-adjustable in length and consists only of one section; sometimes called a wall ladder, used for quick
STRAIGHT LADDER
access to windows and roofs of one and two-story buildings.
A type of ladder that is adjustable in length. It consists of two or more sections, which travel in guides or brackets to permit length
EXTENSION LADDER
adjustment. It provides access in windows and roofs within the limits of extendable length.
PARTS OF A LADDER
Base Section/Bed Section/Main Section – lower Beam – side rail (bar) of a ladder Dogs/Locks/Pawls – are metal devices used to
section of an extension ladder hold the fly section in place after it has been
raised

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Fly Section – upper section or top portion of an Guides – These are woods or metal strips on an Halyard – a rope used for hoisting (raising) fly
extension ladder extension ladder which guide the fly section while sections
being raised.
Heat sensor label – a level affixed to the ladder Heel (butt) – the bottom or ground end of a Heel plates – These are metal safety plates
beam near the tip used to provide warning that ladder attached to the heel of a ground ladder to
the ladder has been subjected to excessive stabilize the ladder and protect the beam.
heat
Hooks – a curved, sharp metal device (two in Pulley – small grooved wheel through which the Rung – These are cross members (usually round)
number) which folds outward from each beam halyard is drawn between the beams on which people climb.
at the top end of a roof ladder
Safety shoes or shoe – these are rubber or Stops – woods or metal pieces which prevent Top or tip – the extreme top of the ladder
neoprene spike plates, usually of the swivel the fly section from being extended too far
type, attached to the heel of ground ladders
Fire Hose A type of flexible tube used by firefighters to carry water under pressure from the source of supply to
a point where it is discharged to extinguish fire.
PARTS OF A FIRE HOSE
Hose Hoist – a device over which rope or hose Hose Clamp – a tool to shut off the water in hose Hose Jacket – used to seal small cuts or breaks
may be pulled to raise or lower equipment lines when other control valves are not which may occur in fire hose or to connect
when firefighters are operating in buildings applicable. It is used to replace a burst section of damaged couplings of the same size.
above the ground level. hose, to extend lines, or to hold water back for
line advancement without shutting off the source
of supply.
Hose Spanner Wrench – used to tighten or loosen hose couplings, but this Fire Hose Ramps and Bridges – protects hose from injuries from vehicles
versatile tool can be used to close utility cocks, pry, and hammer. crossing hose lines. Firefighters at the nozzles will receive sudden jerks each
time a wheel cuts off the water momentarily.
TYPES OF FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
Extinguish the fire by taking away the heat element of the fire triangle. Foam agents also separate the oxygen element from the
WATER AND FOAM other elements. (They should not be used on Class B or C fires. The discharge stream could spread the flammable liquid in a Class B
fire or could create a shock hazard on a Class C fire).

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Extinguish fire by taking away the oxygen element of the fire triangle and also by removing the heat with a very cold discharge.
CARBON DIOXIDE
(Can be used on Class B & C fires and usually ineffective on Class A fires).
Extinguishers are similar to dry chemicals except that they extinguish the fire by separating the fuel from the oxygen
DRY POWDER element or by removing the heat element of the fire triangle. (Dry powder extinguishers are for Class D or combustible metal fires,
only. They are ineffective on all other classes of fires).

Extinguish the fire by interrupting the chemical reaction of the fire triangle. (Multipurpose dry chemicals are effective on Class A,
DRY CHEMICAL
B, and C fires. This agent also works by creating a barrier between the oxygen element and the fuel element on Class A fires).

CARTRIDGE Extinguish the fire primarily by interrupting the chemical reaction of the fire triangle. (Like the stored pressure dry chemical
OPERATED DRY extinguishers, the multipurpose dry chemical is effective on Class A, B, and C fires. This agent also works by creating a barrier
CHEMICAL between the oxygen element and the fuel element on Class A fires).
Extinguishes the fire by removing the heat of the fire triangle and prevents re-ignition by creating a barrier between the oxygen
WET CHEMICAL and fuel elements. (Wet chemicals of Class K extinguishers were developed for modern, high efficiency deep fat fryers in
commercial cooking operations).
Extinguish the fire by interrupting the chemical reaction and/or removing heat from the fire triangle. (Clean agent extinguishers
HALOGENATED OR
are effective on Class A, B and C fires. Smaller sized handheld extinguishers are not large enough to obtain a 1A rating and may
CLEAN AGENT
carry only a Class B and C rating).
Extinguish the fire by taking away the heat element of the fire triangle. They are an alternative to the clean agent extinguishers
WATER MIST
where contamination is a concern. (Primarily for Class A fires, although they are safe for use on Class C fires as well.

Arson-Related Laws
What constitutes Arson?
1) Burning – To constitute burning, pyrolysis must take place. In other words, there must be burning or changing, i.e. the fiber of the wood must be
destroyed; its identity changed
2) Willfulness – means intentional; implies that the act was done purposely and intentionally
3) Malice – denotes hatred or a desire for revenge
4) Motive – is the moving cause that induces the commission of the crime
5) Intent – It is the purpose or design with which the act is done and involves the will.

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METHODS OF PROOF IN ARSON
Burning – that there was fire that may be Criminal Design – must show that it was Evidence of Intent – When valuables were
shown by direct testimony of complaint, willfully and intentionally done. The presence removed from the building before the fire, ill-
firemen responding to the crime, other of incendiary devices, flammables such as feeling between the accused and the
eyewitnesses. gasoline and kerosene may indicate that the occupants
Burned parts of the building may also indicate fire is not accidental. of the building burned, absence of effort to put
location. off fire and such other indications.
Destructive Arson (PD 1613)
1) Any ammunition factory and other establishment where explosives, inflammable or combustible materials are stored.
2) Any archive, museum, whether public or private, or any edifice devoted to culture, education or social services.
3) Any church or place of worship or other building where people usually assemble.
4) Any train, airplane or any aircraft, vessel or watercraft, or conveyance for transportation of persons or property
5) Any building where evidence is kept for use in any legislative, judicial, administrative or other official proceedings.
6) Any hospital, hotel, dormitory, lodging house, housing tenement, shopping center, public or private market, theater or movie house or any
similar place or building.
7) Any building, whether used as a dwelling or not, situated in a populated or congested area.
Other Cases of Arson:
1. Any building used as offices of the government or any of its agencies
2. Any inhabited house or dwelling
3. Any industrial establishment, shipyard, oil well or mine shaft, platform, or tunnel
4. Any plantation, farm, pastureland, growing crop, grain field, orchard, bamboo grove or forest
5. Any rice mill, sugar mill, cane mill or mill central
6. Any railway or bus station, airport, wharf or warehouse
NOTE: Conspiracy to commit Arson. Conspiracy to commit arson shall be punished by the Prison Mayor in its minimum period.
BASIS AND EXTENT OF CRIMINAL LIABILITY IN ARSON
Kind and character of the building Its location Extent of damage of value Its state of being inhabited or not

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Special Aggravating Circumstances of Arson:
1. If committed with intent to gain.
2. If committed for the benefit of another.
3. If the offender is motivated by spite or hatred towards the owner or occupant of the property burned.
4. If committed by a syndicate (planned out by a group of 3 or more persons)
Prima Facie Evidence of Arson:
1. Fire started simultaneously.
2. Substantial amounts of flammable substance or materials are stored within the building not necessary in the business.
3. Gasoline, kerosene, petroleum or other flammable or combustible materials are found in the ruins or promises of the burned building or property.
4. Building or property is insured for substantially more than its actual value at the time of the issuance of the policy.
5. If more than two fires have occurred in the same or other premises owned or under the control of the offender and/or insured.
6. If shortly before the fire a substantial portion of the effects insured and stored in building or property had been withdrawn from the premises
except in the ordinary course of business.
7. If a demand for money or other valuable consideration was made before the fire.
ARSON, MURDER OR ARSON AND HOMICIDE/MURDER
MAIN OBJECTIVE RESULT CRIME
Burning of Building or Edifice Death resulted on occasion of Arson Arson only (Homicide is absorbed)
To kill a particular person Fire resorted as a means to kill such person Murder only
To kill a particular person Fire resorted as a means to cover up killing Homicide/Murder and Arson

What are the basic lines of inquiry in Arson Investigation?

Point of origin of fire – Initially, the important point to be established is the point of origin of fire. In other words, at what particular place in the building
the fire started? This may be established by an examination of the witness, by an inspection of the debris at the fire scene and by studying the fingerprint
of fire. The fingerprint of fire occurs during the free burning stage of the fire when pyrolytic decomposition moves upward on the walls leaving a burnt
pattern.

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THE ARSONIST
Persons With Motives Persons Without Motives
 Those with desire to defraud the Insurer  Those who are mentally ill
 Employees or such other person who have a grievance (Fire revenge)  Pathological fire-setters
 Those with desire to conceal evidence of a crime  Pyros and the Psychos
 Those who set fire for purposes of intimidation
MOTIVES OF THE ARSONIST
ECONOMIC 1. Insurance fraud – benefiting
GAIN 2. Desire to dispose merchandise – loss of market value being out of season, lack of raw materials, over supply of merchandise can
be a big reason for arson.
3. Existing business transaction that the arsonist would like to avoid such as impending liquidation, settlement of estate, need for
cash, prospective business failure, and increase rental
CONCEALMENT When the purpose of hiding a crime or committing a crime, arson was used as a means.
OF CRIME
PUNITIVE Committing arson to inflict injury to another due to hatred, jealousy and revenge
MEASURE
INTIMIDATION Arsonists as saboteurs, strikers and racketeers to intimidate management or employers.
OR ECONOMIC
DISABLING
PYROMANIA He/she is a person having the uncontrollable impulse to burn anything without any motivation. They do not run away from the fire
scene since they love watching fire burning.
Types of Pyromania:
● Abnormal Youth – epileptics, imbeciles and morons
● Hero Type – a person set a building on fire and pretends to discover it, turn on the alarm or make some rescue works
to appear as “hero”
● Drug addicts and alcoholics
● Sexual deviates and perverts

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THE TELL-TALE SIGNS OF ARSON
BURNED The type of the building may indicate a set fire under certain circumstances. A fire of considerable size at the time the first apparatus arrived
BUILDING at the scene is suspicious if it is a modern concrete or semi-concrete building.
SEPARATE
When two or more separate fires break out within a building. The fire is certainly suspicious.
FIRES
The observation of the smoke must be made at the start of the fire since once the fire has assumed a major proportion, the value of the
COLOR OF smoke is lost, because the smoke will not indicate the material used by the arsonist.
SMOKE When white smoke appears before the water from the fire hose comes in contact with the fire, it indicates humid material burning. Example
– burning hay, vegetable materials, phosphorus (with garlic odor).
Biting smoke, irritating the nose and throat and causing lacrimation and coughing indicates presence of chlorine.
Black smoke indicates lack of air if accompanied by large flames it indicates petroleum products and rubber.
Reddish-brown smoke indicates nitrocellulose, S1, H2, S04, HNO3, or HCI.
COLOR MEANING OF SMOKE AND FIRE
Black smoke with deep red flame Petroleum Products, Tar, Rubber, Plastics, Etc.
Heavy brown with bright red flame Nitrogen Products
White smoke with bright flame Magnesium Products
Black smoke with red and blue green flame Asphalt
Purple-violet flame Potassium Products
Greenish-yellow flame Chloride or Manganese products
Bright reddish yellow flame Calcium products
COLOR OF
The color of the flame is a good indication of the intensity of the fire, an important factor in determining incendiarism.
FLAME
AMOUNT A reddish glow indicates heat of 5000 degrees centigrade, a real bright red about 100 degrees centigrade. Red flames indicate petroleum.
OF HEAT Blue flame indicates use of alcohol as an accelerant.

SMOKE An experienced investigation will determine the volume of smoke involved at a fire and the character as residue deposited on walls or
MARKS elsewhere. Smoke in marks have often been of assistance in determining the possibility of a fire having more than one place of origin.

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SIZE OF FIRE This is important when correlated with the type of alarm, the time received and the time of arrival of the first fire apparatus. Fires make
what might be termed a normal progress. Such progress can be estimated after an examination of the material that burned the building
and the normal ventilation offered of the fire. The time element and the degree of headway by the flames become important factors to
determine possible incendiarism.
DIRECTION OF While it is admitted that no two fires burn in identical fashion, yet it can be shown that fire makes normal progress through various
TRAVEL types of building materials, combustibility of contents, channel of ventilation and circumstances surrounding the sending of alarm, an
experienced investigator can determine whether a fire spread abnormally fast.
INTENSITY The degree of heat given off by a fire and the color of its flame often indicate that some accelerant has been added to the material
normally present in a building and the investigator must look for further evidence pointing to use of such accelerant. Difficulty in
extinguishing the fire is often a lead to suspect presence of such fluid as gasoline and kerosene.
ODOR The odor of gasoline, alcohol, kerosene and other inflammable liquids which are often used as accelerants is characteristic and
oftentimes arsonists are trapped because of this telltale sign. Most fire setters are inclined to use substances which will make the blaze
certain and at the same time burn up any evidence of their crime.
CONDITION OF Persons tending to set their house on fire frequently remove objects of value either materially or sentimentally. Store and other business
CONTENT establishments oftentimes remove a major portion of their content or replace valuable merchandise without style articles.

FIRE INVESTIGATION
The Fire Bureau shall have the power to investigate all causes of fires and, if necessary, file the proper complaints with the city or provincial
prosecutor who has jurisdiction over the case. (Section 54, RA 6975)
FIRE ARSON INVESTIGATION TEAM
Team Leader – assumes overall Lead Fire Arson Investigator – coordinates with the Team Fire Scene Photographer – photographs the fire
control of the fire scene. Leader regarding appropriate investigation approach. scene prior entry of the investigation team and
during walk- through.
Fire Scene Sketch Preparer – Evidence Recovery Personnel and Custodian – conducts Team Security Personnel- ensures the overall security
diagrams and illustrates the actual exhaustive search of probable pieces of evidence of the investigation team
with the direct guidance of the Team Leader and Lead FAI
at the fire scene.

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FIRST RESPONDER PERFORMS INITIAL ACTIONS
1) Fire Arson Investigator (FAI) receives assignment from the unit commander.
2) The Fire Arson Investigation Team responds immediately and proceeds to the fire scene.
● Size up/assess fire scene.
● Cordon and secure the fire scene to prevent entry of any unauthorized person.
● Conduct initial interviews with available witnesses within the immediate vicinity of the fire scene.
3) Fire Scene Photographer documents the fire scene using camera / video.
4) FAI preserves and protects the evidential value of the identified focal point of fire (evidence spoliation), and prepares inventory of the items.
5) FAI prepares the Fire Investigation Response Form (FIRP).
6) Team Leader/Lead Fire Arson Investigator reports to superior or higher investigating unit officers about the incident, and if necessary, turn over
the conduct of investigation according to the Level of Authority.
CONDUCT ON-SCENE/ON-SITE INVESTIGATION
1) Team Leader/Lead Fire Arson Investigator establishes Incident Command Post (ICP).
2) The Fire Arson Investigation Team performs a preliminary survey by conducting walkthroughs to have an initial assessment of the fire scene.
3) FAI establishes the pre-fire condition of the fire scene by theoretically reconstructing the burned structure.
4) FAI determines the external and internal degree of damages caused by the fire.
5) FAI conducts thorough analysis of the Fire Spread Patterns to identify the Point of Fire Origin.
6) Fire Scene Photographer documents the fire area by the use of any verifiable means or source of recording.
7) Fire Scene Sketch Preparer diagrams or sketches the immediate area of the fire scene.
SUBMIT MANDATORY REPORT
Fire Arson Investigation Team submits Spot Investigation Report (SIR) within 24 hours to MFM/ CFM Copy furnished DFM,PFM,RD,CHIEF,BFP thru ID, BFP-
NHQ
DETERMINING FIRE CAUSE
Fire Arson Investigator (FAI) must follow the instructions pertaining to evidence collection and handling of evidence as provided for in
MEMORANDUM CIRCULAR NO. 2010-LAB-01: Guidelines in the Collection, Labeling, Preservation, Chain of Custody and Submission of Physical Evidence to
BFP Laboratory.
1) Fire Arson Investigation Team/Chief, Arson
2) Team Leader – assumes overall control of the fire scene.
3) Lead Fire Arson Investigator – coordinates with the Team Leader regarding appropriate investigation approach.
4) Fire Scene Photographer – photographs the fire scene prior entry of the investigation team and during walk-through.
5) Fire Scene Sketch Preparer – diagrams and illustrates the immediate area of the fire scene.

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6) Evidence Recovery Personnel and Custodian – conducts actual exhaustive search of probable pieces of evidence with the direct guidance of the
Team Leader and Lead FAI at the fire scene.
7) Team Security Personnel – ensures the overall security/safety of the investigating team.
FIRE SCENE DOCUMENTATION
1) Fire Scene Sketch Preparer and Fire Scene Photographer ensures the availability of all tools and equipment they need for the investigation.
2) Fire Scene Sketch Preparer prepares a detailed illustration of the interior and exterior portion of the fire scene, illustration of the Area of
Fire Origin and the Point of Fire Origin, Fire Spread Pattern, affected and unaffected areas at the fire scene.
3) Fire Scene Photographer photographs the fire scene in wide and close-up angles for detailed and sequential presentation.

SUBMISSION OF PERTINENT DOCUMENTS FOR INVESTIGATION

1) Fire Arson Investigator (FAI) prepares the LIST OF DOCUMENTS needed to be accomplished/submitted by the fire victim/s, building occupant/s
and other parties affected by the fire. The required documents are listed in Form FAI02: Required Documents for Investigation. Documents to be
obtained from the fire victim vary based on the TYPE OF OCCUPANCY or the INVOLVED STRUCTURE gutted by fire.
2) FAI prepares and submits the mandatory reports within the reglementary period of submission.

COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF EVIDENCE

1) FAI prepares the apparatus to be used for the collection of evidence.
2) FAI identifies and collects physical evidence found at the fire scene that have Evidentiary Value in the conduct of fire investigation.
3) Evidence Recovery Personnel and Custodian coordinates with Fire Scene Sketch Preparer for the illustrations of the position and location of all
pieces of evidence collected.
4) Fire Arson Investigator photographs the pieces of evidences to be collected before lifting and should be in the presence of a witness
independent from the Fire Arson Investigation Team.
5) FAI properly documents, packs, seals and labels the pieces of evidence recovered prior to transportation and submission to Arson Laboratory
Section BFP-NHQ, within 72 hours upon lifting from the fire scene, for laboratory examination.
6) FAI fully records/documents, collects, and itemizes in detailed format all the recovered pieces of evidence using the Evidence Collection and
Recovery Record (ECRR).
7) FAI attaches the copy of the Evidence Collection and Recovery Record (ECRR) to the Evidence Chain of Custody (ECC) form.
INTERVIEW AND QUESTIONING OF WITNESSES
1) FAI issues Invitation Letter to all witnesses to appear before the Office of the Investigation and Intelligence concerned for a formal interview.
2) FAI requires the witness to execute and sign his/her Sworn Statement under oath, and have the same duly subscribed and sworn to before a
person legally authorized to administer oath (Notary Public, Prosecutor, Clerk of Courts and Judges) or at least a member of the BFP
investigation
team with the rank of Fire Inspector.

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3) FAI conducts interviews and questions to other experts/professionals who can provide relevant information about the occurrence of the fire.

CONDUCT FIRE CAUSE DETERMINATION PROCEDURE

1) FAI collects data by observation or other direct data gathering means.
2) FAI analyzes collected data based on acquired knowledge through training, experience, and expertise.
3) FAI develops hypotheses from collected data using inductive reasoning.
4) FAI tests the hypothesis if it can stand the test of careful and serious challenge.
5) FAI selects final hypothesis.
SUBMIT MANDATORY REPORT
1) Fire Arson Investigation Team submits Progress Investigation Report (PIR) within 7 days from the inception of the investigation to MFM/CFM
copy furnished DFM, PFM, RD, Chief, BFP thru IID, BFP-NHQ.
2) Fire Arson Investigation Team submits Final Investigation Report (FIR) within 45 days from the inception of the investigation to MFM/CFM copy
furnished DFM, PFM, RD, Chief, BFP thru IID, BFP-NHQ.

TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT AND ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION WITH DRIVING

TRAFFIC-RELATED LAWS
● R.A. 10916 (Road Speed Limiter Act of 2016)
● R.A. 10913 (The Anti-Distracted Driving Act
● R.A. 10883 (New Anti-Carnapping Act of 2016)/Repealed RA No. 6539
● R.A. 10666 (Children’s Safety on Motorcycles Act of 2015)
● R.A.10586 (Anti-Drunk and Drugged Driving Act of 2013)
● R.A. 10054 (Motorcycle Helmet Act of 2009)
● R.A. 8750 (Seat Belt Law)
● R.A. 8749 (Clean Air Act)
● R.A. 7924 (Metropolitan Manila Development Authority)
● R.A. 4136 (Land Transportation and Traffic Code)
● P.D. 532 (Highway Robbery/Brigandage)
● P.D. 96 (Unlawful Use of Sirens, Dome lights, Blinkers and other Unauthorized Attachments on Motor Vehicles)
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
 3000 BC – The civilization of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Indus Valley developed roads, first for pack animals and then for wheeled vehicles.
 Romans built roads into the conquered regions to help consolidate their gains.

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 Wheel was invented probably in Western Asia. Such an invention was a milestone and a great step forward in transportation.
 John Palmer introduced his first mail coach in March of 1785 and by 1800, the English coach system was in full swing.
 John L. Macadam perfected the macadamized road in England about 1815.
 In the early 19th century it served as a nursery of automobile builders. One of the modern ancestors of the modern bicycle was the Hobby Horse or
Dan Horse.
 German Baron Karl Von Drais in 1817 introduced a steerable wheel, creating the “draisienne” or “dandy horse.”
 Frenchman Etienne Lenoir made possible the introduction of motorized carriages by his invention in the 1860’s and 70’s of the Internal Combustion
Engine.
 Nicolaus Otto and Gottlieb Daimler pioneered the manufacture of gas engines and later Daimler became a successful automobile manufacturer.
 Rudolf Diesel, a German engineer, developed an internal combustion engine which is similar to the gasoline engine but requires no electrical ignition
system or carburetor and uses another form of liquid fuel, the diesel fuel.
 Automobiles found its greatest popularity in the U.S., where the first Horseless Carriage appeared in the 1890’s.
 In 1908, Henry Ford introduced the Model T, which proved so popular that by 1914, Ford had adopted Mass Production methods to meet the demand.
 Felix Wankel developed an advanced–type of engine, named after him, that operates very differently from gas and diesel engines. It is started by a
moving crankshaft.
MAJOR CAUSES OF TRAFFIC CONGESTION
1. Poor Control Measure – characterized by ineffective mechanical control devices, inefficient traffic officers, and poor implementation of traffic laws,
rules and regulations.
2. Poor Maintenance – oftentimes motor vehicles are stalled in traffic ways because of unrepaired diggings, crack on road pavement or unfinished road
pavement concreting.
3. Physical Inadequacy – characterized by lack of roads, narrow bridges, railroad crossing, lack of traffic facilities, etc.
4. Human Errors – many traffic congestion caused by slow poor planning, poor legislation; and traffic accidents which are mostly attributed to human
errors.
FIVE E’s OF TRAFFIC
1. Traffic Engineering- It is the Science of measuring traffic and travel.
2. Traffic Education- It is the process of giving training and practice in the actual application of traffic safety knowledge.
3. Traffic Enforcement- It deals mostly on the implementation and enforcement of traffic laws and rules and regulations.

FIVE ESSENTIAL STEPS IN THE ENFORCEMENT PROCESS

Detection of Apprehensio Prosecutio Adjudicati Penalizatio

violation n n on n

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IMPORTANT TERMS
 Accident – occurrence in a sequence of events which usually produces unintended injury, death, or property damage
 Key event – manner of occurrence of a motor vehicle traffic accident
 Motor vehicle – self-propelled and every vehicle which is propelled by electric power obtained from overhead trolley wires, but not operated upon
rails
 Roadway – portion of a traffic way which is designed or ordinarily used for vehicular travel, exclusive of the shoulder
 Skid marks – left on the roadway by tires which are not free to rotate, usually because brakes are applied strong and the wheels locked
 Traffic – movement of persons, goods, or vehicles, either powered by combustion system or animal drawn, from one place to another for the
purpose of travel
 Traffic way – entire width between boundary lines of every way or place of which any part is open to the use of the public for purposes of vehicular
traffic as a matter of right or custom

Republic Act 4136- AN ACT TO COMPILE THE LAWS RELATIVE TO LAND TRANSPORTATION AND TRAFFIC RULES, TO CREATE A LAND TRANSPORTATION
COMMISSION AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES

(LAND TRANSPORTATION AND TRAFFIC CODE)

Registration of Motor Vehicles
Motor Vehicle ( Sec 3, Article II)
-Shall mean any vehicle propelled by any power other than muscular power using the public highways, but exempting road rollers, trolley cars, street-
sweepers, sprinklers, lawn mowers, bulldozers, graders, fork-lifts, amphibians trucks, and crane if not used on public highways vehicles which ran only on
rails or trucks, tractors, trailers and traction engines of all kinds used exclusively for agricultural purposes.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF REGISTERED MOTOR VEHICLES
PRIVATE Motor vehicles registered under this classification shall not be used for hire under any circumstance
For Hire
FOR HIRE Motors vehicles registered under this classification are those covered by certificates of public convenience , or special permits issued by
the Board of transportation, and shall be subject to the provisions of the Public Service Act
GOVERNMENT Motor vehicles owned by the government of the Philippines or any of its political subdivisions shall be registered under this
classification

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DIPLOMATIC Motors vehicles owned by foreign governments or by their duly accredited diplomatic officers in the Philippines and used in the
discharged of their official duties
PROVISIONS ON DRIVER’S LICENSES
Driver’s license - A document issued to a qualified driver who possesses the STATUTORY QUALIFICATIONS. It is also a public document which has a legal
presumption of genuineness
Director of LTO
● He is the one who has the authority to suspend, revoke and reinstate a driver's license
● The Director may suspend for a period not exceeding three months or, after hearing, revoke any driver’s license.
● Any law enforcement and peace officers of other agencies duly deputized by the Director has the power to confiscate any driver’s license

Confiscation of Driver’s License (R.A 4136 - Sec. 29)

❖ TOP (Temporary Operator's Permit) – good for 72 hours
❖ Failure of the driver to settle his case within fifteen days from the date of apprehension will be grounds for the suspension and/or revocation of
his license.
TYPES OF DRIVER’S LICENSES
INTERNATIONAL Requirements:
DRIVER’S LICENSE - Bonafide tourists and similar transients who are duly licensed to operate motor vehicles in their respective countries may be
allowed to operate during but not after (90) days of their sojourn in the Philippines. (Sec. 21)
- AAP (Automobile Association of the Philippines )
- PIDP (Philippine International Driving Permit)
- Validity depends on the validity of your Philippine driver’s license.
CONVERSION OF - If valid, no exams shall be administered.
FOREIGN - If expired, the holder is subject to written/ practical exams.
DRIVER’S LICENSE Requirements:
INTO PHILIPPINE -The applicant must have been in the Philippines for at least one (1) month.
DRIVER’S LICENSE -Proof that he/she will stay in the country for at least one (1) year from date of application
❖ Valid passport with the applicant’s current arrival date in the Philippines
-Medical certificate and negative drug test result (From a DOH or LTO-accredited drug testing center or hospital)
-Filled out Driver’s License Application Form (ADL)
-If employed: Taxpayer Identification Number (TIN), in compliance to Executive Order 98 & MC ACL-2009-1251
❖ To get an LTO driver’s license, you can either convert your foreign license into a local one or you can apply for a new one
at your nearest LTO licensing center.

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-The license is not qualified for conversion if the issuing country does not have an embassy in the Philippines.
PROFESSIONAL - hired/paid for driving/operations (private vehicle/for hire to the public)
DRIVER’S LICENSE
NON - owner of privately-owned motor vehicle
PROFESSIONAL - not for hire or paid for driving
DRIVER’S LICENSE
STUDENT - desire to learn how to drive
DRIVER’S PERMIT - Professional/ Non- professional driver (Sec.30)

Administrative Order (AO) No. 88-002 dated 08 November 1988

● Administrators are able to renew his driver’s license if he's out of the country.
Administrative Order no. RIB-2007-011
● Entitled “Amending Administrative Order No. 88-002 dated 08 November 1988- Validating the Expired Driver’s License of Overseas Workers.

Procedures:
❖ The authorized representative shall present to the License Section/District Office/Licensing Center the requirements such as original driver’s
license and one copy, photocopy of the Philippine passport with visa of licensee and letter from the licensee to the LTO requesting the renewal
and authorizing a representative to renew the license on his/her behalf.
❖ The License Section/District Office/Licensing Center shall accept renewal, collect required fees and issue/release the owner’s copy of the Driver’s
License Receipt (DLR) to the representative.
❖ The Driver’s License Receipt or DLR represents payment for Driver’s License.
- It serves as a Temporary License of the applicant for ninety (90) days from the date of issuance while the Card-Type license is being processed and
printed at the LTO Central Office provided the applicant passed both the Written Examination and Actual Driving Test.
❖ The Releasing Clerk shall stamp the words ”LICENSEE ABROAD FOR PHOTOTAKE WITHIN 30 DAYS UPON ARRIVAL” at the right side portion of the
DLR;
❖ The License Section/ District Office/Licensing Center shall keep on file all the documents until such time that the licensee appears at the LTO office
for photograph taking;
❖ The Licensee shall present himself/herself within thirty (30) days upon arrival to the same office where the renewal was made for photograph taking.
The Licensee shall present the original DLR, original passport, submit a valid drug test result, medical certificate and surrender the expired driver’s
license. In case the original DLR was lost, he/she must submit a duly notarized affidavit of lost DLR.

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DRIVER’S LICENSE (MATRIX)
TYPES VALIDITY AGE REQUIREMENT EXAMINATION PROCUREMENT
REQUIREMENT
STUDENT DRIVER’S PERMIT 1 YEAR 17 YEARS OLD NONE Shall be valid for one year from
(SP) (Administrative Order No. date of issuance and may no
AVT- 2015-030) longer be revised, modified or
renewed (Administrative Order
no. AVT- 2015-030)
NON PROFESSIONAL 5 YEARS 18 year old Question 40 Must be a holder of a valid SP
DRIVER’S LICENSE (RA 10930) (Administrative Order No. Passing score; issued at least thirty (30) days
An NPDL holder may only AVT- 2015-031) 30 prior to the application
operate a private MV with RC 1, (Administrative Order No. AVT-
2, 4, and 6. 2015-031)
PROFESSIONAL DRIVER’S 5 YEARS 18 YEARS OLD QUESTION 60 Must be a holder of a valid SP
LICENSE (RA 10930) (Administrative Order no. PASSING score; 45 issued at least six (6) months
A PDL holder may operate a AVT- 2015-029) prior to the application
private MV or PUV (Administrative Order No. AVT-
2015-029)
RIGHTS OF WAY RULES (Sec. 42-44)
VEHICLE FROM THE In case of 2 vehicles approaching or entering an intersection at the same time, the driver of the vehicle on the left shall yield the
RIGHT right of way.
FIRST ENTER RULE In the case of a vehicle approaching but has not yet entered the intersection, its driver shall yield the right of way to a vehicle
already within such intersection.
RIGHT OF WAY RULE In case of a vehicle on highway within a business or residential district, its driver shall yield the right of way to pedestrians
ON A CROSSWALK crossing the highway within a crosswalk, except at intersections where traffic is regulated by a peace officer or a traffic signal.
KINDS OF TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS
MOTOR VEHICLE Occurs when a motor vehicle in motion on a public street or highway (traffic way causes death, injury or property damage
TRAFFIC ACCIDENT
MOTOR VEHICLE NON Is any motor vehicle accident which occurs entirely in any place other than a traffic way
TRAFFIC ACCIDENT

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NON-MOTOR VEHICLE Is any accident occurring on a traffic way involving persons using the traffic way for travel or transportation, but not involving a
ACCIDENT motor vehicle in motion
CHAIN OF EVENTS IN A VEHICULAR ACCIDENT
PERCEPTION OF Is seeing, feeling or hearing and understanding the usual or unexpected movement or condition that could be taken as a sign of
HAZARD the accident about to happen
START OF EVASIVE Is the first action taken by a traffic unit to escape from a collision course or otherwise avoid hazard
ACTION
INITIAL CONTACT Is the first accidental touching of an object collision course or otherwise avoid hazard
MAXIMUM Is the greatest collapse or overlap in a collision
ENGAGEMENT
DISENGAGEMENT Is separation of a traffic unit in motion from an object with which it has collected
STOPPING Is coming to rest. It usually stabilizes the accident situation of final position is the place and time when objectives involved in an
accident finally come to rest without application

SPECIALIZED CRIME INVESTIGATION 2 WITH SIMULATION OF INTERROGATION AND INTERVIEW

TRICHOTOMY OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
Trichotomy – a division into three categories
Training is the key to freedom from bandage of ignorance
Tools information, interview, interrogation, and instrumentation
Techniques updated techniques in investigation
The Golden Rules for Criminal Investigators
1) Identify, and if possible, retain for questioning the person who 4. Immediately separate witnesses or suspects for purpose of
first notified the police. securing independent statements.
2) Determine the perpetrator by direct inquiry or 5. Protect the area by giving appropriate orders and by
through observation, if his identity is obvious. physically isolating it.
3) Detain all present at the crime scene. 6. Permit only authorized people to enter the crime scene boundary.
4) Summon assistance if necessary 7. Do not touch or move any object found at the crime scene.
PHASES OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
Preliminary Investigation also known as initial investigation, which is focused in identifying the perpetrator’s

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Follow-up Investigation also known as following investigation or in- depth investigation
Concluding Investigation also called as final investigation
When Does the Criminal Investigation Commence?
❖ Upon receiving a report from a concerned citizen, witnesses;
❖ Upon receiving a report from the offended party;
❖ Personal knowledge the crime was committed;
Upon arriving at crime scene, the First Responder must:
P - proceed to the scene promptly and safely (ASAP)
R - render assistance to the injured party
E - effect arrest of the criminal
L - locate and identify witnesses
I - interview complainant, victim, witnesses
M - maintain the integrity of the crime scene and protect evidences
I - interrogate suspects if necessary
N - note condition, events and remarks
A - arrange for the collection of evidence
R - report the entire incident fully and accurately
Y - yield responsibility to follow-up investigator of superior officer
Tools in Criminal Investigations
INFORMATION ● It is the key tool in criminal investigation.
● In general, it refers to the knowledge acquired by criminal investigators from various sources, which could be in the form of a
person, places (crime scene), or things (records/files or physical evidence).
INTERVIEW ● Applied in criminal investigation, it refers to the simple and friendly questioning of a person who has knowledge relevant to the
crime or case under [Link] is the first and foremost method in obtaining information; in most cases, a great part of the
investigators.
● Time is devoted to questioning people who possess significant information concerning a criminal case.
THE GOLDEN RULE IN CONDUCT OF INTERVIEW
Never conduct (or let anyone conduct) an interview if the interviewer has not gone to the crime
scene.
TYPES OF INTERVIEW USED IN CRIMINAL CASES
BACKGROUND INTERVIEW ● In accomplishing an interview report, the following are the background data that must be indicated;
● Date and time of interview

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● Setting/ place of interview
● Full name and address of the subject
● Educational background
● Names and whereabouts the relatives
● Personality traits, habits and hobbies
● Marital status and numbers of children
● Profession or vocation
● Type of tenure of employment or contract
● Name of employer, superiors and or associates in his job
● Members in any organization
● Honestly, discretion and loyalty to his job and his organization
● Reference for evaluation of the subject
SUBJECT INTERVIEW This is the type of interview whereby questions are phrased in a manner such that the subject’s answer is based on
his personal opinions or views. Questions are designed to deal with the subjective aspect of the case.
OBJECTIVE INTERVIEW Questions are designed to acquire the basic and specific data or facts regarding a criminal case.
COGNITIVE INTERVIEW It is the type of interview appropriate for willing and cooperative witnesses.
Witnesses of this kind should be given the opportunity to narrate their accounts without intervention,
interruption, and interference from the interviewer.
WHAT ARE THE THREE STAGES OF INTERVIEW?
Preliminary Interview- it is the initial questioning of the subject.
Follow-up Interview - This is the second succeeding questioning to; Obtain further information that was missed during the 1st questioning.
Final Interview - This is the last question that may lead to the act of offering a witness to testify in court during trial.
WHAT ARE THE QUALITIES OF A GOOD AND COMPETENT INTERVIEWER?
They should be: Flexible, Adjustable, Pliable, Malleable, Complaint.
1. Adoptable – Aim, Idea, Point, Purpose, Intention
2. Objective – Long suffering, Enduring, Tolerant, Uncomplaining, Serene
3. Patient – Influential, Swaying, Convincing Believable, Winning
4. Persuasive
5. Insightful – Understanding, Discerning, Astute, Shrewd, Aware, Intuitive
6. Sensitive to individual rights

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STEPS IN CONDUCTING INTERVIEWS 6 COMPONENTS OF INTERVIEWS RULES IN DIRECT QUESTIONING
● Preparation ● Identify the interviewer ● Use the subject language;
● Approach ● Rapport between the interviewer and ● Ask a question one at time;
● Warming-up interviewee ● Avoid yes or no question;
● Recounting ● Opening statement ● Avoid leading question;
● Questioning for clarification ● Narration ● Avoid embarrassing question
● Ending the interview ● Inquiry or direct questioning
● Conclusion
TYPES OF SUBJECTS IN AN INTERVIEW
Know-nothing type - reluctant to become witnesses and particularly true Honest witness - cooperative and ideal witnesses
among uneducated people
Disinterested type - uncooperative and indifferent persons Deceitful type - Let him lie; he will be enmeshed with contradictions
Drunken type - use of flattery will encourage the drunk to answer Timid type - Friendly approach must be used and investigators should
questions reassure that information will be treated with confidentiality.
Suspicious type - investigator should remove fear and should apply Boastful, egoistic or egocentric type
psychological pressure
Talkative type - talkativeness must be diverted to matters pertinent in the Untalkative witness
investigation
The Principle of Interview and Interrogation
The RIGHT officer asking the RIGHT question in the RIGHT manner at the RIGHT time at the RIGHT place will get the RIGHT ANSWER
What is the mode of questioning?
● Antagonistic
● Violent
● Hostile
INTERROGATION ● Insistent
● Belligerent
● Destructive
● Challenging
● Provoking
● Stimulating
● Offensive

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● Insulting
● To whom it can be utilized?
WHAT ARE THE PURPOSES OF INTERROGATION?
● To extract confession or if not, admission ● To learn the identity of principals, accomplices and accessories
● To elicit valuable information ● To discover other crimes in which the subject have participated
● To learn surrounding of a criminal incident ● To develop additional leads
● To determine existence and location of physical evidence ● To discover or locate fruits of the crime.
Interrogation Room - The room chosen for the interrogation should provide freedom from
distraction.
PRIVACY Interruption dispel of concentration that may have been carefully cultivated by the investigator, hence, the following are desirable:
● Restricted entrance – single door or preferable.
● Absence of window or view
● Sound proofing
SIMPLICITY ● Distracting influence should be kept minimum; the suspect may strive to avoid the investigator’s concentration by focusing
his attention on some object in the room which suggests a different train of thought.
● Medium sized room.
● Bare walls, picture, and charts are distracting
● No glaring lights
● Minimum furniture.
PRIVACY ● Interruption dispel of concentration that may have been carefully cultivated by the investigator, hence, the following
are desirable;
● Restricted entrance – single door or preferable.
● Absence of window or view
● Sound proofing
● Telephone without bell
TECHNICAL AID ● Recording Installation- important interrogations and confessions should be recorded
● Listening Device – a hidden microphone such as a “live” telephone should be installed.
● One way Mirror – this device appears to be a plain mirror on one side but permits a person on the other side to see through
without being observe
SEATING ● The subject and the investigator should be seated with no large furniture between them.
ARRANGEMENT ● Chair- armless, straight back chair for the suspect.
● Table or Desk- the investigator requires a flat surface on which to place papers and articles of evidence.

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● Suspects- seating the suspect with his back to the door further deprive him of any hope of interruptions or distraction.
The Interrogation Session
⮚ Be prepared.
⮚ Be up-to-date on the reconstruction of the crime scene.
⮚ Be cognizant of facts secured in parallel inquiries into the motive opportunity.
⮚ Know as much as possible about the suspect and the facts connecting him or her with the crime.
⮚ Know the findings of the criminalistics who examined any physical evidence that has been collected.
⮚ Certain that the suspect is not in an emotional state that might impair his or her capacity for rational judgment.
SPECIFIC INTERROGATION TECHNIQUES
EMOTIONAL APPEAL Investigator is an actor & psychologist.
SYMPATHETIC APPROACH Dig first into past troubles and unfortunate events in the life of the suspect.
FRIENDLY APPROACH Create a pleasant and welcoming atmosphere.
TRICKS AND BLUFFS ● the pretense of solid evidence
● the weakest link
● drama
● feigning contact with the family
● the line up
● the reverse line up
STEM APPROACH Play strict and uncompromising personality
MUTT AND JEFF METHOD Sweet and Sour Technique
REMOVING THE ETHNIC OR Searching for the soft spot Other modern approaches:
CULTURAL BARRIERS ● Rationalization
● Projection
● Minimization, Mitigation, Extenuation
● Maximization
TYPES AND ATTITUDE OF SUBJECTS
Know-nothing type – These are persons who are reluctant to become Drunken type – Flattery will encourage the drunk to answer questions and
witnesses and particularly true among uneducated persons. The remedies develop interest. It is not advisable to take written statements from a
are: (1) an extensive warm-up may yield results if followed by persistent person when he is drunk.
questioning, and (2) presenting the subject with many questions to which
he
knows nothing, and then leading him into the relevant questions.

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Honest witness – Honest and cooperative witnesses will be the ideal witness Disinterested type – uncooperative, indifferent persons that must be
with little care and guidance. aroused
Suspicious type – Fear must be removed and the investigator should apply Talkative type – Investigator must find ways and means to shift his
psychological pressure. Let him think that his non-cooperation will work talkativeness to those matters useful in the investigation.
against him.
Deceitful witness – He should be permitted to lie until he is well enmeshed Timid witness – Investigator should employ a friendly approach and should
with falsehoods and inconsistencies. spend time explaining that the information obtained will be treated as a
confidential matter.
Boasting egoistic, or egocentric Witness – Patience and flattery are Refusal to talk witness – It is the most difficult, but investigators must
necessary for they will be good witnesses because of their drive towards self- persevere and neutral topics must first be taken.
expression.
WAYS OF IDENTIFYING CRIMINALS
1. By confession
2. By eyewitness testimony
a. Known Fugitives – If the criminal is known, then police records and pictures are available. His relatives and friends can offer a
description.
b. Unknown Criminals – Identification of unknown criminals by eyewitnesses must be approached with caution by the investigator.
c. Description – The value of the description must depend on the capacity of the witness to describe the criminal.
d. Photographic files (Rogues Gallery) – Witnesses may be taken to the headquarters to examine the photographs in file. The modus
operandi file may also be shown upon knowledge of the technique of the commission of the crime.
e. General Photograph – Investigators should show the witness the variety of facial types which do not necessarily represent the
criminal. The picture only represents different features of the face. The image of various features such as the degree of baldness,
length, or shape of the nose, the shape of mouth ear, etc.
f. Artist’s Assistance – The identification may be made by the employment of an artist to depict a composite of the features described
by the eyewitness.
3. By circumferential evidence - Is that evidence which indirectly proves a fact in issue through an inference which the fact-finder draws from the
evidence established.
Sufficiency of Circumstantial Evidence to Produce Conviction
1. There is more than one circumstance
2. The facts from which the inferences are derived have been proven
3. The combination of all the circumstances results in a moral certainty that the accused, to the exclusion of all others, is the one who has committed
the crime.

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What must be inferred to prove identity by circumstantial evidence?
A. Motive – It may be inferred from circumstances and from the statements of witnesses that the suspect has been motivated by a desire for
revenge or personal gain. Motive is hard to establish in crime committed by mentally deranged persons.
B. Opportunity – This is the physical possibility that the suspect could have committed the crime.
4. By Associative Evidence
Physical evidence which may identify the criminal by means of clues, personal properties, or the characteristics patterns of procedure deduced from the
arrangement of objects at the crime scene. The offender may leave some clues at the scene, such as weapons, tools, garments, fingerprints, foot
impressions etc. Crimes of violence may leave evidence of physical struggle.
A. Deposition is the testimony of a witness reduced to writing under oath or affirmation before a person empowered to administer oaths in answer to
interrogatories (questions) and cross-interrogations submitted by the party desiring the deposition and the opposite party
B. Informant – They give the information openly and even offer to be a witness or they may inform the investigator surreptitiously and request to
remain anonymous.
C. Confidential Informant - He/She provides an investigator with confidential information concerning a past or projected crime and does not wish to be
known as the source of the information. The investigator should take special precautions to protect the identity of such informant because of his
value
as a source on the disclosure of crimes.
TYPES OF INFORMANT
Anonymous informant – He may be an Rival-elimination informant – His purpose in False informant – He reveals information usually
anonymous telephone caller or anonymous letter informing is to eliminate rival or competition. of no consequence or stuff concocted of thin air.
writer.
Frightened informant – He is usually motivated Self-aggrandizing informant – He hangs about Mercenary informants – He provides
by anxiety for his own well-being and will furnish the fringes of the underworld and delights in information for sale.
information as a protective device and as a surprising the police with choice bits of
means information.
of sustaining his own feeling of self- importance.
Double-crosser informant – He uses his seeming Woman informant – He may be able to give Legitimate informant – They include operators
desire to give information as an excuse to talk to valuable information, but the investigator must of licensed premises who do not want their place
the police in order to get more information from beware because “the female species is more of business to become hangouts of dangerous
them than he gives. deadly than the male.” criminals.

INFORMANT’S MOTIVE IN GIVING INFORMATION

Vanity – delights in giving information to gain Civic mindedness – public spirited person of Fear – person under an illusion of oppression by
favorable attention from the police authorities good standing in the community who is enemies or of other pending dangers

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interested in
seeing that justice is done

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Repentance – person, usually an accomplice who has a change of heart and Avoidance of Punishment – seeks to avoid prosecution by revealing
wishes to report a crime that is prying on his conscience information concerning a major crime
Gratitude or gain – to express appreciation or to obtain a privilege, such as Revenge – to settle a grudge because someone else informed against him
one who is arrested and desires cigarettes or other items, or a former took advantage of him or otherwise injured him
prisoner who wishes to repay the police officer’s interesting the welfare of
his family
during his detention
Competition – to eliminate his competitors Jealousy – envious of the accomplishments of Remuneration – for the monetary or other
possession of another and wishes to humiliate him material gain he is to receive

SURVEILLANCE
1. It is the secret observation of persons, places, and vehicles for the purpose of obtaining information concerning the identities or activities of the
subject.
2. Surveillance of Place (fixed/stake-out)
3. Shadowing
4. Roping
● Surveillant - a person who maintains the surveillance or performs the observation
● Subject - person or place being watched or surveyed
● Tailing or shadowing – act of following a person, depends on the number of surveillant available, volume of pedestrian traffic and importance of
concealing the surveillance

METHODS OF SHADOWING
ONE-MAN Extremely difficult and should be avoided, if unavoidable keep subject in view at all times
TWO MAN Two agents are employed to follow the subject
ABC METHOD Reduces the risk of losing the subject, affords greater security agents detection
PROGRESSIVE/LEAP FROM Poor chances of obtaining good results, agents are stations at a fixed point assuming that subject followed the same general
METHOD route each day
COMBINED FOOT-AUTO Employment of surveillance on foot and agents in an automobile
SURVEILLANCE

PROTOCOLS IN INVESTIGATION
The Police Station, which has territorial jurisdiction of the area where the crime incident was committed, shall immediately undertake the necessary
investigation and processing of the crime scene, unless otherwise directed by higher authorities for a certain case to be investigated by other
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units/agencies.
• As a general rule, all crime incidents must be recorded in the official police blotter.
• A separate Police Blotter, however, shall be maintained for offenses requiring confidentiality like violence against women and children and
those cases involving a child in conflict with the law to protect their privacy pursuant to R.A. 9262 (Anti-Violence Against Women and Children
Act of 2004) and R.A. 9344 (Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of 2006).
• The duty police officer shall record the nature of the incident in the police blotter containing the five “W”s (who, what, where, when and why)
and one “H” (how) of the information and inform his superior officer or the duty officer regarding the occurrence of such incident.
• In answering the above 5 W’s and 1 H and the Case Disposition, all such material details about the incident, including the nature of the action or
offense; the Date, Time, and Place of Occurrence; the names of the suspect/s, the victim/s, the witness/es, if any; facts of the case; significant
circumstances that aggravate or mitigate the event or the crime should be entered along with the identity of the officer to whom the case is
assigned
(Officer-on-case); and, the status of the case.
INVESTIGATION PROCEDURES
1. The Police Unit that has territorial jurisdiction over the area where the armed confrontation occurred shall secure the scene and
immediately undertake the necessary investigation.
2. Each PNP operating unit shall also maintain and utilize the PNP Crime Incident Reporting System (CIRS)
BOOKING OF ARRESTED SUSPECTS
1. Booking of arrested suspects shall be undertaken to record and document the information surrounding the arrest of the suspect. After arrest, a
suspect is taken into police custody and “booked” or “processed”.
2. Record the arrest made in the Police Blotter.
3. Conduct pat down or strip search of the suspect.
4. Submit the suspect for medical examination.
5. Take the criminal suspect’s personal information (i.e. name, date of birth, physical characteristics, etc.)
6. Record information about the suspect’s alleged crime.
7. Perform a record search of the suspect’s criminal background.
8. Take custody of any personal property carried by the suspect, to be returned upon the suspect’s release.
9. Place the suspect in a police station lock-up/holding cell or local jail.
CUSTODIAL INVESTIGATION
1. The arresting officer, or the investigator, as the case may be, shall ensure that a person arrested, detained or under custodial investigation shall, at all
times, be assisted by counsel, preferably of his own choice;
2. The arresting officer, or the investigator, as the case may be, must inform the person arrested, detained or under custodial investigation of the
following rights under the Miranda Doctrine in a language or dialect known to and understood by him: (1) That he has the right to remain silent; (2)
That if he waives his right to remain silent, anything he says can be used in evidence against him in court;

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3. That he has the right to counsel of his own choice;
4. That, if he cannot afford one, he shall be provided with an independent and competent counsel; and
5. That he has the right to be informed of such rights.
6. If the person arrested, detained, or under custodial investigation has opted to give a sworn statement, the arresting officer, or the investigator, as
the case may be, must reduce it in writing;
7. The arresting officer must ensure that, before the sworn statement is signed, or thumb-marked if there is inability to read and to write, the
document shall be read and adequately explained to the person arrested, detained or under custodial investigation by his counsel of choice, or by
the assisting counsel provided to him, in the language or dialect known to him;
8. The arresting officer, or the investigator, as the case may be, must ensure that any extrajudicial confession made by a person arrested, detained or
under custodial investigation shall be:
a. In writing;
b. Signed by such person in the presence of his counsel; or
c. In the latter’s absence, upon a valid waiver, and in the presence of any of the parents, elder brothers and sisters, his spouse, the
municipal mayor, the municipal judge, district school supervisor, priest, imam or religious minister chosen by him. (Failure of the
arresting officer, or the investigator, to observe the above mentioned procedures shall render the extrajudicial confession
inadmissible as evidence in any proceeding)
9. The arresting officer, or the investigator, as the case may be, must, under established regulations, allow the person arrested, detained, or under
custodial investigation visits by or conferences with any member of his immediate family, any medical doctor, priest, imam or religious minister
chosen by him or by any member of his immediate family or by his counsel, or by any local Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) duly accredited by
the Commission on Human Rights (CHR) or by any international NGO duly accredited by the Office of the President. His “immediate family” shall
include his spouse, parent or child, brother or sister, grandparent or grandchild, uncle or aunt, nephew or niece, guardian or ward, and fiancé or
fiancée; and
10. After interrogation, the person under custodial investigation shall have the right to be informed of his right to demand physical examination by an
independent and competent doctor of his own choice. If he cannot afford the services of a doctor of his own choice, he shall be provided by the State
with a competent and independent doctor to conduct physical examination. If the person arrested is female, she shall be attended to preferably by a
female doctor. The physical examination of the person under custodial investigation shall be contained in a medical report, which shall be attached
to the custodial investigation report.
Crime Scene Investigation
It is the conduct of processes, more particularly, the recognition, search, collection, handling, preservation and documentation of physical evidence to
include the identification and interview of witnesses and the arrest of suspect/s at the crime scene.

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What Constitutes a Crime Scene?
1. Crime scene can be understood to include all areas in which the criminal, any possible victim and any eyewitness move during the time the
crime was committed.
2. The boundaries must be established so that the entire crime scene can be effectively preserved.
3. In some crimes, however, the crime scene may actually comprise several different sites.
Investigator-On-Case (IOC)/Duty Investigator:
1. Upon arrival at the crime scene, the IOC shall request for a briefing from the FR and make a quick assessment of the crime;
2. At this stage, the IOC shall assume full responsibility over the crime scene and shall conduct a thorough assessment of the scene and inquiry into the
incident. If necessary the IOC may conduct crime scene search outside the area where the incident happened, employing any of the various search
methods;
3. Based on the assessment, if the IOC determines that a SOCO team is required, he shall report the matter to his COP and request for a SOCO,
otherwise, the IOC shall proceed with the CSI without the SOCO team and shall utilize CSI Form “4”.
4. The IOC may by itself, if the situation demands, conduct CSI if there is no Provincial Crime Laboratory Office/Regional Crime Laboratory Office in the
province. The IOC must, however, ensure that the correct procedures in the collection of evidence are observed to ensure the admissibility of the
evidence;
5. The Police Station Operation Center, upon directive of the COP, shall make the request for the SOCO team through the Provincial/City Operations
Center;
6. It shall be the responsibility of the Provincial/City Operations Center to facilitate the request for the SOCO Team;
7. Upon the arrival of the SOCO Team, the IOC shall accomplish CSI Form “2” and submit the same to the SOCO Team Leader. The SOCO team shall not
enter the crime scene unless the IOC makes the official written request wherein he assures the SOCO team of his presence and support; and
8. The IOC shall brief the SOCO Team upon their arrival at the crime scene and shall jointly conduct the preliminary crime scene survey.

SOCO Team:
1. The SOCO Team shall not join any operations conducted by the local police or accompany the FRs or the IOC in going to the crime scene. They will
only respond upon request through the Operations Center and after the IOC has already made the proper assessment of the crime scene.
2. Upon receipt of the Request for Conduct of SOCO, the SOCO Team shall then conduct the scene of the crime operations which include among others
the narrative description of the crime scene, photography, videography, crime scene search, crime scene sketch, crime scene location sketch,
physical evidence recording and collection, and other procedures necessary;
3. In case the SOCO Team needs to temporarily suspend the processing, the Chief of Police shall be primarily responsible and accountable for securing
the crime scene and ensuring its integrity until the return of SOCO Team and the conclusion of the CSI;
4. After the termination of the SOCO, the SOCO Team Leader shall brief the IOC on the initial results and thereafter conduct the final crime scene survey
together with the IOC; and

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5. The SOCO Team shall accomplish the CSI Form “4” - SOCO Report Forms and furnish the IOC with copies of the same before leaving the crime scene.
Release of the Crime Scene:
1. The IOC shall decide on the lifting of the security cordon and the release of the crime scene upon consultation with the SOCO Team Leader and he
shall be responsible in ensuring that all pieces of potential evidence have been collected by the SOCO Team as any re-entry into the crime scene after
its release to the owner will require a Search Warrant issued by the Court;
2. The IOC shall accomplish the CSI Form “6” before the cordon shall be lifted;
3. The IOC shall ensure that the appropriate inventory has been provided by the SOCO Team and shall only lift the security cordon and release the
crime scene only after completion of the documentation process;
4. The IOC or the COP shall turn-over the crime scene to the owner of the property or where the crime scene is a public place, to any local person in
authority using CSI Form “5”
5. The IOC shall accomplish and submit the Investigator’s Report with all the required attachments to the COP within two (2) working days from the
date of incidence; and
6. The CSI Report shall be the first entry in the Case Folder for the investigation of the incident.

Special SOCO Procedures

In cases where the evidence gathered needs special processing due to significant or sensational cases, the specialists from the Crime Laboratory shall be
requested.
a. In bombing cases, the EOD personnel should first clear the area and declare it “secured” prior to entry of the SOCO. The former, before entering the
crime scene, must submit to the latter for swabbing. All evidence collected must be pre-cleared by the EOD prior to documentation.
b. In suspected or reported chemical, biological, radiological or nuclear (CBRN) situations, the SOCO shall directly coordinate with the Special Rescue
Team of the Bureau of Fire and Protection before the conduct of the crime scene investigation.
c. In a mass victim situation, the Regional/District SOCO who has jurisdiction over the area, in addition to their function, shall act as the FR to the
Interim Disaster Victim Identification Task Group (IDVI TG) of the PNP Crime Laboratory. The IDVI TG shall immediately assess the forensic specialists
needed to be deployed at the crime scene and relay the requirements to the PNP Crime Laboratory Headquarters.
d. The SOCO has motu proprio authority to direct all operating units involved in the police operation to submit their respective personnel for forensic
examination; their service firearms for ballistic tests; and other pieces of evidence involved to expedite the investigation of the case.
IMPORTANT TERMS
● After Operation Report – rendered after any successful police operation that leads to the arrest of any member or some members of syndicated
crime group
● Alleged – The word “alleged” or “allegedly” connotes something “claimed”. It leaves the truth of the averment an open question.
● Ante mortem – Before death while In articulo mortis means “at the point of death.”

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● Biased witness – witness who tends to exaggerate. Although he may be honest, he cannot, while human nature remains unchanged, overcome the
tendency to distort, magnify or even minimize as his interest persuades, the incidents which he relates
● Cadaver – corpse or a dead body.
● Case Operational Plan (COPLAN) – a definite target
● Contempt – In its broad sense, contempt constitutes a disobedience to the court by acting in opposition to its authority, justice and dignity. In its
restricted and more usual sense, contempt comprehends a despising of the authority, justice or dignity of a court.
● “Custodia legis”– A thing is in “custodia legis” when it is shown that it has been and is subjected to the official custody of a judicial executive officer
in pursuance of his execution of a legal writ.
● Entrapment – While instigation exempts, entrapment does not; the difference between the two being that in entrapment the crime had already
been committed while in instigation the crime was not yet and would not have been committed were it not for the instigation by the peace officer.
● “Habeas corpus” – It is the means by which judicial inquiry is made into the alleged encroachments upon the political and natural rights of
individuals, such as restraint of liberty.
● “In pari delicto” – The principle of “in pari delicto” does not apply to a simulated or fictitious contact nor to an inexistent contract which is devoid of
consideration, and an illegal purpose cannot supply the want of consideration.
● Money market – A bank transaction wherein a particular bank will issue a promissory note in favor of another bank.
● Moot case – Case is considered as presenting a moot question when a judgment thereon cannot have any practical legal effect or, in the nature of
things, cannot be enforced.
● “Obiter dictum” – Statement made in passing; a rule issued on a point not necessarily involved in the case.

ORGANIZED CRIME
Organized Crime Group
● This is a transnational, national, or local grouping of highly centralized enterprises run by criminals for the purpose of engaging in illegal activity, most
commonly for monetary profit.
● This is a structured group of three or more persons, existing for a period of time and acting in concert with the aim of committing one or more serious
crimes or offenses in order to obtain, directly or indirectly, a financial or other material benefit. (UN, Palermo Italy, 2000)
Organized Crime Distinguished From Terrorism
● Organized Crime is a non-ideological enterprise which would differentiate it from terrorism, such as those religiously, politically, and some socially
motivated violent crimes embraced in the technical definition of terrorism.
GENERIC TYPES OF ORGANIZED CRIME
Political Graft – committed by In-Group Oriented Organized Crime – Mercenary/Predatory Organized Syndicated Crimes – comes with a
political criminals for purposes of manned by semi- organized individual Crime – perpetuated for the structured organization that
gaining profit through violence or with the end view of attaining

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force for the attainment of psychological gratification (adolescent attainment of direct personal gain participates in illicit activity in
political goals. (private armies, gangs) but prey upon unwilling victims. society using force, or intimidation.
buying of votes or threatening
voters)
Organized Crimes, in order to be functional usually needs these three:
1. Enforcer – make arrangements for killing and injuring (physically, economically and psychologically) the member or nonmember. (Usually
violent members of the organized crime).
2. Corruptor – one who bribes, buys, intimidates, threatens, negotiates and “sweet talk” into a relationship with the police, public officials or anyone
else who might help the member security and maintain immunity from arrest, prosecution and punishments.
3. Corruptee – a public official, usually not a member of the organization family, who can influence on behalf of the organization interest.
ATTRIBUTES OF ORGANIZED CRIMES
Non-ideological – no political Hierarchical – Limited or Exclusive Membership – Perpetuates Itself – The OCG continues
goal. They just want to gain authority is defined qualifications may be based on ethnic overtime ongoing criminal conspiracy designed
money, material or fame/honor background, kinship, race, criminal record to persist through time, that is, beyond the life
of the current members.
HIERARCHY OF ORGANIZED CRIME GROUPS
THE BOSS Head of the family whose primary functions are maintaining order and maximizing profits
UNDERBOSS Vice President or deputy director of the family
CONSIGLIERE A counselor or adviser
CAPOREGIME Serves as buffers between the top members of the family and the lower echelon personnel. Other caporegime serve as chiefs of
operating
units
SOLDATI Lowest level “members” of a family. The soldiers or “bottom” men who report to the caporegime.
FORMS OF ILLEGAL BUSINESS CONNECTIONS
Parasitic – OC extorts money from illegal Reciprocal – OC makes illegal entrepreneurs Entrepreneurship– OC provides an illegal good or
entrepreneurs under a threat of violence. pay a fixed or percentage amount, in return service.
provides services.
MAFIA
• Used to describe a number of criminal organizations around the world.
• The first organization to bear the label was the Sicilian mafia based in Italy, known to its members as Cosa Nostra (Our Thing)
• Mafia is a Sicilian-Arabic term derived from terms meaning to protect and to act as guardian; friend or companion; to defend; preserve
power; integrity, strength.
• The word MAFIA is believed to be an acronym (Morta Alla Francia, Italia Anela) means Death to France, Italy cries.

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TRIADS AND ORGANIZED CRIMES:
• 14K (Hong Kong) – formed by Kuomintang Lieutenant-General Kot Siu-Wong in Guangzhou, China. The 14K is a triad group based in Hong Kong but
is active internationally.
• United Bamboo Gang (UBG) – largest of Taiwan’s three main Criminal Triads. They are reported to have roughly 10,000 members.
• Yakuza (aka Gokudō "the extreme path") - Yakuza are members of transnational organized crime syndicates originating in Japan. The Japanese police,
and media by request of the police, call them “bōryokudan” (violent group), while the yakuza call themselves "ninkyō dantai" ("chivalrous
organizations"). The name "yakuza" originates from the traditional Japanese card game Oicho-Kabu, a game in which the goal is to draw three cards
adding up to a value of 9. If the sum total of your hand exceeds 10, the second digit is used as your total instead, with the exception of 10 (which equals
1). If the three cards drawn are 8-9-3 (pronounced ya-ku-sa in Japanese), the score is 20 and therefore zero, making it the worst possible hand that can be
drawn. (NOTE: Yamaguchi Gomi is the largest Yakuza Family).
Yakuza Rituals
• Yubitsume or the cutting off of one's finger
• Irezumi – Many Yakuza have full-body tattoos.
PROSTITUTION
1. Brothels, Bordello, Whorehouse, Cathouse, Knocking Shop, and General House – establishments for prostitution
2. Call Girl - makes appointment by call
3. Gigolos - males offering services for female
4. Hooker/Streetwalker - solicits customers in public places
5. Hustlers or Rent Boys - those offering services to males
TYPES OF PROSTITUTION
1. Escort Prostitution – often shelters under the umbrella of escort agencies, who ostensibly supply attractive escorts for different occasions which they
do not claim
2. Outcall – the act takes place at the customer's residence or at his or hotel room
3. In Call – when the acts takes place at the escort's residence
4. Lot Lizard – mainly serves those who are in the trucking industry at truck stops or in the stopping centers
5. Street Prostitution – obtain customers while walking or at street corner called as "The Track". They are usually dressed in skimpy seductive clothing
regardless of the weather

HUMAN TRAFFICKING (MODERN-DAY TRAFFICKING)

What is the difference between Human Trafficking and Human Smuggling?

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● Human trafficking usually coercion is involved in the acquisition of persons and the transfer is subsequently followed by exploitation, while
Human smuggling usually coercion is not involved and that is more concentrated in the facilitation of the illegal entry of a person into another
country in
exchange of a fee.
REPUBLIC ACT 10364 - EXPANDED ANTI-TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS ACT OF 2012
❖ Trafficking in Persons – Refers to the recruitment, obtaining, hiring, providing, offering, transportation, transfer, maintaining, harboring, or receipt of
persons with or without the victim’s consent or knowledge, within or across national borders by means of threat, or use of force, or other forms of
coercion, abduction, fraud, deception, abuse of power or of position, taking advantage of the vulnerability of the person, or, the giving or receiving of
payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person for the purpose of exploitation which includes at a
minimum, the exploitation or the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labor or services, slavery, servitude or the
removal or sale of organs.
❖ Forced Labor – Extraction of work or services from any person by means of enticement, violence, intimidation or threat, use of, force or coercion,
including deprivation of freedom, abuse of authority or moral ascendancy, debt-bondage or deception including any work or service extracted from
any person under the menace of penalty.
❖ Involuntary Servitude – Condition of enforced and compulsory service induced by means of any scheme, plan or pattern, intended to cause a person
to believe that if he or she did not enter into or continue in such condition, he or she or another person would suffer serious harm or other forms of
abuse or physical restraint, or threat of abuse or harm, or coercion including depriving access to travel documents and withholding salaries, or the
abuse or threatened abuse of the legal process.
❖ Debt Bondage – Pledging by the debtor of his/her personal services or labor or those of a person under his/her control as security or payment for a
debt, when the length and nature of services is not clearly defined or when the value of the services as reasonably assessed is not applied toward the
liquidation of the debt.
Qualified Trafficking in Persons
❖ When the offender is a spouse, an ascendant, parent, sibling, guardian or a person who exercises authority over the trafficked person or when
the offense is committed by a public officer or employee;
❖ When the offender is a member of the military or law enforcement agencies;
❖ When by reason or on occasion of the act of trafficking in persons, the offended party dies, becomes insane, suffers mutilation or is afflicted
with Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) or the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS);
❖ When the offender commits one or more violations of Section 4 over a period of sixty (60) or more days, whether those days are continuous or
not; and
❖ When the offender directs or through another manages the trafficking victim in carrying out the exploitative purpose of trafficking.
Money Laundering – a process wherein the monetary proceeds of criminal activity are converted into funds with an apparent legal source. Republic Act
9160 Anti – Money Laundering Act.
a. Placement (Structuring) – process of moving money from the location of the criminal activity.

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b. Layering (Heavy Soaping) – involves frequent series of money transfers and transactions used to "cover the tracks" of the illegal funds.
c. Integration (Spin Dry) - when the money is returned to the regular economy through purchase of investment.

❖ Anti-Money Laundering Council (AMLC) - The country’s financial intelligence unit (FIU) tasked to implement the AMLA. The AMLC comprises the
three major government financial regulatory agencies.
❖ Meyer Lansky”known as the "Mob's Accountant.“ He was a major organized crime figure who, along with his associate Charles "Lucky" Luciano,
was instrumental in the development of the National Crime Syndicate in the United States.
COVERED AND SUSPICIOUS TRANSACTIONS
A covered transaction is a single transaction involving a total amount in excess of Php 500,000.00 within one banking day with a covered institution.
Suspicious transaction refers to a transaction, regardless of amount, where any of the following exists:
1. There is no underlying legal or trade obligation, purpose or economic justification.
2. The client is not properly identified
3. The amount involved does not commensurate with the business or financial capacity of the client.
4. Taking into account all known circumstances, it may be perceived that the client’s transaction is structured in order to avoid being the subject of
reporting requirements under the AMLA
5. Any circumstance relating to the transaction which is observed to deviate from the profile of the client and/or the client’s past transactions with
the covered person
6. The transaction is any way related to an unlawful activity or any money laundering activity or offense that is about to be committed, is being or
has been committed
Any transaction that is similar or analogous or identical to any of the foregoing.

INTERNATIONAL AGENCIES FIGHTING MONEY LAUNDERING

FINANCIAL ACTION The FATF is an international body formed by the leading industrial countries in the world, collectively known as the Group of Seven
TASK FORCE (“G7”), during the Paris G7 Summit of 1989. The objectives of the FATF are to set standards and promote effective implementation
of legal, regulatory and operational measures for combating money laundering, terrorist financing and other related threats to the
integrity of the international financial system. (NOTE: Group of Seven (G7): Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United
Kingdom, and the United States)
EGMONT GROUP It is an international organization of Financial Intelligence Units (FIUs) established in June 9, 1995 as informal aggrupation of FIUs
which were already in operation at the time. Its name was derived from the venue of the first meeting - the Egmont-Arenberg
Palace in Brussels, Belgium. It is a united body of 152 FIUs that seek to provide a forum for international cooperation in the fight
against
money laundering and terrorism financing, especially in the areas of information exchange, training, and sharing of expertise. The

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group created Best Egmont Case Award (BECA) in 2011 to recognize successful cases from which member-FIUs can learn and to
appreciate real-life examples of cases that have been successfully prosecuted and publicly reported.
ASIA/PACIFIC It is an autonomous and collaborative international organization founded in 1997 in Bangkok, Thailand consisting of 41 members
GROUP ON MONEY and a number of international and regional observers. APG members and observers are committed to the effective implementation
LAUNDERING (APG) and enforcement of internationally accepted standards against money laundering and the financing of terrorism.

TERRORISM
● It is the unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, civilian population, or any segment
thereof,
in furtherance of political or social objectives.
Republic Act 9372, also known as “Human Security Act of 2007” defines terrorism as “any person who commits an act punishable under any of the
following provisions of the RPC. (Piracy, Rebellion, Coup d’Etat, Murder, Kidnapping, and crimes involving destruction) thereby sowing and creating a
condition of widespread and extraordinary fear and panic among the populace, in order to coerce the government to give in to an unlawful demand.”

INTERNATIONAL TERRORIST ORGANIZATIONS

AL QAEDA “THE BASE,” “THE Militant Sunni Islamist multi-national organization founded in 1988 by Osama bin Laden, Abdullah Azzam, and
FOUNDATION several other Arab volunteers who fought against the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in the 1980s.
BOKO HARAM Formerly known as Jamā'at Ahl as-Sunnah lid-Da'wah wa'l-Jihād (Group of the People of Sunnah for Preaching
and
Jihad) and commonly known as Boko Haram, until March 2015. It is a Jihadist militant organization based in
northeastern Nigeria, also active in Chad, Niger and northern Cameroon. (Founded by Mohammed Yusuf in 2002)
HEZBOLLAH (“PARTY OF GOD”) A Shi'a Islamist political party and militant group based in Lebanon. Hezbollah's paramilitary wing is the Jihad
Council, and its political wing is Loyalty to the Resistance Bloc party in the Lebanese parliament. Since the death
of Abbas al-Musawi in 1992, the group has been headed by Hassan Nasrallah, its Secretary-General.
ISLAMIC STATE OF IRAQ AND THE Also known as the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS). A Southeast Asian militant extremist Islamist
LEVANT (ISIL) rebel group dedicated to the establishment of an Islamic state in Southeast Asia.
JEMAAH ISLAMIYAH (“ISLAMIC A transnational organization with cells in Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia and the Philippines.
CONGREGATION”)
TALIBAN (“STUDENTS”) Refers to itself as the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (IEA), is a Sunni Islamic fundamentalist political movement in
Afghanistan currently waging war (an insurgency, or jihad) within that country. Since 2016, the Taliban's leader is
Mawlawi Hibatullah Akhundzada.
DOMESTIC TERRORIST ORGANIZATIONS

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Abu Sayyaf (Abu – ”father of; Sayaff – New People’s Army (NPA) Maute Group
”swordsmith”)
CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION VIPs
ALEX BONCAYAO A Manila-based death squad that assassinated dozens of people on the orders of the Communist Party of the Philippines.
BRIGADE
HASHIM SALAMAT Chairman and founder of the MILF Moro Islamic Liberation Front.
JIHAD A war or struggle against unbelievers while Mujahid is a person engaged in jihad.
BOOTLEGGING Business of smuggling or transporting of alcoholic beverages illegally. This mainly took place during the Prohibition from 1920 to
1933.
FRANCISCO GROUP Formed by Manuel Francisco. Formerly known as Dragon or the Kuratong Baleleng .
LOAN SHARKING Lending of money to individuals at an interest rate in excess of that permitted by law.
TONGS Originated among early-marginalized Chinatown communities to protect themselves from the natives, but because it had no
political motives, they soon found themselves involved in criminal activities like extortion, gambling, human trafficking, murder
and prostitution.
DRAGON HEADS Bosses of the Triads
CYBERSQUATTING Acquisition of a domain name over the internet in bad faith to profit, mislead, destroy reputation
CYBER SECURITY Collection of tools, policies, risk management approaches, actions, training, best practices, assurance and technologies
that can be used to protect the cyber environment and organization and user’s assets

INTRODUCTION TO CYBERCRIME AND ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS AND PROTECTION

Brief History of Electronic Communication System
● The Telegraph and Telephone — one of the earliest inventions of great significance to communication was the invention of the electric battery
by Alessandro Volta in 1799. This invention makes it possible for Samuel Morse to develop the electric telegraph, which he demonstrated in
1837. The first telegraph line linked Washington and Baltimore and became operational in May 1844. Morse devised the variable, length binary
code in which letters of the English alphabet are represented by a sequence of dots and dashes.
● The Morse code was the prosecutor to the variable length source coding method. It was remarkable that the earliest form of electronic
communication that was developed by Morse, namely; telegraphy, was a binary digital communication system in which the letters of the English
alphabet were efficiently encoded into corresponding variable length code words having binary elements.
1858 - An important milestone in telegraphy was installed by the Transatlantic Cable which linked U.S and Europe, but failed after four weeks of operation.
1875 - Emile Bandot, developed a code for telegraphy in which each letter was encoded into fixed length binary code.

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1876 - Alexander Graham Bell patented the invention of the telephone. In 1877, he established the Bell Telephone Company.
1894 - Oliver lodged the wireless communication system, using the principles of electromagnetic radiation introduced by Oersted, Faraday, Gauss, Maxwell
and Hertz.
1895 - Gugliermo Marconi is credited with his development of wireless telegraphy.
1897 - Strawger developed the first automatic switch operated auto mechanically in a step by step method.
1906 - Lee de Forest invented the triode amplifier which introduced signal applications in telephone company systems.
1929 - Vladimir Zworyki developed and demonstrated the television system.
1933 - Armstrong builds and introduces the AM-FM communication system, using the vacuum tube and triode amplifier earlier developed.
1960 - Bell Telephone Laboratory developed the Digital Switch using electronic digital transistors and was made serviceable in Illinois.
● The past fifty years, the growth in communication service been phenomenal, the invention of the transistor in 1947 by Walter Brattain, John Bardeen
and William Shockley, the integrated circuit in 1958 by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce, and the laser by Towers and Schalow in 1958, have made
possible the development of small size low power, low weight and high speed electronic circuits which are used in the construction of satellites
communication system, and light wave communication system using fiber optic cables.
● Currently, most of the wireless communication systems are being replaced by fiber optic cables which provide extremely light bandwidth and makes
possible the transmission of a wide variety of information systems.
● Today we are witnessing a significant growth in the introduction and use of personal communication systems including voice, data and video
transmission satellites and fiber optic networks.
● Similarly, the modernization of communication introduced a more sophisticated system which is now controlling the globe, and we call it, the;
● Internet - This is a global array of computers connected by a high speed reliable network. It connects millions of computers, allowing for the rapid
exchange of information, education, military, criminal justice system and business professionals as well as researchers using the system to send and
retrieve information. It also refers to the technologies that facilitate the transmission of data across the network.

BRIEF HISTORY OF INTERNET

● 1960 - Internet was devised as a means to protect the U.S defense infrastructures. RAND Corp. was the one contracted by the U.S Department of
Defense to create the device.
● 1964 - RAND Corp. released its recommendations in terms of command and control. The program was known as the Advance Research Project
Network (ARPA).
● 1970s - The ARPA network grew extensively which covers Universities around the U.S military installations and others, with machines of different
brand and contents, but which speaks the ARPA computer language.
● 1980s - Education, Business and Government Institutions made significant inroads into ARPA.
● ARPA - devised its standards of communications ● NCP - Network Control Protocol

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● 2. TCP/IP - Transmission and Internal Protocol.
● 1984 - The National Science Foundation (NSP) installed a network of computers around the U.S in connection with the ARPA network and is known
today as the Internet.
● 1989 - ARPA ceased to exist and was succeeded by the Internet.
● 1997 - Nearly ten million internet service providers (ISPS) maintain host server computers, which anyone with a modem could communicate with.
● 2000 - Approximately 100 million ISPS are now operating globally.

MODES AND MANNERS OF COMMITTING CYBERCRIME

HACKING This kind of offense is normally referred to as hacking in the generic sense. However the framers of the Information Technology
Act 2000 have nowhere used this term so to avoid any confusion we would not interchangeably use the word hacking for
'unauthorized access' as the latter has a wide connotation.
THEFT OF This includes information stored in computer hard disks, removable storage media etc. Theft may be either by appropriating the
INFORMATION data physically or by tampering them through the virtual medium.
CONTAINED IN
ELECTRONIC FORM
E-MAIL BOMBING This kind of activity refers to sending large numbers of mail to the victim, which may be an individual or a company or even mail
servers there, ultimately resulting in crashing of the entire system.
DATA DIDDLING This kind of an attack involves altering raw data just before a computer processes it and then changing it back after the processing
is completed.

SALAMI ATTACK This kind of crime is normally prevalent in financial institutions or for the purpose of committing financial crimes. An important
feature of this type of offense is that the alteration is so small that it would normally go unnoticed.
DENIAL OF SERVICE The computer of the victim is flooded with more requests that it can handle which cause it to crash. Distributed Denial of Service
OF ATTACK (DDoS) attack is also a type of denial of service attack, in which the offenders are wide in number and widespread.
VIRUS OR WORM Viruses are programs that attach themselves to a computer or a file and circulate themselves to other files and to other
ATTACKS computers on a network. They usually affect the data on a computer, either by altering or deleting it. Worms, unlike viruses, do
not need the host to attach themselves to. They merely make functional copies of themselves and do this repeatedly till they eat
up all the available space on a computer's memory. E.g. love bug virus, which affected at least 5 % of the computers of the globe.
The losses were accounted to be $ 10 million. The world's most famous worm was the Internet worm let loose on the Internet
by Robert
Morris sometime in 1988. Almost brought the development of the Internet to a complete halt.
LOGIC BOMB These are event dependent programs. This implies that these programs are created to do something only when a certain event

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(known as a trigger event) occurs. E.g. even some viruses may be termed logic bombs because they lie dormant all through the
year
and become active only on a particular date (like the Chernobyl virus).
TROJAN ATTACKS This term has its origin in the word “Trojan Horse ''. In the software field this means an unauthorized program, which passively
gains control over another system by representing itself as an authorized programmer. The most common form of installing a
Trojan is through email. E.g. a Trojan was installed in the computer of a lady film director in the U.S. while chatting. The
cybercriminal through the webcam installed in the computer obtained her nude photographs. He further harassed this lady.
INTERNET TIME Normally in these kinds of thefts the Internet surfing hours of the victim are used up by another person. This is done by gaining
THEFT access to the login ID and the password. E.g. Colonel Bajwa's case-the Internet hours were used up by any other person. This was
perhaps one of the first reported cases related to cybercrime in India. However this case made the police infamous as to their
lack
of understanding of the nature of cybercrime.
WEB JACKING This term is derived from the term hijacking. In these kinds of offenses the hacker gains access and control over the website of
another. He may even mutilate or change the information on the site. This may be done for fulfilling political objectives or for
money. E.g. Recently the site of MIT (Ministry of Information Technology) was hacked by Pakistani hackers and some obscene
matter was placed therein. Further the site of the Bombay crime branch was also web jacked. Another case of web jacking is that
of the 'goldfish' case. In this case the site was hacked and the information pertaining to gold fish was changed. Further a ransom
of US S 1 million was demanded. Thus web jacking is a process whereby control over the site of another is made backed by
some
consideration for it.

CLASSIFICATION OF CYBER CRIMES

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1. AGAINST ● Against Persons
INDIVIDUALS: 1. Harassment via emails.
2. Cyber-stalking.
3. Dissemination of obscene material.
4. Defamation
5. Unauthorized control/ access over computer systems.
6. Fraud and cheating
● Properties of an individual
1. Computer vandalism
2. Transmitting virus.
3. Netrespass

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4. Unauthorized control/access over computer system
[Link] Property Crimes
6. Internet Time Thefts

2. AGAINST ● Government
ORGANIZATION ● Firm, Company, Group of Individuals
1. Unauthorized control/access over computer system
2. Possession of unauthorized information
3. Cyber terrorism against the government organization
4. Distribution of pirated software, etc.
3. AGAINST ● Pornography (basically child pornography)
SOCIETY AT ● Polluting the youth through indecent exposure
LARGE ● Trafficking
● Financial crimes (sale of illegal articles, Online gambling)
● Forgery

BRIEF DISCUSSION OF SOME OF THE ABOVE OFFENSES:

HARASSMENT VIA E- Harassment through e-mails is not a new concept. It is very similar to harassing through letters.
MAILS
CYBER-STALKING The Oxford dictionary defines stalking as “pursuing stealthily”. Cyber stalking involves following a person’s movements across the
internet by posting messages (sometimes threatening) on the bulletin boards frequented by the victim, entering the chat-rooms
frequented by the victim, constantly bombarding the victim with emails etc.
DISSEMINATION OF Pornography on the net may take various forms. It may include the hosting of websites containing these prohibited materials.
OBSCENE MATERIAL Use of computers for producing these obscene materials. Downloading through the Internet, obscene materials. These obscene
matters may cause harm to the mind of the adolescent and tend to deprave or corrupt their mind. Two known cases of
pornography are the Delhi Bal Bharati case and the Bombay case wherein two Swiss couple used to force the slum children for
obscene photographs. The Mumbai police later arrested them.
DEFAMATION It is an act of imputing any person with intent to lower the person in the estimation of the right-thinking members of society
generally or to cause him to be shunned or avoided or to expose him to hatred, contempt or ridicule. Cyber defamation is not
different from conventional defamation except the involvement of a virtual medium.

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UNAUTHORIZED This activity is commonly referred to as hacking. The Indian law has however given a different connotation to the term hacking,
CONTROL/ ACCESS so we will not use the term "unauthorized access" interchangeably with the term "hacking" to prevent confusion as the term
OVER COMPUTER used in the Act of 2000 is much wider than hacking.
SYSTEM
COMPUTER Vandalism means deliberately destroying or damaging property of another. Thus computer vandalism may include within its
VANDALISM purview any kind of physical harm done to the computer of any person. These acts may take the form of the theft of a computer,
some part of a computer or a peripheral attached to the computer or by physically damaging a computer or its peripherals.
INTELLECTUAL Intellectual property consists of a bundle of rights. Any unlawful act by which the owner is deprived completely or partially of his
PROPERTY CRIMES / rights is an offense. The common form of IPR violation may be said to be software piracy, copyright infringement, trademark and
DISTRIBUTION OF service mark violation, theft of computer source code, etc.
PIRATED SOFTWARE
CYBER TERRORISM At this juncture a necessity may be felt that is the need to distinguish between cyber terrorism and cybercrime. Both are
AGAINST THE criminal acts. . However there is a compelling need to distinguish between both these crimes. A cybercrime is generally a
GOVERNMENT domestic issue, which may have international consequences; however cyber terrorism is a global concern, which has
ORGANIZATION domestic as well as
international consequences.
TRAFFICKING Trafficking may assume different forms. It may be trafficking in drugs, human beings, weapons etc. These forms of trafficking are
going unchecked because they are carried on under pseudonyms. A racket was busted in Chennai where drugs were being sold
under the pseudonym of honey.
FRAUD & CHEATING Online fraud and cheating is one of the most lucrative businesses that are growing today in cyberspace. It may assume different
forms. Some of the cases of online fraud and cheating that have come to light are those pertaining to credit card crimes,
contractual crimes, offering jobs, etc.
CRIME IN THE DIGITAL Grabosky and Smith provide much needed assistance to our thinking about digital crime. Their categorization of electronic crimes
AGE recognizes that there are differences between existing types of crime now being committed by digital means, and newly emerging
forms of crime impossible before the advent of networked computer systems. Overall, the authors categorize digital crimes as
follows:
● Illegal interception of ● Telemarketing fraud
telecommunications ● Electronic funds transfer crime
● Electronic vandalism and terrorism ● Electronic money laundering
● Stealing telecommunications services ● Telecommunications in furtherance of
● Telecommunications piracy criminal conspiracies

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● Pornography and other offensive
content

It is within this framework that we can define and apply terms such as hacking and spoofing, so that all professionals who need
to refer to these practices can use a common frame of reference. Just to give, one example, under the heading of pornography
and other offensive content fall such new forms of harassment as flaming, mail-bombing, and spoofing the identity of another to
send
libelous or defamatory information,.
HI-WAY ROBBERY Crime on the Internet (Boni and Kovacich)- focus on specific crimes, frequently chosen targets, and methods of attack. Their
book is aimed at law enforcement professionals and computer security personnel, both currently overwhelmed by the current
amount of I-way crime.
Equally important, is a discussion of the laws (or the lack thereof) that apply to each type of digital crime.
THE COMPUTER An electronic machine, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own memory, that can accept data (input) ,
manipulate the data according to specified rules (process, produce results (output) and store the results for future use. (Shelly,
Cushman, Vermont and Walker 1999).
PEACE TIME PERIOD its use expands to include complicated numeric integrations for statistical problems for scientific research with the following
(AFTER WWII) characteristics:
● Searchable
● Flexible database
● Criminal database
● Playing of world chess championship
● Internet

COMPUTER CRIME It is any crime accomplished through special knowledge of computer technology. As more businesses automate through
computers, there is a remarkable increase in computer crimes.

HOW COMPUTERS ARE USED TO COMMIT CRIMES

● The transfer of accounts to the perpetrators accounts. This is plain and ● Entering false data in the computer to defraud the innocent
simple estafa or swindling. The defense of honest mistake is unacceptable. victim of prey. The crime is either estafa or swindling, or
The doctrine of "solutio indebiti" mandates that any person, who had falsification of private or public documents.
unduly
delivered something through mistakes, has the obligation to return it.
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● It takes a computer genius to detect complex embezzlements through ● Introducing a complex program to alter the data already in
computers. If the theft is committed with grave abuse of confidence the existence. This constitutes economic sabotage or treason in
crime is qualified theft. political parlance.
● When used to retrieve confidential information from the data bank of the ● The computer is a tool to facilitate electoral fraud, either to add
employer. This is a violation of intellectual property rights, over the property or subtract votes. The mere alteration of data is falsification of
of his intellect. public documents or violation of election laws.

HAVENS OF COMPUTER CRIMES

Banking industries Insurance Companies Vote-counting Machines Lending and Loan Credit Cards or ATM cards
Corporations

REASONS WHY COMPUTER CRIMES ARE NOT REPORTED

● To save personal embarrassment and public contempt ● There is a lack of specific enabling laws penalizing computer crimes.
● It could boomerang to business refutes. ● Law enforcement ID intellectual lightweight to match the expertise of hackers.
● The prohibitive cost of litigation may be more expensive Under the code of crimes in the civilized world can a computer machine be a
than the damage seeks to recover. respondent in computer crimes? Can a robot machine be accused of robbery?

COMPUTER AS A TRANSNATIONAL CRIME TOOL

TRANSNATIONAL CRIMES TYPICALLY IMPLY CROSS-BORDER CRIMES GENERAL TYPES OF COMPUTER CRIMES
The use of computers obviously has an immediate effect on national and continental boundaries. Today's ❖ Those crimes where the computer is used
social theorist argues that today’s world is undergoing fundamental and monumental structure changes. as a tool - includes reproducing
These changes have been defined as globalization which means time and space compression (Harvey copyrighted material or stalking
1998). Interlinked computers are by their very nature an essential component of globalization. Keller someone.
2002, although there are many uses for the idea of globalization, one involves a world capitalist ❖ Those crimes where the computer is a
economic system playing a forceful role in eliminating the primacy, effectiveness, and even the necessity target as in those acts intended to steal
of the most cherished modern form of geopolitical organizations-the Nation-State. In this perspective,
passwords or those meant to breakdown
transnational corporations and organizations are eroding and dismantling local structures, traditions and
network services.
cultures.
COMPUTER-RELATED CRIMES

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FINANCIAL At one level, money laundering is simple: one's ill-gotten money is converted to a less suspicious, less traceable form of asset. With
CRIMES the advent of computer involvement in money-laundering schemes, even more layers of safety can be created.
FINANCIAL FRAUD This applies to traditional local forms of fraud as well as to new forms of cross-border fraud. Those engaged in fraud typically prey on
people who are looking to make a better than average return on their investments. The advent of the Internet has allowed chat
rooms, e-mail, or websites to be used as vehicles for conducting fraud.
INTERNET FRAUD It includes identity theft, credit card frauds, trademark, copyright or patent counterfeiting.
SCAM How is has been committed:
❖ Nigerian scam - it operates as follows; the target receives an unsolicited fax, e-mail, or letter often concerning Nigerian or
another African nation containing either or money laundering or other illegal proposals or you may receive a legal and
legitimate business proposal by normal means. At some point, the victim is asked to pay up front, an advance fee of some sort,
be it advance fee, transfer tax, performance bond, or to attend credit grant, CIOD privilege. If the victim pays the fee, there are
many complications which require more advance payments. (The 419 coalition, 2003).
❖ Dominion of Melchizedek- a pseudo-state claiming jurisdiction or influence over an increasing number of Pacific Islands but
existing primarily cyberspace. It registers insurance companies, and other entities for clients who have great difficulties in
obtaining them.

OFFENSIVE Objectionable internet content materials range from sexually explicit materials, racist propaganda, instructions for fabricating
CONTENT bombs, tools and software for finding and hacking vulnerable computer system. These are materials geared towards hurting or
harming individuals.
Computers as Targets Two Types of Computer Network Attacks
Notwithstanding the sophistication of attack tools, more and more system Passive attack - focus on intercepting data such as password, user
vulnerabilities are being discovered and at a faster rate than system names, email messages, and even secret data using sniffing software.
administrators can provide. Active attack – attempt to cause harm to computer systems by
Existing Computer Fraud Investigating Bodies explaining system faults and vulnerabilities. Most active attacks
● National Fraud Information Center (NFIC) established in 1992. attempt to overload the victim's computer or system of computers to
● Internet Fraud Watch (IFW) created in 1993. the point that it slows to an unusable crawl, hangs or completely
● Internet Fraud Initiative (IFI) 1999. crashes. Another active attack is the denial of service attack; it denies
● National White Collar Crime Center and FBI, established an internet fraud legitimate uses of the internet system.
center to review online complaints.

THE INTERNET AS AN INSTRUMENT FOR CRIME

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INTERNET This is a global array of computers connected by a high speed reliable network. It connects millions of computers, allowing for the rapid
exchange of information, education, military, criminal justice system and business professionals as well as researchers using the system to
send and retrieve information. It also refers to the technologies that facilitate the transmission of data across the network.
INTERNET The second form of Cybercrime has now become routine. While it is impossible to list and discuss every element of this newly emerging
CRIME problem, a few of the most important areas are described below.
a) Distributing Illegal Sexual Material - the internet is ideal venue for selling and distributing obscene material. One reason is that it is
difficult to identify perpetrators and even if they can be detected, even harder to prosecute. For example, in one well known case,
Landslide Production Incorporated of Forth Worth, Texas, operated by a highly profitable internet based pornography ring taking in as
much as S1.4 million in one month. Landslide charge it customer $29.95 per month for a gateway to child pornography website.
However, the site originated in Russia and Indonesia and therefore was off limits to control by US authorities; they had a fee sharing
agreement with Landslide owners.
b) Denial of Service Attack - some internet criminals threaten to or actually flood an internet site with millions of bogus messages and/ or
orders so that site services will be tied up and unable to perform as promised. Unless the site operator pays extortion, the attackers
threaten to keep up the interference until real; consumers become frustrated and abandon the site. The online gambling casino is
particularly vulnerable to attack, especially when the attacks coincide with big sporting events such as the Super Bowl.
c) Illegal Copyright Infringement - in the past decades, groups of individuals have been working together to illegally obtain software and
then "crack" or "rip" its copyright protections before posting it on the internet. This is referred to as "Warez". Another form of illegal
copyright infringement involves file sharing programs that allow internet users to download music and other copyrighted materials
without paying the artist and the record producers their rightful royalties.
d) Internet Securities Fraud - some criminals used the internet to intentionally manipulate the securities market place for profit.

THREE MAJOR TYPES OF INTERNET SECURITIES FRAUD

● Market manipulation - an individual either ● Fraudulent offering of securities - some ● Illegal touting - This crime occurs when
posts erroneous and deceptive cybercriminals create websites specially individuals make securities
information's online to artificially inflate the designed to fraudulently sell securities. To recommendations and fail to disclose that
price of a stock (so they can sell previously make the offerings look more attractive they are being paid to disseminate their
purchased shares) or they post negative than they are, assets may be inflated, favorable opinions.
down the price expected
of a stock so they can buy it at lower levels. returns overstated, and risk understated.
e) Identity Theft - occurs when a person uses the internet to steal someone's identity and/ or impersonate them to open a new credit card
account or conduct some financial transactions. Identity information can be gathered easily from confederates because people routinely

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share their names, address people phone numbers, personal information's credit card account numbers, and social security number
when making routine purchases over the internet or in stories. And at the post office and have someone else’s mail sent their own PO
Box. When people’s credit cards bill arrives, they call the issuer and pretend to be the victim, ask for a change in address on the account,
and purchase items over the internet and have the merchandise sent to a new address. Some identity thieves engage in “phising” by
sending fraudulent e-mails or web-site pop-ups, to get victims divulge sensitive financial information such as credit card numbers or
social security numbers.
f) Ponzi/Pyramid Schemes - these are investment schemes in which investors are promised abnormally high profits on their investments.
No investments are actually made. Early investors are paid returns with the investment money received from the later investors. The
system usually collapses, and the later investors do not receive dividends and lose their initial investments.
g) Non-delivery of goods - this involves the non-delivery of goods and services that were purchased or contracted remotely through the
Internet. Online-auction sites are a fertile ground for fraud. Goods may never be sent or, if they are, they may be damaged, counterfeit
or stolen.

CYBER AS THE HIGHWAY OF MODERN CRIMES

CYBERSPACE A term coined by sci-fi novelist William Gibson, who said in 1999. "Cyberspace has a nice buzz to it, it's something that an
advertising man might have thought up, and when I got it I knew that it was slick and essentially hollow and that I'd have to
fill it up with meaning." Since then the word's meaning has rapidly expanded. Generally, it is used to refer to the spaces within
computers and the spaces between computers (across networks) where people interact with information and with each
other.

CYBERCRIME It is evident around us, and still very much in flux. The cyber revolution has permeated virtually every facet of our lives.
Unfortunately, the revolution has entered the criminal arena as well. Millions of people around the globe have incorporated
the Internet and Advanced Information Technology into their daily endeavors, so have criminals, terrorists, and adversarial
foreign nations. Whether we like it or not, Cybercrime presents the most fundamental challenge.

CYBER TERRORISM We must now be on guard against attacks that integrate terrorist goals with cyber capabilities. While the term maybe difficult
to define, Cyber terrorism can be seen as an effort by covert forces to disrupt the intersection where the virtual electronic

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reality of computers intersects with the physical world. Mark Pollit, FBI expert defines Cyber terrorism as "the premeditated,
politically motivated attack against information, computer system, computer programs, and data which results in violence
against non-combatant targets by sub national groups or clandestine agents. Terrorist organizations are now beginning to
understand the power that Cybercrime can inflict on their enemies even though, ironically, they come from a region where
computer data bases and the Internet are not widely used. Terrorist organizations are now adapting IT into their arsenal of
terror and agencies of the justice system have to be ready for a sustained attack on the nation's electronic infrastructures

CONTROLLING The investigative measures established to control Cybercrime include:

CYBERCRIME ● Software Piracy- Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA) criminalizes accessing computer systems without authorization
to obtain information. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) makes it a crime to circumvent any piracy measures
built into most commercial software and also outlaws the manufacture, sale, or distribution of code, cracking devices
used to illegally copy software.
● Illegal Copyright Infringement- the United States Criminal. Code provides penalties for first-time illegal copyright
offenders of five years' incarceration and a fine of $250,000. Other provisions provide for the forfeiture and destruction
of infringing copies and all equipment used to make the copies.
● Identity Theft - in the US, Congress passed the Identity Theft and Assumption Deterrence Act of 1998 (Identity Theft Act)
making it a Federal Crime to anyone: who knowingly transfer of uses, without lawful authority, a means of identification
of another person with the intent to commit, or to aid or abet, any unlawful activity that constitutes a violation of
Federal Law, or that constitutes a felony under any State or Local Law. In the Philippines, the congress has still to come
up with a related law.
● Internet Pornography - in the US the Child Online Protection Act (H.R. 3783, bans web posting of material deemed
harmful to minors. In May 2002, the Supreme Court partly upheld the law when it ruled that the law’s use of what is
harmful to the children does not by itself make it unconstitutional. However, there may be future challenges to COPA on
the grounds that it controls free speech.
● Computer crime- in the US, congress has treated computer related crimes as distinct federal offenses since the passage
of the Counterfeit Access Devices and Computer Fraud and Abuse Laws in1984. The 1984 Act protected classified
United
States Defense and Foreign Relations Information, financial institution and consumer reporting agency files, and access to

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computers operated for the government. The Act was supplemented in 1996 by the National Information Infrastructure
Protection Act (NIIPA), which significantly broadens the scope of the law.

PHILIPPINE SPECIAL LAWS REGULATING THE USE OF ELECTRONICS AND COMPUTERS IN BUSINESS AND COMMERCE
Republic Act 8792, otherwise known as the Electronic Commerce Act of 2000 (E-Commerce Act), gives the following pertinent provisions and definitions:
ELECTRONIC Strictly speaking, E-commerce refers to any transactions conducted through digital means. It includes business to business
COMMERCE transactions and sales of merchandise or information and products to consumers. Though the term originally means selling things
online, it has evolved to mean conducting business online in a more general sense, including customer service functions, sales,
marketing, public relations, advertising and similar matters.
DIGITAL SIGNATURE A digital signature is like a paper signature, and is principally an authentication mechanism. The process of creating a digital
VIS-À-VIS PAPER signature and verifying it accomplish the essential effects desired of a signature for many legal purposes.
SIGNATURE
SIGNER If a public and private key pair is associated with an identified signer, the digital signature attributes the message to the signer. The
AUTHENTICATION digital signature cannot be forged, unless the signer loses control of the private key, such as by divulging it or losing the media or
device which it is contained.
AFFIRMATIVE ACT Creating a digital signature requires the signer to use the signer’s private key. This act can perform the ceremonial function of
alerting the signer to the fact that the signer is communicating a transaction with legal consequence.
EFFICIENCY The process of creating and verifying a digital signature provides a high level of assurance that the digital signature is genuinely
the signer’s. As with the case of interchange (EDI) the creation and verification processes are capable of complete automation,
with human interaction required on an exceptional basis only. Compared to paper methods, such as checking signature cards -
methods so tedious and labor-intensive that they are rarely actually used in practice, digital signature yields a high degree of
assurance
without adding greatly to the resources required for processing.
DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRONIC COMMERCE
Sec. 29 of the Act mandates the following:
ROLE OF THE Government intervention when required, shall promote a stable legal environment, allow a fair allocation of scarce
GOVERNMENT resources and protect public interest. Such intervention shall be no more than is essential and should be clear, transparent,
objective, non- discriminatory, proportional, flexible, and technologically neutral. Mechanism for private sector input and
involvement in policy making shall be promoted and widely used.

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ROLE OF THE PRIVATE The development of electronic commerce shall be led primarily by the private sector in response to market forces.
SECTOR Participation in electronic commerce shall be pursued through an open and fair competitive market.

INTERNATIONAL Electronic commerce is global by nature. Government policies that affect electronic commerce will be internationally
COORDINATION AND coordinated and compatible and will facilitate interoperability within an international, voluntary and consensus based
HARMONIZATION environment for standard setting.

NEUTRAL TAX Transactions conducted using electronic commerce should receive neutral tax treatment in comparison to transactions using
TREATMENT non- electronic means and taxation of electronic commerce shall be administered in the least burdensome manner.

PROTECTION OF USERS The protection of users, in particular with regards to privacy, confidentiality, anonymity and content control, shall be pursued
through policies driven by choice, individual empowerment, and industry-led solutions. It shall be in accordance with
applicable laws. Subject to such laws, business should make available to consumers and, where appropriate; business users
the means to exercise choice with respect to privacy, confidentiality, content and - under appropriate circumstances,
anonymity.
ELECTRONIC Government and the private sector will inform other individual consumers and business society, about the potentials of
COMMERCE electronic commerce and its impact on social and economic structures.
AWARENESS

SMALL AND MEDIUM Government will provide small and medium size enterprises (SMEs) with information and education relevant to opportunities
SIZE ENTERPRISE provided by the global electronic commerce. Government will create an environment that is conducive to private sector
investment in information technologies and encourage capital access for SMEs.
SKILLS DEVELOPMENT Government shall enable workers to share in the new and different employment generated by electronic commerce. In this
regard, the Government shall continue to promote both formal and non-formal skills-development programs.
GOVERNMENT AS A Government shall utilize new electronic means to deliver core public services in order to demonstrate the benefits derived
MODEL USER there from and to promote the use of such means. In this regard, the Government will be a pioneer in using new
technologies. In particular, the Government Information System Plan (GISP), which is expected to include, but not limited to,
online public information and cultural resources database for health services, website at local, regional national levels and
public libraries and databases, where appropriate, will be implemented in accordance with the provisions of the Act and
RPWEB.
CONVERGENCE Convergence of technologies is crucial to commerce and will be supported by appropriate government policies. Government
will work closely with the business in preparing for and reacting to changes caused by convergence.

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DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM The Government supports initiatives to ensure that internet users will have sufficient voice in the governance of the domain
name system.
ACCESS TO PUBLIC Government shall provide equal and transparent access to public domain information.
RECORDS

DISPUTE MECHANISM Government encourages the use of self-regulatory extra-judicial dispute settlement mechanisms such as arbitration and
mediation as an effective way of resolving electronic commerce disputes.

PUNISHABLE ACTS
Section 4. Cybercrime Offenses - The following acts constitute the offense of cybercrime punishable under this Act:

A. OFFENSES AGAINST ● Illegal Access - The access to the whole or any part of a computer system without right
THE ● Illegal Interception - The interception made by technical means without right of any non-public transmission of
CONFIDENTIALITY, computer data to, from, or within a computer system including electromagnetic emissions from a computer system
INTEGRITY AND carrying such computer.
AVAILABILITY OF ● Data Interference. —The intentional or reckless alteration, damaging, deletion or deterioration of computer data,
COMPUTER DATA electronic document, or electronic data message, without right, including the introduction or transmission of viruses.
AND SYSTEMS: ● System Interference - The intentional alteration or reckless hindering or interference with the functioning of a
computer or computer network by inputting, transmitting, damaging, deleting, deteriorating, altering or suppressing
computer data or program, electronic document, or electronic data message, without right or authority including the
introduction or transmission of viruses.
● Misuse of Devices - The use, production, sale, procurement, importation, distribution, or otherwise making available,
without right, of:
● A device, including a computer program, designed or adapted primarily for the purpose of committing any of
the offenses under this act; or
● A computer password, access code, or similar data by which the whole or any part of a computer system is
capable of being accessed with intent that it be used for the purpose of committing any of the offenses under
this Act.
● The possession of an item referred to in paragraphs 5(i)(aa) or (bb) above with intent to use said devices for
the
purpose of committing any of the offenses under this section.

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Cybersquatting. - The acquisition of a domain name over the Internet in bad faith to profit, mislead, destroy reputation, and
deprive others from registering the same, if such a domain name is:
● Similar, identical, or confusingly similar to an existing trademark registered with the appropriate government
agency at the time of the domain name registration:
● Identical or in any way similar with the name of a person other than the registrant, in case of a personal
name; and
● Acquired without right or with intellectual property interests in it.
B. COMPUTER- Computer-related Forgery
RELATED OFFENSES - The input, alteration, or deletion of any computer data without right resulting in inauthentic data with the intent that it be
considered or acted upon for legal purposes as if it were authentic, regardless whether or not the data is directly readable
and intelligible; or
- The act of knowingly using computer data which is the product of computer-related forgery as defined herein, for the
purpose as perpetuating a fraudulent or dishonest design
Computer-related Fraud
- The unauthorized input, alteration or deletion of computer data or program or interference in the functioning of a
computer system, causing damage with fraudulent intent: Provided, that if no damage has yet been caused, the realty
imposable shall be one (1) degree lower.
Computer-related Identity Theft
- The intentional acquisition, use, misuse, transfer, possession, alteration or deletion of identifying information belonging to
another, whether natural or juridical, without right: Provided, That if no damage has yet been caused, the penalty imposable
shall be one (1) degree lower.
C. CONTENT-RELATED Cybersex — It is the willful engagement, maintenance, control, or operation, directly or indirectly of any lascivious exhibition
OFFENSES of sexual organs or sexual activity, with the aid of a computer system, for favor or consideration.
Child Pornography - It is the unlawful or prohibited acts defined and punishable by Republic Act No. 9775 or the Anti-Child a
Pornography Act of 2009, committed through a computer system: Provided That the penalty to be imposed shall be (1) one
degree higher than that provided for in Republic Act No. 9775 law Phil.
Unsolicited Commercial Communication - The transmission of commercial electronic communication with the use of
computer system which seek to advertise, sell or offer for sale products and services are prohibited unless:
❖ There is prior affirmative consent from the recipient; or

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❖ The primary intent of the communication is for service and/or administrative announcements from the sender to its
existing users, subscribers or customers; or
❖ The following conditions are present:
✔ The commercial electronic communication contains a simple, valid, and reliable way for the recipient to reject
receipt of further commercial electronic messages (opt-out) from the same source;
✔ The commercial electronic communication does not purposely disguise the source of the electronic message;
and
✔ The commercial electronic communication does not purposely include misleading information in any part of
the message in order to induce the recipients to read the message.
Libel — The unlawful or prohibited acts of libel as defined in Article 355 of the Revised Penal Code, as amended, committed
through a computer system or any other similar means which may be devised in the future.
● Section 5. Other Offenses. The following acts shall 411 also constitute an offense:
● Aiding or Abetting in the Commission of Cybercrime. - Any person who willfully abets or aids in the commission of any of the offenses enumerated in
this Act shall be held liable. (b) Attempt in the Commission of Cybercrime. Any person who willfully attempts to commit any of the offenses
enumerated in this Act shall be held liable.
● Section 6. All crimes defined and penalized by the Revised Penal Code, as amended, and special laws if committed by, through and with the use of
information and communications technologies shall be covered by the relevant provisions of this Act: Provided, That the penalty to be imposed shall
be one (1) degree higher than that provided for by the Revised Penal Code, as amended, and special laws, as the case may be.
● Section 7. Liability under other Laws- a prosecution under this act shall be without prejudice to any liability for violation of any provision of the
Revised Penal Code, as amended, or special penal laws.
● Section 8. Penalties. — Any person found guilty of any of the punishable acts enumerated in Sections 4(a) and 4(b) of this Act shall be punished with
imprisonment of prision mayor or a fine of at least Two hundred thousand pesos (PhP200, 000.00) up to a maximum amount commensurate to the
damage incurred or both.
● Section 9. Corporate Liability. When any of the punishable acts herein defined are knowingly committed on behalf of or for the benefit of a juridical
person, by a natural person acting either individually or as part of an organ of the juridical person, who has a leading position within, based on: (a) a
power of representation of the juridical person provided the act committed falls within the scope of such authority; (b) an authority to take decisions
on behalf of the juridical person: Provided, That the act committed falls within the scope of such authority; or (c) an authority to exercise control
within the juridical person, the juridical person shall be held liable for a fine equivalent to at least double the fines imposable in Section 7 up to a
maximum
of Ten million pesos (PhP10,000,000.00).

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Enforcement and Implementation

SECTION 10. LAW The National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) and the Philippine National Police (PNP) shall be responsible for the efficient
ENFORCEMENT AUTHORITIES and effective law enforcement of the provisions of this Act. The NBI and the PNP shall organize a cybercrime unit or
center
manned by special investigators to exclusively handle cases involving violations of this Act.
SECTION 11. DUTIES OF LAW To ensure that the technical nature of cybercrime and its prevention is given focus and considering the procedures
ENFORCEMENT AUTHORITIES involved for international cooperation, law enforcement authorities specifically the computer or technology crime
divisions or units responsible for the investigation of cybercrimes are required to submit timely and regular reports
including pre-operation, post-operation and investigation result such other documents as may be required to the
Department of Justice (DOJ) for review and monitoring.
SECTION 12. REAL-TIME Law enforcement authorities, with due cause, shall be authorized to collect or record by technical or electronic means
COLLECTION OF TRAFFIC DATA traffic data in real-time associated with specified communications transmitted by means of a computer system.

SECTION 13. PRESERVATION The integrity of traffic data and subscriber information relating to communication services provided by a service
OF COMPUTER DATA provider shall be preserved for a minimum period of six (6) months from the date of the transaction. Content data shall
be similarly preserved for six (6) months from the date of receipt of the order from law enforcement authorities
requiring its
preservation.
SECTION 14. DISCLOSURE OF Law enforcement authorities, upon securing a court warrant, shall issue an order requiring any person or service
COMPUTER DATA provider to disclose or submit subscriber's information traffic data or relevant data in his/ its possession or receipt
control within severity-two (72) hours from receipt of the order in relation to a valid complaint officially docketed and
assigned for investigation and the disclosure is necessary and relevant for the purpose of investigation.

SECTION 15. SEARCH, SEIZURE, Where a search and seizure warrant is properly issued, the law enforcement authorities shall likewise have the following
AND EXAMINATION OF powers and duties.
COMPUTER DATA

SECTION 16. CUSTODY OF All computer data including content and traffic data. examined under a proper warrant shall, within forty-eight (48)
COMPUTER DATA hours

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after the expiration of the period fixed therein be deposited with the court in a sealed package, and shall be
accompanied by an affidavit of the law enforcement authority executing it stating the dates and times covered by the
examination, and

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the law enforcement authority who may access the deposit, among other relevant data. The law enforcement authority
shall also certify that no duplicates or copies of the whole or any part thereof have been made, or if made, that all such
duplicates or copies are included in the package deposited with the court. The package so deposited shall not be
opened, or the recordings replayed, or used in evidence or then contents revealed, except upon order of the court
which shall not be granted except upon motion, with due notice and opportunity to be heard to the person or
persons whose
conversation or communications have been recorded.
SECTION 17. DESTRUCTION OF Upon expiration of the periods as provided in Sections 13 and 15, service providers and law enforcement authorities, as
COMPUTER DATA the case may be, shall immediately and completely destroy the computer data subject of a preservation and examination.

SECTION 18. EXCLUSIONARY Any evidence procured without a valid warrant or beyond the authority of the same shall be inadmissible for any
RULE proceeding before any court or tribunal.

SECTION 19. RESTRICTING OR When a computer data is prima facie found to be in violation of the provisions of this Act, the DOJ shall issue an order to
BLOCKING ACCESS TO restrict or block access to such computer data.
COMPUTER DATA

SECTION 20. Failure to comply with the provisions of Chapter IV hereof specifically the orders from law enforcement authorities shall
NONCOMPLIANCE be punished as a violation of Presidential Decree NO 1829 with imprisonment of prision correccional in its maximum
period or a fine of One hundred thousand pesos (Php100, 000.00) or both, for each and every noncompliance with an
order issued by law enforcement authorities.

Jurisdiction
SECTION 21. JURISDICTION. The Regional Trial Court shall have jurisdiction over any violation of the provisions of this Act. including any violation
committed by a Filipino national regardless of the place of commission, Jurisdiction shall lie if any of the elements was
committed within the Philippines or committed with the use of any computer system wholly or partly situated in the
country, or when by such commission any damage is caused to a natural or juridical person who, at the time the offense
was committed, was in the Philippines.
International Cooperation

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SECTION 22. GENERAL All relevant international instruments on international cooperation in criminal matters, arrangements agreed on the
PRINCIPLES RELATING TO basis of uniform or reciprocal legislation and domestic laws, to the widest extent Possible for the purposes of
INTERNATIONAL investigations or Proceedings concerning criminal offenses related to computer systems and data or for the collection
COOPERATION. 0', evidence in electronic form of a criminal, offense shall be given full force and effect.

Competent Authorities
SECTION 23. DEPARTMENT OF Thereby created an Office of Cybercrime within the DOJ designated as the central authority in all matters related to
JUSTICE (DOJ) international mutual assistance and extradition.

SECTION 24. CYBERCRIME There is hereby created, within thirty (30) days from the affectivity of this Act, an inter-agency body to be known as the
INVESTIGATION AND Cybercrime Investigation and Coordinating Center (CICC), under the administrative supervision of the office of the
COORDINATING CENTER President, for policy coordination among concerned agencies and for the formulation and enforcement of the national
cyber security plan.

SECTION 25. COMPOSITION The CICC shall be headed by the Executive Director of the Information. and Communications Technology Office under
the Department of Science and Technology (ICTO-DOST) as Chairperson with the Director of the NBI as Vice
Chairperson; the Chief of the PNP; Head of the DOJ Office of Cybercrime; and one (1) representative from the private
sector and academe, as members. The CICC shall be manned by a secretariat of selected existing personnel and
representatives from the
different participating agencies law Phil
SECTION 26. POWERS AND The CICC shall have the following powers and functions;
FUNCTIONS ● To formulate a national cyber security plan and extend immediate assistance for the suppression of real-time
commission of cybercrime offenses through a computer emergency response team (CERT);
● To coordinate the preparation of appropriate and effective measures to prevent and suppress cybercrime activities
as provided for in this Act;
● To monitor cybercrime cases being bandied by participating law enforcement and prosecution agencies;
● To facilitate international cooperation on intelligence, investigations, training and capacity building related to
cybercrime prevention, suppression and prosecution;
● To coordinate the support and participation of the business sector, local government units and nongovernment
organizations in cybercrime prevention programs and other related projects.
● To recommend the enactment of appropriate laws, issuances, laws measures and policies;

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● To call upon any government agency to render assistance in the accomplishment of the CICC’s mandated tasks and
functions; and
● To perform all other matters related to cybercrime prevention and suppression, including capacity building and
such other functions and duties as may be necessary for the proper implementation of this Act.

TERMS TO PONDER UPON

GLOBALIZATION the process of creating transnational markets, politics, and legal systems in order to develop a global economy
USA PATRIOT ACT the law designed to grant new powers to domestic law enforcement and international intelligence agencies in an effort to fight
(USAPA) terrorism
VIRUS Is a. program that disrupts or destroys existing programs and networks, causing them to perform the task for which the virus was
designed. The virus is then spread from one computer to another when a user sends out an infected program on a disk or memory
device or it is downloaded via the internet. Worms are similar to viruses, but use computer networks or the internet to self-replicate
and send themselves to other users, generally via email, without the aid of the operator
SUPER ZAPPING Most computer programs used in business have built-in anti-theft safeguards. Super zappers use software that bypasses computer
security programs to allow unauthorized access to data. However employees can use a repair or maintenance program to supersede
the anti-theft program. Some tinkering with the program required, but Super zappers is soon able to issue commands and install
programs without going through normal routines, by passing not only security restrictions but also leaving no trail to the
programmer.
They may then order the system to issue checks to his or her private account
LOGIC BOMB A set of instructions secretly inserted into a program that is designed to execute if a particular condition is satisfied, e.g. the "bomb"
lies dormant until a particular date is reached or command entered. When exploded, the logic bomb may delete data or corrupt
files or have other harmful effects. Logic bombs are a type of virus because they deliver their payload after a specific triggering
events
occurs
ADDRESSEE refers to a person who is intended by the originator to receive the electronic data message or electronic documents, but does not
include a person acting as an intermediary with respect to that electronic data message or electronic document
ELECTRONIC DATA refers to information generated, sent, received and stored by electronic, optical or similar means
MESSAGE
INFORMATION refers to a system of generating, sending, receiving, storing or otherwise processing electronic data message or electronic
AND documents and includes the computer system : or other similar device by or in which data is recorded or stored and any procedures
COMMUNICATION related to the recording, or storage of electronic data message or electronic documents.
SYSTEM

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ELECTRONIC refers to any distinctive mark, characteristic and/or sound in electronic form, representing the identity of person and attached to or
SIGNATURE logically associated with the electronic data message or electronic document or any methodology or procedures employed or
adopted by a person and executed by such person with the intention of authenticating or approving an electronic data message or
electronic
documents
ELECTRONIC refers to information or representation of information, data, figures, symbols or other modes of written expression, described or
DOCUMENTS however represented, by which a right is established or an obligation extinguished, or by which a fact may be proved an affirmed,
which is received, recorded, transmitted, stored, processed, retrieved or produced electronically
ELECTRONIC KEY Refers to a secret code which secures and defends sensitive information that crosses over public channels into a form decipherable
only with a matching electronic key.
INTERMEDIARY refers to a person who in behalf of another person and with respect to a particular electronic data message or electronic documents
sends, received anti/ or stored or provides other services in respect of that electronic data message or electronic document
ORIGINATOR Refers to a person to whom, or on whose behalf, the electronic documents purports to have been created, generated and/or sent.
The term does not include a person acting as an intermediary with respect to that electronic document

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FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY  Study and application of chemical principles in the solution of problems that arise in connection with the administration
of justice.
 It is a field of chemistry dedicated to the chemical analysis of various matter or substances that might have been used in
the commission of a crime.
 Study and examination of deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA for brevity.

FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY  Examination of human internal organs, food samples and water, and gastric contents for the purpose of detecting the
presence of poisonous substance, its dosage, effects, and treatment.

FORENSIC SCIENCE  Application of chemistry in the identification of evidence, its physical and chemical properties.
 Collection, preservation, examination and study of blood, semen, dangerous drugs, and other body fluids.

CRIME LABORATORY  Also called “forensic laboratory,” a facility where analyses are performed on evidence caused by crimes or infractions.
Crime laboratories can investigate physical, chemical, biological, or digital evidence and often employ specialists in a
variety of disciplines, including behavioral forensic science, forensic pathology, forensic anthropology, crime-scene
investigation, and ballistics.

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENTIFIC CRIME LABORATORY IN THE PHILIPPINES

 February 14, 1829 – Massacre occurred in Chicago. Then a group of public-minded individuals was responsible for the establishment of a scientific
crime laboratory in that city, which today has marked its place in the historical annals of police science.

 March 31, 1876 – Creation of “Medicos Titulares” by virtue of Royal Decree No. 188 of Spain. For every province, a Forensic Physician was assigned
to perform public sanitary duties and at the same time provide medico-legal aids to the administration of justice.

 December 15, 1884 – Governor General Joaquin Javellar created a committee to study the mineral waters of Luzon and appointed Anacleto Del
Rosario as chemist.

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 September 13, 1887 – Establishment of “Laboratorio Municipal de Manila” under the inspection of the “Dirección General de Administración Civil”
and the control of the “Gobierno de Provincias.” The function of the laboratory was to make analysis not only of food, water, and others from the
standpoint of public health and legal medicine but also of specimens for clinical purposes.
 1894 – “Laboratorio Medico-Legal” was created under the dependency of the judicial branch of the government and the laboratory functioning
under the direction of a physician assisted by a pharmacist-chemist.
 1895 – Antonio Luna established a clinical laboratory where some original works in chemistry were done. Unfortunately, all prospects of the
advancement of the scientific laboratories were paralyzed as a result of the revolution in 1896.
 1899 – The first scientific laboratory was established in a small building on the banks of Pasig River with Lt. R.P. String of the US Army in charge.
 1901 – Actual Scientific work began under the initiative of Dean C. Worcester by virtue of Act No. 156 approved by the Civil Commision.

 July 01, 1901 – The Bureau of Government Laboratories was created for the purpose of performing biological and chemical examinations as well as
for the production of vaccines and sera.

 March 11, 1915 – The Department of Legal Medicine was created pursuant to the resolution of the Board of Regents. The department took charge of
the courses of legal medicines and its branches in the College of Medicine and Law.
 October 14, 1924 – Through the passage of Act. No. 3043 by the Philippine Legislature, the same Department of Legal Medicine became a branch of
the Department of Justice and at the same time an integral part of the University of the Philippines.
 December 01, 1937 – The “Division of Investigation” was created under the Commonwealth Act. No. 181 with two medico-legal officers and a
chemist. The medico-Legal Section of the Division of Investigation started the definite movement towards the creation of a scientific crime detection
laboratory.
 September 1945 – The National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) was organized with the Division of Investigation as the nucleus. The chemical
laboratory of the Medico-Legal Section was expanded into a Forensic Chemistry Division.

PRESENT
• Philippine National Police (PNP) Crime Laboratory
• The National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) Laboratory

EXAMINATION
• Body fluid • Arson trajectory • Tools and other marks • Examination of explosives
• Fake products • Ultraviolet examination • Gunshot residues • Hair and textiles fibers
• Chemical aspects of document • Problems on glass fragments • DNA • Petrography

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FOUR FACTORS THAT MUST BE CONSIDERED WHEN COLLECTING SPECIMEN FOR EXAMINATION
1. Sufficiency of Samples - The investigator should collect a sufficient amount 3. Maintenance of Individuality - All evidence must be collected and
of specimen for examination. preserved as a separate sample.
2. Standard for Comparison - When the evidence in question is located in or 4. Labeling and Sealing - Each sample must be labeled properly, and the
added with the foreign substance, a sample of such foreign substance must label should include information concerning the nature and source of the
be submitted for analysis. sample, date and time of collection, case number, if any, and name of
the
person collecting the sample.
Actual Examination of the Specimen Communication of the result of the examination Court Appearance
First Step: Write down in the laboratory record book a The results of the examination conducted should be The written report of the
complete description of the external appearance and take a communicated with the requesting party in the form of a Forensic Chemist is usually
photograph. written report, which must include the enumeration of supplemented by
Second Step: Measure the object; all measurements should facts on the specimen received for examination with testimonial evidence at a
be entered in the laboratory logbook/record book placed in detailed description of the packaging, sealing and labeling, later date if the case is
the proper container or wrapper, and must be kept in the date of receipt and from whom it was received, the brought to court or fiscal
proper evidence room. purpose of the examination, and the finding and office.
Third Step: The laboratory examination which consists of the conclusion.
chemical, physical and confirmatory tests.

EQUIPMENT USED IN THE FORENSIC EXAMINATION

1. HPLC (High Powered Liquid Chromatography) is used for the qualitative and quantitative determination of a volatile or non-volatile compound based
on the chromatographic separation of its components.
2. Ultra-Violet Spectrophotometer is used for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of organic compounds.
3. EMIT (Enzyme Multiplied Immunoassay Technique) is used for screening of abused urine samples.
4. SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) is used for the physical identification of various questioned specimens. It is a software-controlled digital scanning
electron microscope used to produce sticking images over a wide range of magnification (3x3,000,000x) on rough or covered surface of minute specimens
such as hair, fibers, paint particles, drugs, metal, etc.
5. FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy) is used for the identification of pure organic substances. It identifies organic substances particularly
abused drugs and explosive ingredients based on their characteristic functional groups. In the layman’s term, the resulting spectrum could be referred to
as the fingerprints of the substance.

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BLOOD AND BLOOD STAINS

BLOOD MEANING AND FACTS IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF BLOOD
 It is a serological fluid that consists of several kinds of cells.  As circumstantial or corroborative
 Approximately 8% of an adult's body weight is made up of blood. evidence against or in favor of the
 Females have around 4-5 liters, while males have around 5-6 liters. This difference is mainly perpetrator of the crime.
due to the differences in body size between men and women. Its mean temperature is 38  For disputed parentage.
degrees Celsius.  Determination of the cause of
 It has a pH of 7.35-7.45, making it slightly basic (Less than 7 is considered acidic). death and the length of time
 Whole blood is about 4.5-5.5 times as viscous as water, indicating that it is more resistant to the victim survived the attack.
flow than water. This viscosity is vital to the function of blood because if blood flows too  Determination of the direction of
easily or with too much resistance, it can strain the heart and lead to severe cardiovascular escape of the victim or the
problems. assailant.
 Human blood is always red. The tone is bright red when it is oxygenated (or oxygen rich) and  Determination of the origin of
a darker red when it's lacking oxygen (or oxygen poor). De-oxygenated blood only appears to the flow of blood.
be blue, largely because it is being viewed through many layers of translucent (partially  Determination of the approximate
transmitting) skin cells. time the crime was committed.
FUNCTIONS: transportation, protection, and regulation
COMPOSITION OF THE BLOOD
Plasma Red Blood Cells/ Erythrocytes White Blood Cells Platelets / Thrombocytes
 A straw-yellow colored  No nucleus  Made in the bone marrow and  Colorless cell fragments in our
liquid that suspends the  Contains hemoglobin found in the blood and lymph blood that form clots and
blood cell  Red coloring of the blood tissue. stop or prevent bleeding.
 Liquid portion of the blood  Heme – iron  Part of the body’s immune  Control bleeding in our
 55 percent of the blood system. bodies, making them
 Globin – protein
 90 percent of plasma is  Types of white blood cells are essential to surviving
 Hemoglobin is the protein inside
water. granulocytes (neutrophils, surgeries such as organ
red blood cells. It carries
eosinophils, and basophils), transplant.
oxygen.
 Fight cancer, chronic
diseases, and traumatic
injuries.
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 Six to eight percent of  Remove carbon dioxide from monocytes, and lymphocytes (T
plasma are proteins – your body, bringing it to the cells and B cells).
antibodies. lungs for you to exhale.
 Platelets that are suspended  Typically, they live for about 120
in the plasma. days, and then they die.
 Plasma is about 92% water.

TEST FOR BLOOD

PRELIMINARY 1. Benzidine Test: CONFIRMATORY 1. Microscopic Test - presence of
TEST  benzidine reagent TEST Red Blood Cells
 hydrogen peroxide 2. Teichmann or Haemin Crystal
 stain benzidine reagent Test- dull white background and
 2O2 + peroxidase dark brown rhombic crystal
3. Takayama Test - Takayama
 blue color - positive result
reagent , introduced in
Positive Result: blood, sputum, pus, nasal secretion, plant juices, formalin, Japan in 1912 by Masao
bentonite, and carcinogenic
Takayama
4. Aceto-Haemin or Wagenhaar
2. Guaiacum Test Test - large rhombic crystals of
 guaiacum plant salmon pink color
 blue color – positive result 5. The Luminol Test - The most
Positive Result: blood, saliva, pus, bile, milk, rust, iron salts, cheese, potato, widely used method for finding
perspiration, gluten, and other oxidizing agents invisible blood is through the use
of a chemical developer such as
3. Phenolphthalein Test: Luminol, or 5-Amino-2, 3-
 phenolphthalein reagent dihydro-1, 4-phthalazinedione
 phenolphthalein and zinc powder (C8H7N3O2).
 pink color – positive result
Positive Result: blood, copper salts

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4. Leucomalachite Green Test
 Leucomalachite green with sodium perborate (NaBO3)
 bluish green – positive result
 not as specific as phenolphthalein

SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAIN

Serology is the study of the identification and characterization of body fluids as semen, blood, and saliva.
Spermatozoa are sperm cells.
Semen is a seminal fluid with spermatozoa.
Aspermia is the absence of sperm cells with ejaculation.
Oligospermia is the condition where semen contains a very few count of sperm cells.
SEMEN TEST
Physical Examination Chemical Test
Dry Semen - Gives a stiff starchy feeling to the cloth and produces slight Florence Test - choline periodide crystal
deepening of color with the disappearance of odor. Barberio’s Test - Formation of spermine picrate crystal and formation of
orange red pigment after 30 seconds on fresh stains under the microscope,
slender yellow-tinted rhomboid needles “Acid Phosphate Test.”
HAIR
Cross Section of Hair Shaft:
• Cuticle – Consist of scales pointing toward the end of the hair.
• Cortex – Intermediate and thickest layer of the shaft; contain pigment granules.
• Medulla – Central canal of the hair; maybe empty or may contain cells; more or less pigmented.

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FIBERS
TEXTILE FIBERS: Natural Fibers: Plant Fibers:
 Natural Fibers  burn  Cotton – Most common type; diversity depends on type of cotton, fiber length, and degree of twist.
 Plant Fiber rapidly  Flax – A fine light-colored plant fiber used to make linen.
 Animal Fibers  smell  Ramie – A lustrous soft durable fiber obtained from the bark of a bush.
 Man-made Fibers like  Sisal – A strong white fiber obtained from the leaves of an agave plant.
burning  Jute – Coarse fiber from the stems of Corchorus (saluyut).
leaves  Hemp – A tough fiber from the stems of an Asian plant.
 steady
 Kapok – A silky fiber obtained from the seed covering of a tropical tree.
flame
 Coir - Coarse fiber that comes from the husk of the coconut.

Animal Fibers: Man-made Fibers

• smells like burning • Natural materials such as cotton or wool
• feather / hair (regenerated)
• burn very slowly • Synthetic materials
• easily extinguished
Most commonly encountered man-made fibers:
Examples: • Polyester - a strong hard-wearing synthetic
1. Silk fabric with low moisture absorbency
2. Wool - The animal fiber most frequently used in the production of textile • Nylon fibers – tough synthetic material (ex.,
Wool commonly originate from sheep. Finer woolen fibers are used in the stockings)
production of clothing; coarser fibers are found in carpet. • Acrylics - a synthetic textile fiber produced
from acrylonitrile (a colorless toxic liquid)
Other sources of woolen fibers: • Rayons - a synthetic textile fiber made from
• alpaca – related to llama with long shaggy hair; gives glossy wool cellulose
• cashmere – Himalayan goat; gives soft wool • Acetates – a textile fiber make from a
• mohair – Angora goat (Angora is the old name of Ankara, capital of chemical compound produced by the
Turkey); gives soft silky wool reaction of acetic

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Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) & How Is It Used In Drug Development

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DRUGS
Drug is a chemical substance that brings about physical, physiological, Dangerous Drug is a substance affecting the central nervous system which
behavioral and/or psychological change in a person taking it. NOTE: All when taken into the human body brings about physical, emotional or
medicines are drugs but not all drugs are medicine drug behavioral changes in a person 'taking it
Medicinal Drugs Dangerous Drugs Drug Abuse
A substance which when A substance affecting the central nervous Any non-medical use of drugs that cause physical, psychological, legal,
taken into the human body system which when taken into the economic, or social damage to the user or to people affected by the user's
cures illness and/or human body brings about physical, behavior. Abuse usually refers to illegal drugs but may also be applicable to
relieves signs/symptoms of emotional or behavioral changes in a drugs that are available legally, slicer as prescribed medications and certain
disease. person taking it. over-the-counter medications.
Under Republic Act 6425, otherwise known as the Dangerous Drugs Act of 1972, dangerous drugs are classified into three (3) main categories, namely:
• Prohibited Drug, which includes opium and its active • Regulated Drug, which includes self-inducing • Volatile Substance, Liquid, solid
components and derivatives, such as heroin and Sedatives, such as secobarbital, Phenobarbit or mixed substances having the
morphine; coca leaf and its derivatives, principally pentobarbital, barbital, amobarbital and any property of releasing toxic vapors
cocaine; alpha and beta eucaine; hallucinogenic other drug which contains a salt or a or fumes or any chemical
drugs, such as mescaline, lysergic acid diethylamide derivative of a salt of barbituric acid; any salt, substance which when sniffed,
(LSD) and other substances producing similar effects; isomer or salt of an isomer, of amphetamine, smelled, inhaled, or introduced
Indian hemp and its derivatives; all preparations such as Benzedrine or Dexedrine, or any drug into the physiological system of
made from any of the foregoing; and other drugs and which produces a physiological action similar the body. produce/induce a
chemical preparations, whether natural or synthetic, to amphetamine; and hypnotic drugs, such as condition of intoxication,
with the physiological effects of a narcotic or a methaqualone, nitrazepam or any other inebriation, excitement,
hallucinogenic drug compound producing similar physiological stupefaction, etc.
effects
Republic Act 9165, otherwise known as the Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002, gives a single definition for prohibited and regulated drugs. The old law defines
the term "dangerous drugs"- as pertaining to either "prohibited drug" or "regulated drug".
Drug Dependence- means a state of psychic or physical dependence, or both, on a dangerous drug, arising in a person following administration or use of
that drug on a periodic or continuous basis.
Characteristics of Drug Dependency:
1. Physical dependence - the body's physical system changes until the body needs that particular drug in order to function
2. Mental or psychological dependence - a need of drug in order to feel good, to get by or feel normal
3. Idiosyncrasy or side effect

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TOXICOLOGY
• Toxicology can be defined as that branch of science that deals with poisons, and a poison can be defined as any substance that causes a harmful effect
when administered, either by accident or by design, to a living organism.
• By convention, toxicology also includes the study of harmful effects caused by physical phenomena, such as radiation of various kinds, noise, and so on
HISTORICAL ASPECTS OF TOXICOLOGY
• In the past it was mainly a practical art utilized by murderers & assassins
• In Ancient time (1500 BC) earliest collection of medical records contains many references and guidelines about poison
• Dioscorides (50 AD) a Greek physician, classify poisons as animal, plant or mineral & recognizing the value of emetics
• Maimonides (1135-1204 AD), wrote poisons and their antidote which detailed some of the treatments consideration to be effective
TOXICOLOGICAL TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
• Toxin- a poison of natural (biological) origin
• Poison- a chemical that may harm or kill an organism
• Toxic-having the characteristic of producing an undesirable or adverse health effect
• Toxicity-any toxic (adverse) effect that a chemical or physical agent might produce within a living organism
• Hazard - is the likelihood that injury will occur in a given situation or setting: the conditions of use and exposure are primary considerations
• Risk - is defined as the expected frequency of the occurrence of an undesirable effect arising from exposure to a chemical or physical agent RISK=
HAZARD + EXPOSURE
POISONING
1. Acute poisoning- Is caused by an excessive single dose, or several dose of a 2. Fulminant poisoning- is produced by a massive dose and in this
poison taken over a short interval of time. Strychnine, potassium cyanide death occur rapidly, sometimes without preceding symptoms
3. Chronic Poisoning- is caused by smaller doses over a period of time, resulting 4. Sub-acute poisoning- shows features of both acute and chronic
in gradual worsening arsenic, phosphorus, antimony and opium poisoning
SOURCES OF POISON
• Commercial sources • Industrial source • Domestic or household sources
• From uses as drugs and medicines • Food and drink • Agricultural and horticultural sources
• Miscellaneous sources - snakes bite poisoning, city smoke, sewer gas poisoning etc.
• Domestic or household sources - detergents, disinfectants, cleaning agents, antiseptics, insecticides, rodenticides etc
• Agricultural and horticultural sources- different insecticides, pesticides, fungicides and weedicide

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Prohibited drugs Test used Reactions noted COMMON POISONS AND DRUGS
• Opium and Marquis Purple or violet color 1. Corrosive poison
derivatives 2. Irritant poison
• Heroin Nitric acid Yellow or green color 3. Analgesic, Hypnotic, Tranquilizer, and Narcotic poisons
• Morphine Nitric acid Red orange to yellow 4. Stimulants, Excitants, and Convulsants poisons
• Cocaine Cobalt thiocyanate Blue precipitate 5. Paralytic, Anticholinesterase and Antihistamine poisons
• Barbiturates Dile-Kopanyi Violet color 6. Gaseous and Volatile poisons
7. Industrial gaseous and Volatile poisons
• Amphetamines Marquis Red-orange to dark
brown 8. Poisons by Plants, flora, and fungi
Mandelin Green to reddish brown
• Marijuana Duquenois-Levine Violet color
Fast blue salt (FBS) Purple or violet color

Clinical - treatments for poisonings and injuries caused by xenobiotics

Environmental - environmental pollutants, effects on flora Food - adverse effects of processed or natural food
and fauna components

Branches of
Toxicology
Regulatory - Assigns risk to substances of
commercial importance. Forensic - cause of death, legal aspects

Mechanistic - cellular, biochemical and molecular mechanisms by which chemicals cause toxic
responses

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• Industrial sources- In factories, where poisons are manufactured or • From uses as drugs and medicines – Due to wrong medication,
poisons are produced as by products overmedication and abuse of drugs
• Commercial sources- From store-houses, distribution centres and • Miscellaneous sources- snakes bite poisoning, city smoke, sewer gas
selling shops poisoning etc.
• Food and drink – contamination in way of use of preservatives of food grains or other food material, additives like colouring and odouring agents or
other ways of accidental contamination of food and drink
Fourier - Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) Used for the identification GAS Chromatography- It is a separate technique, the mobile phase is a gas
of pure organic substances. Identifies organic substances particularly and separation is based on the difference in migration rates among sample
dangerous drugs and explosive ingredients based on their characteristic components.
functional groups. In layman's term, the resulting spectrum could be Spectroscopy - a confirmatory method whereby light is used to identify the
referred sample specimen.
to as the fingerprints of the substance.
Examination of the Urine Specimen- The rate of excretion from the body Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy - Used for screening of dangerous drugs in
depends on the drug's solubility in fat. Water soluble drugs (such as cocaine) urine specimen.
are excreted quickly, while fat soluble drugs (such as marijuana) may take Reasons for Conducting Validity Tests:
several weeks or months before excretion. Drug test must be conducted to • In cases of unobserved urine collection
apprehended individuals who is /are suspected to be a user/ s; and to those • When there is suspicion that the urine specimen has been
who are charged with the offense of "Illegal Use of Dangerous Drugs. tampered

Different Types of Tampered Urine Specimen Ways to Substitute a Urine Sample Ways to Adulterate Urine
Samples
1. Adulterated - a specimen containing either a  Urine from friends or other persons not 1. Addition of salt
2. substance that is not a normal constituent for that type using drugs may be used as substitute 2. Addition of juice
of specimen or containing an endogenous substance at a specimen 3. Addition of detergent
concentration that is not a normal physiological  Replace sample with other substance similar 4. Addition of bleach and
concentration to urine in appearance. other oxidizing
3. Diluted - refers to a specimen with less than Ways to Dilute a Urine Specimen: adulterants
normal physiological constituents 1. Internal Dilution (e.g. Intake of plenty of water 5. Addition of illicit drugs
4. Substituted - a specimen which has been derived before collection or drinking of herbal tea,
through switching or replacement of the original sample. etc.)
2. External Dilution (e.g. Addition of water to
previously collected urine)

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Parameters for Validity Tests Confirmatory Validity Tests Other Methods for
Confirmatory Validity Tests

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Initial Validity Tests: 1. Physical characteristics such as color, odor, etc.  Physical characteristics-
1. Physical characteristics such as color, odor, etc Volume 2. Volume visually determined
2. Temperature 3. Temperature  Volume-same as
3. PH 4. PH physical characteristics
4. Specific gravity 5. Specific gravity  Temperature - using
5. Nitrites 6. Nitrites thermometer
6. Creatinine 7. Creatinine  pH - pH Meter calibrated
7. Oxidizing agents 8. Oxidizing agents with appropriate buffers
 Specific gravity - use a
refractometer

DETECTION OF GUNSHOT RESIDUE

The following are common methods used by most crime laboratories to detect gunshot residue:
1. Paraffin test
2. Lead residue (detection limit: up to 30 feet and always present on the opposite sides of the penetrated target). Reported from intermediate
glass target present
3. Gunpowder residue examination (detection limit: highly variable up to 20 cm, and up to 21 inches is common)
4. Other examinations
PARAFFIN TEST
 To determine whether a person has discharged Procedure
a firearm, the Paraffin-Diphenylamine test is 1. Heat the paraffin wax in a containing until it melts. Allow cooling for a few minutes so that it
used. The basis of this test is the presence of will not burn the skin.
nitrates in the gunpowder residue. When a 2. Let the subject wash his hands with water without using any soap or detergent. Wipe the
warm melted paraffin wax is applied on the hands of the subject with clean absorbent cotton.
hands of the alleged shooter, it will cause the 3. Let the subject place his hands on a clean sheet of bond paper with the palms facing
pores of the skin to open and exude the downward and the fingers closed together. Using a spoon or tong with cotton, pour the
particles of gunpowder residue. These particles melted paraffin wax on the hands of the subject from the thumb and index fingers and the
of gunpowder residue are being extracted by dorsal portion to the little finger side of the hands.
the paraffin cast (with the use of melted paraffin 4. Cover the hands and fingers thoroughly with paraffin wax and place a thin layer of absorbent
wax) and will appear as blue specks, when cotton to reinforce the wax.
diphenylamine reagent (DPA 5. Pour another layer of the wax until the absorbent cotton has totally absorbed the wax.
for brevity) is added on the cast. It must be noted

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that the specks are generally located on the 6. Allow the wax to cool and solidify before peeling them off.
area of the thumb and forefingers. 7. When cool, direct the subject to move his fingers first and slowly moving his hands out from
NOTE: The blue color that appears indicates the the casts.
reaction of nitrates with diphenylamine reagent. 8. Place on the bond paper the case number, name of the subject, time and date, technician
Thus, nitrate from other sources like fertilizers will who took the cast, witnesses and label the right and left hand.
give the same reaction. Other substances similar to 9. Place another bond paper on top of the paraffin casts and staple together.
nitrate known as oxidizers will also react with the 10. Place the paraffin casts inside an box for proper preservation.
reagent in the same way.
PARAFFIN WAX
Paraffin wax is a white, translucent, tasteless, odorless solid Consisting of a mixture of solid hydrocarbons of high Time of reaction:
molecular weight. It is insoluble in water and acids and soluble in benzene, ligroin, warm alcohol, chloroform, 1. Number and characteristic
turpentine, carbon disulfide, and olive oil. Combustible, auto ignition temperature 473 F (245degree C) of blue and minute specks
 The melted paraffin wax penetrates the minute crevices of the skin upon application, thus, adhering if there are 2. The location and
particles present. When the casts are peeled, the burned and partially burned particles are extracted. A person character of the blue
firing a gun will likely have the particles located above the thumb and forefingers since these are the surfaces specks
exposed to 3. Distribution and location
the gun.
FIREARM EXAMINATION 1. Lucas test- A characteristic smell that decreases in intensity with lapse of time is present immediately after firing
but even after several weeks some slight smell remains.
2. Odor (Hydrogen Sulfide) this is another product resulting from combustion of gunpowder which is present in the
gaseous state. This compound can be detected by means of lead acetate paper test. If the breech of the gun is kept
closed, this persists between 2-3 hours. Sulfide - the greater part disappears in about 4-5 hours but frequently a trace
remains for a longer time, the longest period being 10 hours.
3. Odor of the Barrel (rusting) as a rule, no rust can be detected inside the barrel of a firearm if such firearm has not
been discharged. But if the firearm has been discharged, iron salts are formed and can be detected inside the barrel.
These iron salts are soon oxidized resulting in the formation of rust. The formation of rust is affected by the
humidity of the air so that in the interpretation of the result, this factor must always be considered.
4. Presence of Nitrates (by cotton swabbing method) Nitrates diminish after a lapse of time. Nitrates can be detected by
swabbing a portion of residue in a barrel and mixing the residue with Diphenylamine solution (DPA).
5. Dermal Nitrate test - The test is designed to determine the presence of gunpowder nitrates on the hands of the
alleged shooter.

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CRIME SCENE INVESTIGATION
• It is the conduct of processes, more particularly the recognition, search, processes, preservation and documentation of physical evidence to include
the identification and interview of witnesses and the arrest of suspect/s at the crime scene.
LISTS OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE WHICH WILL MOST LIKELY YIELD SIGNIFICANT RESULTS UPON EXAMINATION

1. Blood, semen and saliva (liquid or dried, animal or human)

2. Documents (written and typed) - paper, ink, indented writings, obliterations and burned or charred documents
3. Drugs
4. Explosives (any object that contain an explosive residue)
5. Hairs and Fibers
6. Fingerprints (latent and visible)
7. Firearms and Ammunition
8. Glass particles or fragments that may have been transferred to person or object involved in a crime.
9. Impressions (shoe prints, depressions in soils and other tracks, glove and fabric impression, and bite mark)
CASES FALLING UNDER THE SOCO CATEGORY COMPOSITION OF SOCO TEAM
1. Murder 1. Team Leader
2. Homicide 2. Driver/ Evidence Custodian
3. Rape with Homicide 3. SOCO Specialists/Technicians
4. Arson 4. Health officer
5. Robbery with Homicide 5. Crime photographer
6. Other heinous/sensational cases as directed by higher headquarters and 6. Sketcher/ Measurer
other cases where SOCO assistance is necessary 7. Forensic chemical officer
BASIC SOCO EQUIPMENT / MATERIALS SOCO TOOLS
1. Police Line 1. Flashlight
2. 2 Measuring device e.g. ruler and measuring tape 2. Scissors
3. Recording materials e.g. chalk, notebook, sketching and paper pad, pencils, Pentel pens, 3. Knife (heavy duty and folding)
permanent ink marker and coupon bond 4 SLR camera with film 4. Rulers and measuring tapes
4. 5 Video camera 5. Adjustable wrench
5. 6 Tape recorder 6. Pliers
6. 7 Evidence collection kit 7. Wire cutter
7. 8 Compass 8. Complete screwdriver set
8. 9 Search light with battery charger 9. Saw

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9. 10 Evidence tags /markers 10. Hammer
10. 11 First Aid kit 11. Ax or hatchet
11. 12 Paper bags (all sizes) 12. Shovel
12. 13 Stylus 13. Fingerprint magnifier
13. 14 Vernier Caliper 14. Nylon brush
14. 15 Micrometer 15. Magnet
15. 16 Paraffin wax 16. Spatula
16. 17 SOCO forms and Crime Lab request form 17. Box of plaster of Paris for casting of lifting
17. 18 Gloves 18. Goggles
18. 19 Gauze 19. Sitting screen
19. 20 Fingerprint card 20. Funnel (different sizes)
20. 21 Black and White latent lifting card 21. Scalpels
21. 22 Eraser 22. Ladder
22. 23 Stapler with extra staple wire
23. 24 Kit board
EVIDENCE CONTAINERS
1. Glass vials 5. String tags - large and small
2. Absorbent cottons 6. Plastic gallons, bottles (small and large)
3. Cardboard boxes Evidence tape of masking/ scotch tape
4. Paper bags, plastic bags

IMPORTANT TERMS
• ABRASION is a non-penetrating type of injury where there is a scrapping-off or removal of the outer or Superficial layer of the skin brought about by
friction or rubbing-on of the body against hard or rough surface.
• AMMUNITION is a metallic or non-metallic body usually referred to as bullet.
• ASPHYXIA is a condition in which the supply of oxygen to the .blood and the tissues has been reduced to below normal physiologic level.
• BALLISTICIAN OR FIREARMS EXAMINER OR FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION TECHNICIAN is a person whose knowledge in firearm identification is
accepted
by the courts and other investigative agencies.
• BALLISTICS is the branch of applied physics dealing with the motion of projectiles and the conditions governing such motion. It is the study of natural
laws relating to the performance of gunpowder and projectiles in firearms and the means for predicting such performance.

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• BULLET TRAJECTORY COLLECTION AND EXAMINATION is an examination conducted on a motor vehicle to determine the point of entry and exit of
the bullet which hit it as well as the size of the bullet that was fired on the target motor vehicle.
• BURNING OR COMBUSTION is the rapid oxidation of substances accompanied by the generation of heat and light.
• CALIBER is the diameter of the inner surface of the barrel that is measured from land to land (raised portions).
• CAMERA is a light tight box, with a means of forming the image (lens), with a means of holding sensitized material (film holder) and with a means of
controlling the amount of light that will reach the film. It is a device used in photographing an object.
• CARTRIDGE is a complete unfired unit, which is made up of bullet, cartridge case, primer and gunpowder. CASTING is a process whereby a
reproduction
of an object is secured by introducing a suitable hardening material into a mold or an impression.
• CHAMBER is the conical rear portion of the barrel where the cartridge is inserted. CHEMICAL ETCHING is a process employed in restoring number.
• CONTUSION COLLAR is an abraded portion of entry on gunshot wounds resulting from the heat and impact of on the skin.
• CRIMINAL INVESTIGATOR is a person who collects facts and locates the guilty party and provides evidence of his guilt.
• DETONATION is a violet explosion, one resulting from the instantaneous decomposition or combustion of unstable compounds.
• DIRECT MOTION is the action of the expansive force of gases out of the burning powder.
• DRUG is a chemical substance that brings about physical, physiological, behavioral and psychological i change in a person taking it.
• DRUG TEST is the determination of the presence of abused drugs in body fluids. DRUG USER/ADDICT refers to an individual who is dependent on a
certain drug or drugs.
• DRUG ABUSE is the use of a chemical substance, licit or illicit, which results in an individual's physical, mental, emotional or social impairment.
• EVIDENCE CUSTODIAN is the person in charge of keeping all pieces of evidence recovered from the crime scene for submission to I he different
technical divisions for examination.
• EVIDENCE is the means sanctioned by the Rules of court of ascertaining in a judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact.
• EXAMINATION is the act of making a close and critical study of any material and with questioned documents. It is the process necessary to discover
the facts about them.
• EXHUMATION OF CADAVER is a process of exhuming a buried cadaver to be subjected for medico-legal examination.
• EXPLOSIVE is any substance that may cause explosion by its sudden decomposition or combustion.
• EXTERIOR BALLISTICS is the motion of projectile from the muzzle of the gun to the target.
• FIELD LABORATORY WORK is a Crime Laboratory operation wherein laboratory technicians are sent to the crime scene to collect physical evidence
for examination by the PNP Crime Laboratory.
• FIREARMS (Legal definition) includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, pistols, revolvers and all other deadly weapons from which a bullet, a ball, a
show, shell or missiles may be discharged by means of gunpowder or other explosives. The term also includes air rifles, except those that are small
in
caliber and usually used as toys.
• FIREARMS (Technical definition) is an instrument that is used for the propulsion of projectiles by means of expansive force of gases of burning
powder.
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• FIRED OR EVIDENCE CARTRIDGE CASES are those recovered from the crime scene or from the cylinder of a firearm found at the same scene or
specimen submitted by the investigator.
• FORENSIC BALLISTICS is the science of firearm them. Identification by means of ammunition fired through
• FORENSIC CHEMIST is an expert in the field of Forensic Chemistry and takes charge of the collection of hairs, fibers, poisons, explosive, drugs, etc.
• FORENSIC CHEMISTRY is the science that deals with the study and application of chemical principles in solution to problem that arises in connection
with the administration of justice.
• GUNSHOT WOUND is a wound that is brought about by powder propelled substance. GYROSCOPIC ACTION is the stillness of the rotating motion of
the projectile after leaving the muzzle of the firearm.
• LABORATORY TECHNICIAN is one who is capable of collecting evidence related to his field of expertise.
• MACRO-ETCHING EXAMINATION is a method of examination wherein the serial number of the motor vehicle is tested with acid and other chemical
reagents in order to restore its original number.
• MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION is any study or examination, which is made with the microscope in order to discover minute physical details.
• MOTION is the movement of the projectile (bullet) from one point to another. It is divided into direct, rotatory, and translational.
• MUG-SHOT is the process of taking photographs of the suspect(s) in full length, right and left side views and two quarter view.
• PARAFFIN TEST is an examination conducted to a suspected shooter to determine the _presence of gunpowder nitrates using melted paraffin wax.
• POSTMORTEM LIVIDITY is the state of discoloration (bluish-purple) of the skin due to loss of oxygen to the blood in the small vessels and capillaries
after death. This occurs on the most dependent parts of the body.
• PROJECTILE is a metallic or non-metallic body usually referred to as bullet that is completely dependent upon an outside force for its power.
• RIGOR MORTIS is the state wherein complete muscular rigidity caused certain biochemical changes in the body occurring several hours after death.
• SEMEN is the viscid albuminous fluid with a grayish-yellow color with a chlorinous-fishy odor and contains spermatozoa, cells, lecithin bodies,
hormones and other substances.
• SMUDGING is the black discoloration produced around the gunshot hole when the gun is held about 2-8 inches to the victim.
• SOCO ASSISTANCE is a service rendered by Crime Lab to the public to effectively and efficiently process a crime scene so as to ensure a successful
prosecution of cases.
• SPERMATOZOA (Sperms) is a living organism containing half of the human genetic material present in the seminal fluid, consisting of a head, neck and
tail. Normally, ejaculate semen contains 60 million spermatozoa per cubic centimeter and may be recovered from the female genital tract up to 72
hours after intercourse, depending on the physiologic conditions.
• STANDARDS are condensed and compact sets of authentic specimen which, if adequate and proper, should contain a cross-section of material from
a known source.
• TATTOOING is a black coarsely peppered pattern produced around the gunshot hole when the gun is held about 8-36 inches to the victim.

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• TOXICOLOGY is the science that deals with poison, their origin, physical and chemical properties, effects, treatment of these effects, and method of
detection.
• TRACE EVIDENCE is any material or article found or recovered during the investigation which may assist in the solution of a case and the prosecution
of the guilty.
• TRAJECTORY is the parabola-like flight of the projectile or bullet from the time it leaves the muzzle of the firearm up to the time it hits the target.
• VAGINA is that musculo-membranous tube which extends from the vulva to the uterus.

LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

Polygraphy- is the scientific method of detecting deception with the use of a polygraph instrument. This is the new name of LIE DETECTION. Polygraph is a
scientific diagnostic instrument used to record physiological changes in the blood pressure, pulse rate, respiration and skin resistance of an examinee under
controlled condition.
Lie- is any untruthful statement; Falsehood; Anything that deceives or creates Detection- is an act of detecting, discovery, perceiving, finding, or
false impression; to make untrue statements knowingly, especially with intent uncovering something obscure.
to deceive.
KINDS OF LIE TYPES OF LIARS
1. White Lie or Benign Lie- to protect or maintain the harmony 1. Panic Liars – avoid the consequences of a confession.
of friendship or any relationship. 2. Occupational Liars – when it has a higher “pay off” than telling the
2. Pathological Lie- Made by persons who cannot distinguish right from truth.
wrong 3. Tournament Liars – excited by the challenge of not being detected.
3. Red Lie- Involves political interests and motives because this is a part 4. Psychopathic Liars – most difficult type.
of communist propaganda strategy. 5. Ethnological Liars – taught not to be a squealer.
4. Black Lie- A lie accompanies pretensions and hypocrisies, intriguing 6. Pathological Liars – cannot distinguish right from wrong (his mind
to cause dishonor or discredit ones good image. is sick).
5. Malicious or Judicial Lie- Unjustifiable kind of lie that is intended 7. Black Liars – person who always pretends.
purely to mislead or obstruct justice.
IMPORTANT PERSONS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF POLYGRAPHY
 Angelo Mosso – Studied fear and its influence on the hearth and his  Harold Burtt – determined that respiratory changes were indicative
observations subsequently formed the basis for the technique. of deception.

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 Cesar Lombroso – employed the first scientific instrument to detect  Vittorio Benussi – successfully detected deception with a
deception “Hydrosphygmograph,” measured changes in pulse and blood pneumograph, an instrument that graphically measures an
pressure when suspects were questioned about their involvement in or examinee’s inhalation and exhalation.
knowledge of a specific response.
 William Marston – dealt with the sphygmomanometer which was used  Georg Sticker – 1st to suggest theuse of the galvanograph for
to obtain periodic discontinuous blood pressure readings during the detecting deception based on the work of several predecessors.
course
of an examination.
 John Larson – developed the polygraph, an instrument capable of  Otto Veraguth – 1st to use the term “PSYCHOGALVANIC REFLEX.”
continuously records blood pressure, pulse, and respiration.
 Leonard Keeler – continued research and development of the polygraph.  Cleve Backster – develop the control question technique which
In 1949, he invented the Keeler Polygraph with components that introduces a lie in the polygraph chart to establish a yard sticks so
simultaneously recorded changes in blood pressure, pulse and respiration. that one would know what the reaction really means.
MAJOR Pneumograph – occupy the two/upper pens which records the thoraric and abdominal breathing patterns of respiration.
COMPONENTS Galvanometer – electrodes used for obtaining the recording of the GSR or electro-dermal responses, are fastened to the hand or
OF THE finger by means of the passage of an imperceptible amount of electrical current through the hand or finger bearing the attached
POLYGRAPH electrodes. Cardiosphymograph – records changes in mean blood pressure, rate and strength of pulse beat.

FOUR PHASES 1. Preliminary Preparations – initial Interview with the investigator handling the case or person requesting it. The group involve in
OF POLYGRAPH this stage are the Victim / Complaint, Suspects, Witnesses.
EXAMINATION 2. Pre-Test Interview with the subject – the primary purpose of the pre-test interview of to prepare or condition the subject for the
test. (20- 30min)
3. Examination/Instrumental Test – the conduct of Instrumentation and Actual Test.
After the pre-test interview, the examiner should proceed to place the attachment on the subject.
4. Post–test Interview/Interrogation – if the Polygraph test result indicates deception, the examiner will then proceed to conduct
short interrogation. The purpose of which is to obtain confession. However, if the Polygraph indicates that the subject is innocent;
the examiner will just release the subject cordially and thanks him/ her for his/her cooperation.

Kymograph (additional) – the chart recording unit of the instrument. It has a synchronized motor that drives the charts at the rate of six inches per minute
and its speed constant is vital because the vertical lines, which are spaced either at one-half or one inch interval, represents five or ten seconds interval on
the chart. (NOTE: All Subjects must be in good physical and mental condition before he/she may be submitted for polygraph examination).

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TEST CONSTRUCTION AND PROCEDURES
1. General Consists of a series of Relevant & Irrelevant Questions asked in a planned order. Questions are so arranged as to make possible a
Question comparison of responses to relevant questions with a subject’s norm made during the answering of irrelevant questions. There are
Test (GQT) other
types of questions asked in the GQT.
2. Weak Concern some secondary element of the crime or problem and deals with mostly in guilty knowledge and partial involvement.
Relevant
Question
3. Strong Defined as verbal stimulus of primary important projected in the form of a question which overcome a psychological excitement level
Relevant and causes pneumograph, cardiosphygmograph, and galvanograph tracings changes from the subject’s physiological norms.
Question
4. Evidence Designed to stimulate the guilty subject and focus his attention on the probability of incriminating proof that would tend to establish his
Connecting guilt.
Question
5. Knowledge Designed or begun to probe whether the subject possess information regarding the identity of the offender, the location of evidences
Question or items of secondary element of the case.
6. Peak-Of- Subject may be given this test if he is not yet informed of the details of the offense for which he is being interrogated by the
Tension investigation, or by other persons or from other sources like the print media.
Test (PTT)
–
7. Guilt Applied when the response to relevant and control questions are similar in degree and in consistency and in a way that the examiner
Complex cannot determine whether the subject is telling the truth or not.
Test (GCT)
8. Silent Conducted in the same manner as when relevant and control questions are asked but the subject is instructed to answer the questions
Answer silently, to himself, without making any verbal response causes distortion in the tracing such as sniff or clearing the throat.
Test (SAT)

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PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES
 Dactyl- finger and skopien – to study or  Dactylomancy – is the scientific study of
examine) is the practical application of the science of fingerprints. fingerprint for purposes of personality interpretation.
 Dactyloscopy – derived from the Latin words  Dermatoglyphics- is the science which deals with the study of skin
pattern. It is derived from two Greek words, derma which means skin
 Dactylography – is the scientific study of fingerprint as a means and glype which means carve.
of identification.
 Fingerprints- an impression design by the first joint of the fingers and thumb on smooth surface through
the media of ink, sweat or any substance capable of producing visibility
PRINCIPLES OF FINGERPRINT RELATED SCIENCE TO THE STUDY OF FINGERPRINT
1. Principle of Individuality (Variation) - no two fingerprints that are 1. Chiroscopy – study of palm “Greek word Cheir = hand”
exactly alike unless taken from the same finger. 2. Podoscopy – study of footprint “Greek word Podo = foot”
2. Principle of Permanency - configuration and details of individual 3. Poroscopy – study of pores “Greek word Poros = A Pare “
ridges remain constant and unchanging.
3. Principle of Infallibility - reliable means of personal identification.

HISTORICAL EVENTS CONCERNING FINGERPRINTS AS METHOD OF IDENTIFICATION

221 BC –  Chinese are the first culture known to use friction ridge impression as a means of identifications.
220 AD
1684  Friction ridge details is first described in details by nehemiah grew.
1687  Marcelo Malpighi credited to being the first to use microscope to study the skin.
1788  J.C Mayer first to write friction ridge skin is unique.
1856-1897  Herman Welcker is the first person to start a permanence study; generally, though credit for the being the first person to study
persistence of friction goes to Sir William James Herschel.
1858  Herschel’s spontaneous printing a man’s hand as proof of identity is first official use of friction skin as a signature by a European.
1880  Henry Faulds is the first to publish in a scientific journal the value of friction ridge skin for individualizations.
1883  Arthur Kollman is the first to identify the presence and locations of the volar pads on the hands and feet.
1892  Rojas Murder Case is considered as the first homicide solved by fingerprint evidence. Argentina becomes the first country to rely solely
on fingerprint as a method of individualizations.

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1902  Burglary trial marks the beginning of fingerprint evidence in the courts of England.
1903  The use of American Classification system and subsequent fingerprinting of all criminals in the state of New York is first systematic use
of fingerprinting for criminal record purposed in the United States.
1907  Mark K. Holland becomes the first American woman instructor of fingerprinting.
1911  People vs. Jennings is the first American appellate case regarding the admissibility of fingerprint expert testimony.
1938  State vs. Johnson makes it possible to convict habitual offender using certified copies of fingerprint as a proof of identity.
1939  Sinking of USSSQUALUS is the first American disaster in which fingerprint individualization plays a major role in identifying a victim.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FINGERPRINTS IN THE PHILIPPINES
1900  Mr. Jones was the first to teach fingerprints in the Philippines in the Phil. Constabulary.
1918  The Bureau of Prisons records show that carpetas (commitment and conviction records) already bear fingerprints. Under the
management of Lt. Asa N. Darby during the American occupation in the Philippines, a modern and complete fingerprint file has been
established for the Philippine commonwealth.
1937  The first Filipino fingerprint technician employed by the Phil. Constabulary was Mr. Generoso Reyes. Capt. Thomas Dugan of New York
City Police Department and Mr. Flaviano C. Guerrero of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) gave the first examinations in
fingerprints and Agustin Patricio top the exam.
1933  First conviction based on fingerprints was handed by the Supreme Court of the Phil. in the case People vs. Medina and this case is
considered the leading judicial decision in the Philippine jurisprudence concerning fingerprinting (December 23).
 The science of fingerprinting was first offered as a subject in the Philippines through the effort of the Plaridel Educational Institution.
NOTES:
 On the face of a cliff in NOVA SCOTIA, there has been found prehistoric Indian picture writing of a hand with crudely marked ridge patterns.
 In the Bible, Apostle Paul concludes in one of his epistles with the words, “The Salvation of Paul with my own hand, which is the token in every
epistle, so I write.”
 In China, fingerprint is called “Hua Chi”. The value of fingerprints for purposes of identification was found on a Chinese clay seal made not later than
the 3rd century B.C. (Japan = TEGATA)
 In England, Thomas Bewick, an English engraver, author, and naturalist engraved the patterns of his own fingers on every woodwork he had finished
to serve as his mark so as to establish its genuineness.
PERSONALITIES
HANS GROSS  Australian Magistrate to described, “Search for Truth” as the ultimate goal of all investigative work. He is the “Father of
Modern Criminalistics.”

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ALPHONSE  “Father of Personal Identification.” ANTHROPOMETRY is a system of identification which was used earlier than the
BERTILLION fingerprints system, made by measuring various bone structure of human body.
PAUL KIRK  Father of Criminalistics in USA.
RICHARD EDWARD  Developed the Henry system classification at Scotland Yard which was accepted by almost all English speaking country.
HENRY Known as the “Father of Fingerprint.”
HERMAN WELCKER  He took his own fingerprint twice with a lapse of 41 years and show that ridges remain the same.
NEHEMIAH GREW  Describes the ridges and pores of the hands and feet (Philosophical Transaction) presented in Royal Society of London, England.
GOVARD BIBLOO  Works on the sweat pores and ridges.
MARCELO  Professor at the University of Bolognia, Italy, known for his discovery of the Epidermis and Dermis layer. Written the book
MALPIGHI entitled “De Externo Tactus Organo” Father of Dactyloscopy.
J.C.A. MAYE  The first to state that fingerprints are never duplicated in two persons ( Anatomiche Kuphertafeln).
JOHANNES  Professor at the University of Breslau, Germany. Established a certain role for classification and be able to identify nine
PURKENJIE (9) types of pattern although never associated to identification
HERMAN WELCKER  Took his own fingerprints twice with a lapse of forty-one years and show the ridges formation remains the same.
WILLIAM  The first to advocate the use of fingerprints as substitute for signature from among Indian native to avoid impersonation.
HERSCHEL
RAJADHAR KONAI  The first person Herschel printed the palm.
HENRY FAULDS  A surgeon at Tsukuji Hospital, Tokyo, Japan, who claimed that latent prints would provide positive identification of
offenders once apprehended ( A Manual of Practical Dactyloscopy)
FRANCIS GALTON  Developed the Arch. Loop and Whorl Patterns as general classification and identified nine (9) types of pattern. First to
establish a Civil Bureau of Personal Identification. He said that the possibility of two prints being alike was 1:65 Billion or
1:64 Billion
CHANDRA BOSE  The two Hindu police officers who have help Henry in attaining his goal.
JUAN VUCETICH  A Spanish counterpart of Henry who developed his own system of classification in Argentina and was accepted in almost
all Spanish Speaking country.
GILBERT  A geologist in New Mexico, adopted the first individual use of fingerprint in august 8, 1882 as a protection to prevent
THOMPSON tampering with the pay order.
ISAIAH WEST  Photographer in San Francisco who advocated the use of the system for the registration of the immigrant Chinese.
TABOR

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SAMUEL  An Englishman who informally introduced Dactyloscopy in the United States in his book “ Life in the Mississippi” and “
LANGHORNE Pupp n Head Wilson”.Francis Galton
CLEMENS
DR. HENRY P DE  Utilized the first Municipal Civil use of fingerprint for Criminal Registration on December 1902 (Mun. Civil Service Comm., New
FOREST York).
CAPT. JAMES L.  Advocate the first state and penal use of fingerprint adopted in SingSing prison on June 5, 1903 later on Auburn Napanoch
PARKE and Clinton Penitentiaries.
SGT. JOHN  First fingerprint instructor at St. Louis Police Dept. Missouri.
KENNETH FERRIER
MAJ. R. MC  Warden of the Federal Penitentiaries of Leaven Worth. Established the first official National Government use of fingerpprint.
CLOUGHRY
MARY K. HOLAND  First American instructress in dactyloscopy. FBI = identification unit herein was officially established by an act of congress in
[Link] of Applied Science = First private school to install laboratories for instruction purposes in dactyloscopy.
MR. JONES  One who first taught FP in the Phils. (1900)Bureau of Prison = (1968) CARPETAS fingerprint was used.
GENEROSO REYES  First Filipino Fingerprint Technician employed by P.C.
ISABELA BERNALES  first Filipina Fingerprint Technician
CAPT. THOMAS  New York Police Dept. and Flaviano
DUGAN
GUERRERO, FBI  Gave the first examination in FP in 1927 and Agustin Patricio of the Phils. Top the Examination
WASHINGTON
PLARIDEL  now known as Phil. College of Criminology, first government recognized school to teach the Science of Fingerprint and
EDUCATION other Police Sciences.
INSTITUTE (PEI)
JOHN DELLINGER  known U.S. public enemy number one who attempt to destroy his own prints using corrosiv e acids.
ROBERT JAMES  works on Surgery to forged his own fingerprints and was named “Man without fingerprint”
PITTS (ROSCOE
PITTS)
LUCILA LALU  The first Filipina Chop -chop lady who was identified through fingerprint.
ELSA CASTILLO  the second chop chop lady
ALPHONSE  known as the Father of the first scientific method of Identification (Anthropometry)
BERTILLION

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1. Polydactyl – more than regular number of finger Friction Skin – epidermal hairless skin found on the ventral or lower
ABNORMALITIES IN 2. Macrodactyl – enlarged finger surface of the hands and feet covered with ridges and furrows. Also
FINGER 3. Microdactyl – reduced finger called papillary skin.
4. Ectodactyl – missing finger at birth 1. Ridge – elevated or hill like structure/ black line with tiny
5. Syndactyl – side fusion of the finger white dots
6. Ankylosis – finger cannot be bend 2. Furrow – depressed or canal like structure. The white
Phalange – skeletal finger covered with friction skin space between ridges.
1. Basal or Proximal – at the base of the finger nearest the palm 3. Sweat Pores – tiny opening for the sweat
2. Middle Phalange – the next and above the basal phalange 4. Sweat Duct – passage way of sweat
3. Terminal Phalange – located in the tip of the finger 5. Sweat Glands – producer of sweat

 Dermal Papillae – irregular pegs composed of delicate connective tissue  Ridge Destruction – temporary for damage in the epidermis,
protruding and forming the ridges of the skin on the fingers, palm, toes permanent on the dermis layer. NOTE: Rule: a depth of 1 mm will
and sole of the feet. constitute permanent scar.
TWO 1. DELTA – “OUTER TERMINUS” is a point along a ridge 2. CORE – “INNER TERMINUS” found in the center of innermost
FINGERPRINT formation found at the center or near the center of the recurve
TERMINUS diverging type lines.
RIDGE CHARACTERISTIC (GALTON’S DETAIL)
1. Ridge dot Ridge formation in the form of a dot or a period.
2. Bifurcation Single ridge divides in to two. It resembles a fork shape.
3. Diverging Ridge Two ridges that spread apart
4. Converging Two ridges that come together as one
5. Enclosure/lake Single ridge divide in to two and form again
6. Ending ridge Refers to abrupt ending of a ridge (1mm)
7. Type line Diverging ridge that tend to surround the pattern area and serve as a basic boundary of fingerprint pattern
8. Pattern area Part of loop or whorl pattern surrounded by the type line and consisting of delta, core and ridges
9. Recurving ridge Single ridge that curves back to the direction it was started

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10. Appendage Shot ridge at the top of the recurve
11. Rod or Bar Short or long ridge found inside the recurve and directed towards the core or parallel to the recurve

RULES GOVERNING THE CHOICE BETWEEN TWO OR MORE POSSIBLE DELTA TERMS TO REMEMBER
1. A bifurcation may not be selected as a delta if it does not open towards the core.  AFIS- Automated Fingerprint Identification System
2. When there is two or more possible delta, the one nearest the core be selected.  Ridge Characteristic “Galton’s Detail”- are those little
3. When there is two or more possible delta and one which is bifurcation, the points of details in the formation of pattern in which are
bifurcation should be selected. used in comparing to fingerprint in order to determine its
4. Delta may not be located on the middle of the ridge running between the type identity.
line towards the core but at the end of that ridge.  Reference Classification Formula- An additional formula
5. When a pattern shows a series of bifurcation opening towards the core at the serve as reference in case of doubtful prints. Place at the
point of divergence of the type line, the bifurcation nearest the core is chosen as bottom of classification formula.
the delta.  Checking- Verifying the rolled impression using the plain
6. In case of a ridge near the center of the type lines despite several bifurcating impression as guide reference.
ridge opening towards the core, delta is located at the point of the first  Blocking Out- Process of placing under each pattern the
bifurcation just in front of the divergence of the type lines. letter symbol representing their pattern interpretation prior
to the
actual classification formula.
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TYPES OF FINGERPRINT IMPRESSION
 Plain Impression - fingerprint impression is taken simultaneously  Rolled Impression – impression taken individually by rolling each
pressing the finger to the card, used as REFERENCE CLASSIFICATION finger from one side to the other side and from the tip to the end of
the first joint
Note: Thumb finger are rolled towards the body while all other finger are rolled away from the body
INSTRUMENTS USED IN TAKING PRINT
1. Ink Slab Metallic or glass plate where the ink is spread for purpose
2. Ink Roller Rubber made roller designed to spread the ink
3. Fingerprint Ink Ink used for taking fingerprint
4. Fingerprint Card 8x8 card for recording fingerprint
5. Card Holder Usually a fixed card holder placed in a flat table designed to prevent the movement of the card in the course of the taking of
the fingerprint.
6. Latent Print Used to preserved developed latent print
Transfer Card
7. Fingerprint Strip Used to hold card for post mortem fingerprint
Holder
RULES IN TAKING FINGERPRINT
1. Subject should be instructed to stand straight and relax facing the ink slab.
2. Subject hand should be completely dried.
3. In case of Split/Webbed thumb, it should be rolled together and be classified based on: get the bigger one; if the same size, get the inner one.

THREE GROUPS OF FINGERPRINT (ARCH, LOOP, WHORL)

ARCH (5%) LOOP (60%) WHORL PATTER (35%)
1. Plain Arch - Elements: 1. PLAIN WHORL
ridges flow Core, Delta, • A complete circuit
from one Sufficient • Two deltas
side to the recurve • At least 1 circulating ridge is crossed or touched by an imaginary line passing through the two
other side 1. Radial Loop - A deltas.
with a slight type of pattern 2. CENTRAL POCKET LOOP WHORL
in which the • Two deltas
raise at the
slanting ridge • At least one obstruction ridge or recurving ridge at right angle
center.

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(no delta and flows towards • No recurving ridge within the pattern area is crossed or touched by an imaginary line drawn
core) the thumb between two deltas.
2. Tented Arch finger 3. DOUBLE LOOP WHORL
– having an 2. Ulnar Loop - • Two separate loop formation
up thrust or The slanting • Two separate or distinct sets of shoulder
an incomplete ridge flows • Two deltas
loop form towards the 4. ACCIDENTAL LOOP WHORL
little finger • Patters which a combination of two different types of pattern
• Two or more deltas and core
• It must be combination of two different pattern except plain arch
CLASSIFICATION FORMULA
Primary division – always represented by a numerical value assigned to whorl pattern depending to what finger they appear. (both arch and loop have no value)
 Finger 1 and 2 right thumb and right index  Finger 7 and 8 left index and left middle Finger 5 and 6 right little and left thumb
 Finger 3 and 4 right middle and right ring Finger 9 and 10 left ring and left little

THUMB INDEX MIDDLE RING LITTLE

1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10
THUMB INDEX MIDDLE RING LITTLE
Plain Whorl (16) Central Pocket Loop Whorl Double Loop Whorl (8) Plain Arch (8) Ulnar Loop (4)
(16)
Accidental Whorl (4) Tented Arch (2) Plain Whorl (2) Central Pocket Loop Whorl Plain Whorl (1)
(1)

(Even number) Numerator: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10

(Odd number) Denominator: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9
N = 4 + 16 + 2 + 1 = 23 + 1 = 24 D
= 16 + 8 + 1 = 24 + 1 = 25

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Secondary division – represented by capital and small letter Sub secondary division – derived by ridge counting of loop and ridge
combination based on the interpretation made during the blocking. tracing of whorl found in the index, middle and ring only. Both arch are
• Capital letter – derived only to those found in index finger (a, t, u, r, w, always (-)
c, d, or x) • Ridge counting - counting of ridges between delta and core of a loop.
• Small letter - derived from the thumb, middle, ring and little fingers only. (incipient ridge = ridge that is so thin or fine, not included as a ridge
It only includes the radial loop (r), plain arch (a) and tented arch (t) count)
• Ridge tracing - counting the ridges intervening between tracing ridge and
the right delta of whorl.
Sub secondary division – derived by ridge counting of loop and ridge tracing of whorl found in the index, middle and ring only. Both arch are always (-)
• Ridge counting - counting of ridges between delta and core of a loop. (incipient ridge = ridge that is so thin or fine, not included as a ridge count)
• Ridge tracing - counting the ridges intervening between tracing ridge and the right delta of whorl.
Ridge Counting Loop Rules in Ridge Tracing Rules in Ridge Counting
 Index Finger 1 to 9 Ridge Count = I • Inner whorl – tracing goes above or inside • Island, Dot, Short Ridge, Long Ridge And Abrupt
10 or more = O the right delta and there are three or more Ending Ridge = 1 Ridge Count
 Middle Finger 1 to 10 Ridge Count = I intervening ridge. • Ridge Enclosure, Meeting Of Two Ridge, Bifurcating
11 or more = O • Outer whorl – tracing ridge goes below or Ridge That Cross In The Opening Or At The Center Of
 Ring Finger 1 to 13 Ridge Count = outside the right delta and there are three Bifurcation = 2 Ridge Count
I 14 or more = O or more intervening ridge
Major Division • Meeting whorl – there are two or less Final Division
• Taken from thumb fingers only intervening ridges either above or below. • Derived from the little fingers only- both arch (-)
• Both Arch (-) Key Division • Radial/Ulnar- the usual process
• WHORL – ridge tracing = inner, outer or • Getting the ridge count of the first • Plain or Central pocket loop whorl – will be treated
meeting loop except little finger. In case of absence as ulnar loop
• LOOP - ridge counting = small, medium, large of the loop, the first whorl will be ridge • Double loop whorl – get the ridge count of the top loop
Table 1 Table 2 counted. • Accidental whorl – get the least ridge count
1-11 = S 1-17 = S The number of ridges of LEFT THUMB must
12-16 = M 18-22 = M be considered in selecting formula to be
17 or more = L 23 or more = L used for right thumb. (Use Table 1 if the Left
Thumb has 16 or less ridge count) Use Table
2 if the
Left thumb have more than 16 ridge count.
CLASSIFICATION OF AMPUTATIONS AND FINGERS MISSING AT BIRTH
When one or more amputations appear upon a fingerprint card, it may be filed separately from those having no amputations in order to facilitate
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If one finger is amputated, it is given a classification identical with that of the opposite finger, including pattern and ridge count, or tracing, and
referenced to every other possible classification.
 If two or more fingers are amputated, they are given classifications identical with the fingers opposite, with no additional references.
 If two amputated fingers are opposite each other, both are given the classification of whorls with meeting tracings.
 If all 10 fingers are amputated or missing at birth, the classification will be: M 32 W
MMM M 32 W MMM

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY
Photography Photograph Police Photography
 derived from the Greek words photos ("light") and The mechanical and chemical result of 
 The study of the general practices,
graphein ("to draw") The word was first used by Photography. Picture and photograph methods, and steps in taking pictures of
the scientist Sir John F.W. Herschel in 1839. It is a are not the same for a picture is a the crime scene, physical things, and
method of recording images by the action of light, generic term refers to all kinds of other circumstances that can be used as
or related radiation, on a sensitive material formed image while a photograph is an criminal evidences or for law
image that can enforcement
only be a product of photography. purposes.
SPECIAL USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
1. Infrared Photography – recording of images formed by infrared radiation. It can penetrate haze that scatters the waves of visible light.
2. Ultraviolet Photography – art or process of photographing or recording unseen objects by means of ultraviolet light.
3. Photomicrograph – taking a magnified photograph of small object through attaching a camera to the ocular of a compound microscope so as to
show a minute details of the physical evidence.
4. Photomacrogaphy – taking a magnified (enlarged) photograph of small object by attaching an extended tube lens (macro lens) to the camera.
5. Mug Shot Photography – use for personal identification which is the first use of photography in police work. (Alphonse Bertillion is the Father of
Mugshot Photography)
6. X-ray Photography – widely use in medicine, industry and science. It is quite different from ordinary photography. X-rays are invisible
electromagnetic waves.

HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY
The word photography came from two Greek words that mean "writing with light." The first time the word "photography" was used in 1839, the year the
invention
of the photographic process was made public, by Sir John Herschel.
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German professor, Johann Heinrich Schulze, observed that silver salts darkened when exposed to light. But the idea of making pictures using this
1727
information did not occur to him. That invention required the talents of a later generation of scientists.
French scientist, Joseph Nicephore Niepce, put a plate coated with bitumen (asphalt used in ancient times as a cement or mortar) in a camera
1826 obscura. He put the camera obscura facing his house for eight hours and made a photograph. It is the earliest camera photograph that we still
have today.
Henry Fox Talbot create permanent (negative) images using paper soaked in silver chloride and fix with a salt solution. Talbot created positive
1834
images by contact printing onto another sheet of paper (Photogenic Drawing) and later (Calotype Process)
Daguerre's process, which he named the DAGUERREOTYPE, was announced to the world on January 7, 1839. Half a year later the French government gave
Daguerre and Niepce's son, Isidore, a lifetime pensions in exchange for all rights to their invention. The Daguerreotype was to become France's gift to the world.
1848 Abel Niepce de Saint-Victor, nephew of Joseph Niepce, coated a glass plate with albumen which held the chemical fast. (NIEPCEOTYPE)
Dr. R.A. Reis, a German scientist who contributed heavily to the use of photography in forensic science and established the world’s earliest crime
1902
laboratory that serviced the academic community and the Swiss police.
Victor Balthazard developed a method of photographic comparison of bullets and cartridge cases which act as an early foundation of the field of
1910
ballistics.
1947 Edwin H. Land introduced Polaroid – one-step photography.
2000 Camera phone introduced in Japan by sharp/J-Phone

NATURE OF LIGHT
 Wave theory (Christiaan Huygens) based on the transmission of motion along the surface of water
 Corpuscular theory (Isaac Newton) light exert its effect through the motion of a very small particles called corpuscles
 Electromagnetic theory (Clerk Maxwell) concluded that light was a form of electromagnetic radiation.
COLORS OF LIGHT FOUND IN VISIBLE SPECTRUM
Visible Spectrum - a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum where the visible light is found, the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that affect
the human sense of sight. Visible light includes all those radiation having a wavelength ranging from 400 – 700 nm.
 Approximate Wavelength (Blue 450 nm, Green 550 nm, Red 700 nm)
 Complementary Colors (Magenta 400 nm, Cyan 500 nm, Yellow 590 nm)

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BENDING OF LIGHT MEDIUMS OF LIGHT
1. Reflection – deflection or bouncing back of light when it hits 1.
Transparent objects – mediums that merely slow down the speed of light
a surface. but allow to pass freely in other respects, transmit 90% or more of the
2. Refraction – bending of light when passing from one incident light.
medium to another. 2. Translucent objects – mediums that allow light to pass through it in such a
3. Diffraction – bending of light when hits a sharp edge of an way that the outline of the source of light is not clearly visible, transmit
opaque object 50% or less of the incident light.
3. Opaque objects – medium that divert or absorb light, but does not allow
lights to pass though, they absorb most of the light while reflecting some of it.
SOURCES OF LIGHT- Natural lights are lights which come to existence without the intervention of man and artificial lights are lights which are man-made.
In photography natural light is used for outdoor photography and artificial lights are utilized in indoor photography to augment the adverse lighting
condition.
CLASSIFICATION OF DAYLIGHT INTENSITY ARTIFICIAL LIGHT
Bright Sunlight A lighting condition where objects in open space cast a deep and uniform or  Almost all artificial light sources can be
distinct shadow. used in photographing of objects, as long
Hazy Sunlight Objects in open space cast a transparent shadow. as the light is capable of exposing the
sensitized materials (film). Some of the
Dull Sunlight Objects in open space cast no shadow: a.) Cloudy bright; b.) Cloudy dull
artificial lights are electronic flash,
photoflood lamp, fluorescent lamp, and
Infrared and Ultraviolet lamp.
MECHANICAL DEVICE
Camera – The principle of photography are derived from science and the images on the film or paper made by the light rays through the camera are
dependent on the same general laws which produces images upon the retina through the lens of the eye. The essentials of any camera, therefore, are
light tight box, a lens, a shutter, and a holder of sensitized material. All other accessory of any camera merely makes picture taking easier, faster, and
convenient for the operator and is called accessories.
 Light tight box suggests an enclosure devoid of light. An enclosure, which would prevent light from exposing the sensitized material inside the camera.
 Lens – use to focus the light coming from the subject. It operates more or less the same way as the lens of the eye.
 Shutter has for its function through its action called shutter speed, the control of the duration of the exposure of the sensitized material to light.
(NOTE: The higher the numerical value of the shutter speed the shorter will be the duration of the opening and closing of the shutter. As an effect
only a small
amount of light will pass through the lens)

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 Holder of sensitized material located at the opposite side of the lens has for its function to hold firmly the sensitized material in its place during
exposure to prevent the formation of a multiple or blurred image of the subject.
TYPES OF CAMERA
 Pinhole Camera – consists of a box with a small hole in one  Fixed Focus Camera – most basic of all camera, have a non-adjustable lens.
of its sides. To produce a sharp image, the hole must be very Most model have a single diaphragm setting and only one or two shutter
small and this restricts the amount of light entering the speeds. Most fixed focus cameras, including many inexpensive, pocket-sized
camera. models, use 110 or 126 size film. The negative of such film require
considerable enlargement,
which may produce a fuzzy image.
 Single Lens Reflex (SLR) – camera with one lens only for  Twin Lens Reflex – having two separate lenses of the same focal length - one for
both viewing and picture-taking. The image is reflected viewing and focusing; the other for exposing the film.
onto a
viewing screen by a moveable mirror in the camera.
PARTS OF A CAMERA
SHUTTER  A device that prevents light from reaching the film until the photographer is ready to take a picture.
DIAPHRAGM  Regulates the amount of light reaching the film. The diaphragm also affects depth of field – the smaller the aperture the greater
the depth of field.
DEPTH OF FIELD  Range in front of and behind a sharply focused subject in which details also look sharp in the final photographic image. It
depends on lens aperture, the focused distance, and the focal length of the lens.
LENS APERTURE  Adjustable cameras are equipped with an iris diaphragm, a device located in or near the lens and consisting of thin overlapping
leaves that fold together to create a hole of continuously variable size.
VIEWFINDER  Shows the photographer the scene being photographed. It may be a viewing screen, a miniature lens system, or a sample wire
frame.
FILM ADVANCER  Necessary so that the exposed film can be transferred to the take up spool while the unexposed film remain on the opposite
side of the lens for another exposure.
PHOTOGRAPHIC LENS
 Convergent, Positive or Convex Lens – always thicker at the center and  Divergent, Negative, or Concave Lens - always thinner at the center
thinner at the sides, light passing through it are bended toward each and thicker at the sides. Light passing through it are bended away
other at the other side of the lens meeting at a point. from each other as if coming from a point.
CLASSIFICATION OF LENSES ACCORDING TO ITS FOCAL LENGTH
FOCAL LENGTH  Distance from the optical center of the lens to the focal plane when the lens is set or focused at infinity. Focal lengths are usually
specified in millimeters (mm), but older lenses marked in centimeters (cm) and inches are still to be found.

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NORMAL LENS  With a focal length approximately equal to the diagonal of the film format. A scene viewed through a normal lens appears to
have the same perspective as if it was being viewed “normally” without a lens, just the way your eye sees it. Most 35 mm
cameras' normal lenses have a focal length of approximately 50 mm.
WIDE-ANGLE  Lens with an angle of view that is wider than that of a normal lens, or that of the human eye. A wide-angle lens has a focal
LENS length which is less than the diagonal of the film format.
MACRO LENS  Lens with the ability to focus from infinity to extremely closely, allowing it to capture images of tiny objects in frame-filling,
larger- than-life sizes. Sometimes called a "Close-up lens," although a close-up lens is usually a lens attachment for close- ups
and does not generally have the ability to focus on infinity.
TELEPHOTO LENS  Lens with a narrow angle of view, a longer-than-normal focal length, the ability to magnify images, and exhibiting relatively
shallow depth of field. Examples of 35 mm camera telephoto lenses include 85 mm, 400 mm and 600 mm lenses etc.
FISHEYE  Describes an extreme wide-angle lens that has an angle of view exceeding 100° - sometimes more than 180° - and that renders a
scene as highly distorted.
ZOOM LENS  One in which focal length is variable. Elements inside a variable focus lens shift their positions, enabling the lens to change its
focal length - in effect, providing one lens that has many focal lengths.
TYPES OF ABERRATIONS

 Spherical aberration – when light  Coma – concerned with the light rays entering the  Chromatic Aberration – inability of the
passing through the near central part of lens obliquely. The result of differences in lateral lens to bring photographic rays of
a converging lens are bended more magnification for rays coming from an object point different wave lengths to the same
sharply not on the optic axis. focus.
than those rays falling in the edge.
 Astigmatism – with this defect, a single  Curvature of field – image formed by a lens comes  Aberration-is the failure of light rays to
point from a subject falling near the to a sharper focus in a curve surface than a flat focus properly after they pass through a
margin of the negative will be imaged surface. lens or reflect from a mirror. Proper
not as a point but as a two perpendicular  Distortion – rendering straight lines correctly; focus occurs when the light rays cross
short lines. either horizontal or vertical lines in an object. one another at a single point.

TYPES OF LENSES AS ACCORDING TO THEIR DEGREE OF CORRECTION

1. Achromatic lens or Achromat is a lens that is designed to limit the effects of chromatic and spherical aberration.
2. Apochromat, or Apochromatic lens (apo), is a photographic or other lens that has better correction of chromatic and spherical aberration than the
much more common achromat lenses.

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3. Rapid Rectilinear also named Aplanat is a famous photographic lens design. The Rapid Rectilinear is a lens that is symmetrical about its aperture stop
with four elements in two groups. It was introduced by John Henry Dallmeyer in 1866. The symmetry of the design greatly reduces radial distortion.
4. Anastigmat or Anastigmatic lens is a photographic lens completely corrected for spherical aberration, coma, and astigmatism
 Sensitized Material – refers to films and  Sensitized Material – refers to films and  Sensitized Material – refers to films and
papers that are composed of emulsion papers that are composed of emulsion papers that are composed of emulsion
containing SILVER HALIDE crystals containing SILVER HALIDE crystals suspended containing SILVER HALIDE crystals
suspended in gelatin and coated on a in gelatin and coated on a transparent or suspended in gelatin and coated on a
transparent or reflective support. reflective transparent or reflective support.
support.
CLASSIFICATION OF FILMS AS ACCORDING TO ITS SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY
Spectral Sensitivity refers to the responsiveness of the film emulsion to the different wavelength of light source.
MONOCHROMATIC FILM ORTHOCHROMATIC FILM INFRARED FILM PANCHROMATIC FILM
Sensitive to a single color of light (for Sensitive to UV rays, blue and Sensitive to infrared and ultra- Sensitive to ultra-violet rays, and all
white and black) green colors, but not to red. Red violet radiation (radiation beyond light found in the visible spectrum,
1. Blue Sensitive Film – a film portions are recorded as dark the human eye’s sensitive). especially to blue and violet light. It
specially treated that makes it tones, while green and blue parts Although the infrared film is is suitable for general use in the
more sensitive to blue rays of appear as light tones when sensitive to blue color, a red filter preparation of black and white
light. printed. This type of film is can exclude the blue color. The red photography because it produces
2. Ultra-Violet Sensitive Film – popular in the market as the filter transmits only long red and the most natural recording of
sensitive to UV rays only KODALITH infrared radiation. colors.
FILM.
 Granularity or Grainess – size of the metallic grains that are  Sensitized Paper – materials necessary to produce a photograph (POSITIVE
formed after development of an exposed film. Generally, the PRINT) are a sensitized paper. It has emulsion that is coated with opaque
size of metallic silver grains are dependent on the emulsion material like paper.
speed of the film and the type of developing solution that is
used
in processing.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSING
Emulsion speed:  Development – process by which  Stop-Bath – halts the  Fixation – makes the
1. Chloride paper – slow speed suited for an invisible latent image in an developer action in developed image permanent
contact printing emulsion is made visible. In black appropriate moment. when it is followed by a
2. Bromide paper – fast speed and is and white emulsion, the image is It also prevents the thorough washing. In this
recommended for projection composed of grains black metallic contamination of the process the un exposed silver

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silver. While in a color emulsion, halide crystals
are dissolved and removed

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3. Chloro-bromide paper – multi speed the developed silver is replaced developer and fixer from the emulsion of the
and could be used in both contact with cyan, yellow and magenta from each other. photographic materials.
printing and enlarging dye.
FORENSIC BALLISTICS
Origin of the Word Ballistics Three Types of Motion:  Ballistics – Science of the motion of the
 Derived from two Greek words: the 1. Direct Motion – forward motion of the bullet or projectile and the condition that affects their
word “ballo” and “ballein” which shots out of the shell by the action of the expansive motion.
literally mean, “to throw;” the term is force of gases from a burning gunpowder.  Motion – Mobility or movement of the
also said to have been derived from the 2. Rotatory Motion – action of the bullet passing projectile from the time it leaves the shell
Roman war machine called “Ballista,” a through a rifled bore barrel firearm which is either empty, it leaves the gun muzzle and until it
gigantic catapult that was used to furl twisted to the left or to the right. reach its target or fall in the ground.
missiles or large object at a distance 3. Translational – action of bullet once it hits a  Projectile – Metallic on non-metallic ball
like target and subsequently ricocheted. which is propelled from a firearm.
stone, dead animal or even dead person.

FAMOUS PERSONALITIES
SAMUEL COLT  Patented the first practical revolver and JOHN M.  Wizard of the modern firearms and pioneered the
maker of the Colt Peace Maker, a famous BROWNING breech loading single shot rifled which was
revolver in adopted
the history. by Winchester.
JOHN C.  Designed and invented the Semi-automatic U.S. MICHAEL  Designed the AK
GARAND Rifle Cal. 30. M1 garand. KALASHINOV
GEORGE HYDE  A well-known expert in the field of SMG, (also JOHN DEAN  Creator of the "modern technique" of handgun
known as grease gun) developed in 1941. "JEFF" COOPER shooting, and an expert on the use and history of
M3A1 (USA). small arms who coined the term “HOPLOPHOBIA”
of
the fear of firearm.
DANIEL B.  Associates of Horace Smith in the making DAVID  Maker of first known Carbine
WESSON of Revolver. WILLIAM
ALEXANDER  Father of the Percussion Powder. COL. CALVIN H.  Father of Modern Ballistics.
JOHN FORSYTH GODDARD
MAJOR UZIEL  Israeli Army who designed UZI (Israel). HORACE SMITH  Founder of the “Smith and Wesson”
GAL
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JOHN T.  Developed in the course of WW1 the BENJAMIN  Conducted various experiment in interior ballistics.
THOMPSON Thompson M1A1 and model of 1928 A1 (USA). ROBINS His findings justifiably gave the right to him to be
Pioneered the making of Thompson Sub- called “Father of Modern Gunnery.”
Machine Gun.
BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS
Interior (Internal) Ballistics Exterior (External) Ballistics
It treats of the motion of the projectile while it is still inside Treats of the attributes or movement of the projectile after leaving the gun muzzle.
the firearm (chamber /barrel) which extends from the 1. Muzzle Blast – noise created at the muzzle point.
breech to the muzzle. It includes: 2. Muzzle Energy – energy generated at the muzzle point.
1. Firing pin hitting the primer 3. Trajectory – actual curve path taken by a bullet during its flight.
2. Ignition of the priming mixture 4. Range – imaginary straight distance between the muzzle of the gun and the target.
3. Combustion of the gun powder/powder charge or a. Accurate - shooter or gunner has control of his shots.
propellant b. Effective - bullet was fired it is still capable of inflicting fatal injury.
4. Expansion of heated gas c. Maximum - farthest distance the bullet could travel.
5. Pressure developed d. Maximum Effective - farthest distance that the bullet can inflict fatal injury.
6. Energy generated • Velocity - rate of speed of the bullet (during its flight) per unit of time.
7. Recoil of the gun – it is the equal and opposite reaction o Revolver 600 ft/sec
of the gun against the forward movement of the bullet o Pistol 1,200 ft/ sec
upon explosion. o Rifle 2,500 ft/ sec
8. Velocity of the bullet inside the barrel - It is the relative o Shotgun 3,300 ft/sec
speed of the bullet per unit of time while it is still inside • Pull of Gravity – downward reaction of the bullet towards the earth surface due to its
the barrel expressed in feet per second. weight.
9. Rotation of the bullet inside the barrelE • Air Resistance – force of the air encounter by the bullet in its flight.
10. ngraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet
Terminal Ballistics Forensic Ballistics
Effects of the impact of the projectile on the target The product of the application of the ballistics to law. The idea comes with the used of
1. Terminal Accuracy – size of the bullet grouping on the the word forensic. The word Forensic was derived from the Latin word “forum” meaning
target. a “market place” where people gathered for public disputation or public discussion.
2. Terminal Energy – energy or force of the projectile when When used in connection with the word ballistics or other natural science, it suggests a
it strikes the target same as striking energy. relationship to the courts of justice or legal proceedings.
3. Terminal Velocity – bullet’s speed upon striking the 1. Field Investigation
target. 2. Technical Examination of the Exhibit
3. Legal Proceeding

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4. Terminal Penetration – depth of entry of the bullet in
the target.

FIREARMS
 Firearms refers to any handheld or portable weapon, weather a small arm or light  Firearm is an instrument used for the propulsion
weapon, that expels or is designed to expel a bullet, shot, slug, missile or any projectile, of projectile by means of the expansive force gases
which is discharged by means of expansive forces of gases from burning gunpowder or coming from burning gunpowder (FBI manual of
other form of combustion or any similar instrument. The barrel, frame or receiver is Firearms Identification).
considered a firearm (Section 3, RA No. 10591).
PARTS OF FIREARM
1. Extractor - Causes the empty shell to be withdrawn /pull out from chamber 4. Center Pin - Serves as the locking device for the cylinder
2. Ejector - Causes the empty shell to be thrown out of the firearm 5. Cylinder – Serve as chamber and magazine.
3. Barrel - Initiates paths of bullet 6. Flash hole – Where the primer imparts ignition to the gun
Stages in the Manufacture of a Barrel: powder.
 Drilling – special deep-hole is used through the center of which lubricating oil is 7. Frame – Houses the internal parts.
forced under pressure. This operation results to a comparatively rough hole of 8. Hammer – Pushes the firing pin.
uniform diameter from one end of the barrel to other.
 Reaming – includes roughly, finishing and burnishing reamer to have smooth 9. Ratchet – Device used to help in the withdrawal of the cartridge
bore barrel. Some of the scars or scratches of
shells from the chamber of the cylinder.
 left by the drilling operation are remove.
10. Trigger – Activates the part necessary to fire the weapon.
 Rifling – Process necessary for the making of the helical grooves inside the barrel.
11. Trigger Guard – Prevents the trigger from unnecessary action to
 Lapping – The polishing operation in which a lead plug closely fitting the inside of
avoid accidental firing.
the barrel is drawn back and forth on a rod carrying with is a polishing
12. Yoke - Connecting pivot between frame and cylinder.
compound.

CHARACTERISTIC OF FIREARM TYPES OF RIFLING

1. Width of the Grooves 1. Steyer type - (4) lands and grooves, right twist, width of the land and
2. Depth of the Grooves groove are equal (4RG=L)
2. Carbine type - four (4) lands and grooves, right twist, the width of the
groove is two (2) times the width of the land (4RG2X)

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3. Bore diameter – distance measured between two opposite lands inside 3. Smith & Wesson - five (5) lands and grooves, right twist, the width of
the bore in a hundredths or thousandths of an inch. In most express in the land and groove are equal (5RG=L)
either caliber in inch or in millimeters. 4. Colt (6) lands and grooves, left twist, the width of the groove is two
4. Number of lands and grooves lands – elevated portion of the bore of (2) times the width of the lands (6LG2X)
the firearm while grooves is depressed portion of the bore between the 5. Browning (6) lands and grooves, right twist, the width of the groove
lands) is two (2) times the width of the lands (6RG2X)
5. Width of the lands – dependent upon the bore diameter of the gun, 6. Webley (7) lands and grooves, right twist, the width of the groove is
grooves, width and number. The lands are the remainders of the three (3) times the width of the land (7RG3X)
circumference after subtracting all the grooves width. 7. Winchester (6) lands and grooves, right twist, the groove is three (3)
6. Pitch of Rifling – twisting of the lands and grooves. It refers to the times the width of the land (6RG3X)
measure of the distance advance by the rifling in order to make a
complete turn inside the barrel.
 Class Characteristics – those properties or attributes of firearms which  Individual Characteristics – those characteristics which are being
can be determined even before the manufacture of the gun determined only after the firearm was already been manufactured
MARKS FOUND ON FIRED BULLETS
1. Land marks – caused by its contact to the elevated portion (lands) of the bore of the firearm.
2. Groove marks – caused by the grooves of the barrel which is the same number as that of the landmarks.
3. Skid marks – due to its forward movement from the chamber to the barrel of the gun before it initially rotates. (REVOLVER)
4. Stripping Marks – from a “loose-fit” barrel wherein the rifling are already been badly worn-out. Worn-out in the rifling of the firearms can be cause
by either chemical reaction brought about by rust (corrosion) or through excessive use (erosion)
5. Shaving Marks – fired from a revolver cause by its forward movement to the barrel that is poorly aligned to the cylinder.
6. Slippage Marks – fired bullets passing through either on oily or oversize barrel.
FIREARM INJURY
MARKS FOUND ON FIRED SHELLS LOOSE CONTACT OR NEAR FIRE
1. Firing Pin Mark – found at the base portion of the cartridge case more specifically 1. Entrance wound maybe a large circular or oval depending
near center of the primer cup in a center fire cartridge or at the rim cavity of a upon the angle of approach of the bullet.
rim- fire cartridge. 2. Abrasion collar or ring is distinct
2. Breech Face Mark – found at the base portion of the shell cause by backward 3. Smudging, burning and tattooing are prominent with
movement to the breech face of the block. singeing of the hair
3. Shearing Mark – “Secondary Firing Pin mark” found in the primer near the firing 4. Muzzle imprint maybe seen depending upon the degree of
pin mark. slapping of the skin of the gun muzzle.
5. There is blackening of the bullet track to a certain depth.

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4. Magazine Lip Mark – caused by the magazine lips during the loading of the 6. Carboxyhemoglobin is present in the wound and
cartridge into the magazine for firing. surrounding areas.
5. Chamber Mark – caused by the irregularities of nips inside the walls of the
chamber.

SHORT RANGE FIRE (1 TO 15 CM. DISTANCE) MEDIUM RANGE (MORE THAN 15CM BUT LESS THAN 60 CM)
1. Edges of the entrance wound is inverted 1. Gunshot wound with inverted edges and with abrasion collar is
2. If within the flame reach (about6 inches in rifle and high powered present.
firearms and less than 3 inches from an ordinary handgun), there is an 2. Burning effect is absent
area of burning. 3. Smudging maybe present if less than 30 cm. distance.
3. Smudging is present due to smoke 4. Gunpowder tattooing is present but of lesser density and has a wider
4. Powder tattooing is present. area of distribution.
5. Abrasion ring or collar is present 5. Contact ring is present.
FIRED MORE THAN 60 CM. DISTANCE SPECIAL CONSIDERATION ON BULLETS:
Gunshot wound is circular or oval depending on the angle of approach with abrasion 1. Souvenir Bullet – bullet has been lodged and has
collar. remained in the body.
Wound of entrance has no burning, smudging or tattooing. 2. Bullet Migration – bullet that is not lodged in a place
Contact ring is present. where it was previously located.
Scorching – caused by the flame or hot gases not by the hot projectiles as is commonly 3. Bullet Embolism – special form of bullet migration when
believed. It is also known as burning or charring. the bullet loses its momentum while inside the chamber
Blackening – caused by the deposition of smoke particles by all types of powders at close of the heart or inside the big blood vessels and carried
ranges. out by the circulating blood to some parts of the body
Tattooing (a.k.a. peppering) – caused by the embedding of unburnt and semi-burnt where it may be lodged.
powder particles into the surface of the target. These particles are slightly heavier than 4. Tandem Bullet – two or more bullet leaving the barrel
the smoke particles. one after another.

ENTRANCE WOUND EXIT WOUND

1. Appear to be smaller than the missile owing to the elasticity of the 1. Usually bigger than the missile (with exemption)
tissue
2. Edges are inverted 2. Edges are everted

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3. Usually oval or round depending upon the angle of approach of the 3. It does not manifest any definite shape
bullet
4. Contusion collar or contact ring is present due to invagination 4. Contusion collar is absent
5. of the skin and spinning of the missile
6. Tattooing or smudging maybe present when firing is near. 5. Always absent
7. Underlying tissues are not protruding 6. Underlying tissues maybe seen protruding from the wound
8. Paraffin test maybe positive 7. Paraffin test always absent

ENTRANCE WOUND EXIT WOUND

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GENERIC TYPES OF FIREARMS
MACHINE GUNS Firearm that is primarily designed for military use.
SUB MACHINE GUN A light, portable form of machine gun, utilizing a pistol size ammunition, having a shoulder stock that may or may not be
folded and designed to be fired with both hands.
SHOULDER ARMS Firearm that were normally fired from the shoulder.
RIFLES Shoulder weapon designed to fire a projectile with more accuracy through a long rifled bore barrel, usually more than 22
inches.
CARBINE Short barrel rifle, with its barrel rifle, measuring not longer than 22 inches. It fires a single projectile though a rifle-bore
either semi-automatic or fully automatic, for every press of the trigger. (NOTE: used by Cavalry)
MUSKETS Ancient smooth-bore and muzzle loading military shoulder arms designed to fire a shots or a single round lead ball. A more
detailed discussion of musketeers can be found on chapter 8 in the discussion of ignition system.
SHOTGUN Smooth bore and a breech loading shoulder arms designed to fire a number of lead pellets or a shots in one charge (FBI
Manual)
PISTOL There were three classes of pistols in the period. The single shot pistol, the semi-automatic and the revolving pistols now
known as the revolver.
REVOLVER Firearm designed to position cartridge into position for firing with the aid of a rotating cylinder serving as its chamber.
There are two types of revolvers according to its mechanical firing action.
SINGLE ACTION Type of revolver that needs a manual cocking of the hammer before squeezing the trigger and the other is Double action, a
type of revolver that does not need manual cocking. Just press the trigger and it both cocked and released the hammer
causing a much faster firing.
MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF GUN
1. Cane gun, knife pistols, cellphone gun, etc. – Devices principally designed for other purpose to which a gun mechanism is incorporated also called as
Freakish gun.
2. Flare Gun – Designed for tracing or sending signals
3. Freakish Gun – Firearm mechanism is attached to prevent easy identification.
4. Gas Gun – Designed from firing tear gas.
5. Harpoon Guns – Barbed spear in hunting large fish.
6. Liberator – U.S. government made smooth bore gun used in Europe during war designed to fire an automatic colt pistol cartridge caliber .45.
7. Multi-Barreled Gun – Containing a number of barrels.
8. Paradox Gun – Contains lands and grooves a few inch from the muzzle point.
9. Tools – Generally used for construction of furniture.

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10. Traps – Used for trapping animals that are fired to woods.
11. Zip Gun – All types of homemade gun.
CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE
According to the Location of the Primer According to Rim
Diameter
1. Pin-Fire – the ignition cap (primer) is concealed inside the cartridge 1. Cartridge with a rim (Rimmed type) – has a diameter more than the
case and has a pin resting upon it. cylindrical portion.
2. Rim Fire – priming mixture is located at the hallow rim of the case 2. Semi-rimless Cartridge (Semi-rimmed type) – diameter of the rim is
can be fired if the cartridge is tuck by the firing pin on the rim of the slightly greater than diameter of body.
case (cavity rim). 3. Rimless Cartridge – based or head of the cartridge has the same
3. Center Fire – cartridge in which primer cup (ignition cap) is centrally diameter as that of the cylindrical portion.
placed in the base of the cartridge case and the priming mixture is 4. Rebated Type – smaller than the body of cartridge case.
exploded by the impact of the firing pin and with the support of the 5. Belted Cartridge – cartridge are attached in a series in a canvass belt for
anvil. successive fires.
Gauge- This is determined by the number of solid lead balls of pure lead, each with diameter of the barrel that can Gauge of Shotgun– unit of
be prepared from one pound of lead. At present the 10-gauge shotgun is considered with the biggest diameter measurement used in shotgun is
while expressed in
the .410 as the smallest one.

BULLETS
 Derived from French word “Boullette” which means a small ball.
GENERAL TYPES OF BULLET
According to the Shape of the Free End According to their Maximum Effect to
the Targets
• Conical – the free end of the bullet is tapering and pointed. • Ball Type – for anti-personnel and general use.
• Hemispherical – the free end is dome like and commonly observed in short firearm. • Armor Piercing – designed to penetrate light
• Wad cutter (Square nose) – the free end is flattened commonly used steel armor.
in Target practices. • Explosive Bullet – small bullet containing a
• Lead Type – basically composed of lead metal. It’s used was due to its density; having a charge of explosive which will detonate on
good weight is a small size and easy for casting. impact.
• Jacketed Type – bullet consisting of the regular lead core, coated with a copper alloy in • Incendiary Bullet – cause fire in a target.
order to prevent lead fouling of the barrel and is generally usedin pistols and other high • Tracer Bullet – capable of leaving visible marks or
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a. Full Jacketed – whole bullet up to the base is enveloped with a metallic jacket to observe the strike of the shot or make
b. Semi Jacketed – made to permit expansion of bullet when it hits a hard object. They adjustment in the event of a miss.
maybe hollow-point bullet.
Purpose of coating in Jacketed Bullet: GENERAL RULE
1. Prevent fouling of bullet 1. Revolver – soft metal round nose bullet
2. To withstand deformity in automatic loading 2. Rifle and Self-loading F/A – full jacketed bullet
3. To prevent deformity when carried and exposed to rough handling. 3. Automatic F/A – semi-jacketed bullet
PROJECTILE (Generic) BULLET (Generic) SLUG
 Object having been fired from  Object having been fired from a  Term used by police occasionally applied to
a weapon or firearm firearm like pistol, revolver and long bullets (just the projectile, never the cartridge as a
arm whole)
AMMUNITION (Generic) CARTRIDGE (Generic)
 Used in charging firearms and ordnance of all kinds  Package consisting of the bullet, primer, cartridge case and gunpowder

CARTRIDGE CASE PRIMER

 also known as “shell or casing” Is the  Also called “CAP” is the ignition system of the cartridge used in a center fire type, containing a highly
metallic or non-metallic tabular sensitive chemical compound that would easily ignite or bursts into flame when struck by the firing
container usually of brass (70% copper pin. It may either be Berdan or Boxer type. It is also known as the percussion cup.
and 30% zinc) designed to unite the  Berdan is a type of primer construction, which was designed in 1860s by Colonel Hiram S. Berdan of the
bullet, primer and the gunpowder into U.S Army Ordinance Department (2 flash hole). Boxer on the other hand, was developed by Col. Edward
one unit M. Boxer of the Royal Laboratory at Woolwich Arsenal in the year 1866 (1 flash hole).
FUNCTIONS OF THE CARTRIDGE CASE PARTS OF THE PRIMER
1. It locates the bullet properly relative to the bore of the firearm. 1. Primer Cup- The brass gilding metal cup which contains the priming
2. It is used to carry the means of ignition. mixture, the disc and the anvil.
3. It provides gas seals at the breech against an unwanted 2. Priming Mixture- Highly sensitive chemical compound which ignites by
escape of propellant gas upon firing. the mechanical blow of the firing pin. It is also called as percussion
4. Serves as waterproof container for the propellant or powder powder.
charge. 3. Anvil- Portion of the primer which provides solid support and absorbs the
5. Acts as the insulator between the propellant and the hot blow of the firing pin causing friction that would initiates ignition.
walls of the chamber in a rapid firing of firearms. 4. Disc- Thin paper or foil which is pressed over the priming mixture in order
to protect it from moisture attack.

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HISTORY OF GUNPOWDER
1. Gunpowder is that mixture of chemicals of various compositions designed to propel the projectile by means of its expansive force of gas when burned.
2. The formula for gunpowder appears in the writings of the 13th-century English monk Roger Bacon.
3. Berthold Schwartz, a German monk of the early 14th century, may have been the first person to employ gunpowder for propelling a projectile.
(NOTE: Black Powder – oldest known explosive, was initially made from saltpeter, charcoal and sulfur)
SMOKELESS GUNPOWDER DETECTION OF GUNSHOT WOUND
A modern type of gunpowder with a clean combustion due to the  Paraffin test was originated in Cuba when Dr. Gonzalo Iturrios first used
nitration process adding additional oxygen that made burning very the paraffin wax for collecting gunpowder residues from a discharge
efficient. (flake, cylindrical, ball or spherical, cut sheet) firearm.
1. Single Base – Basic ingredients is Nitrocellulose (NC)  Teodoro Gonzales of Criminal Identification Laboratory, Mexico City
2. Double Base – Nitrocellulose and 1 to 40% Nitroglycerine (NG) introduced the test in the United States. (BLUE SPECKS POSITIVE RESULT)
3. Triple Base – Nitrocellulose + Nitroglycerine + Nitroguanidine
Substance that Gives False Positive Result in Paraffin Test Factors Affecting Result of Paraffin Examination
1. Fertilizer 1. Type of caliber of ammunition
2. Explosives 2. Length of barrel and Age of gun
3. Tobacco/cigarettes 3. Direction of firing
4. Urine 4. Wind velocity and direction
5. Food samples 5. Humidity/ % of moisture in air
6. Certain cosmetics 6. Use of gloves and when 72 hours has elapsed
Instrument Used in Firearms Identification
 Analytical/Torsion Balance - measure weight of bullet  Chronograph - measure velocity of bullet
 Bullet Comparison Microscope - comparison of fired bullet or shells  Caliper - measure calibre, barrel length, bullet diameter while calibre
is the distance between the lands.
 Bullet Recovery Box -12“ x 12” x 96”, with a hinged to cover and with  Helixometer - measure pitch of rifling
one end open. This long box is filled with ordinary cotton and separated  Taper Gauge - bore diameter
into sections by cardboard petitions.

SALIENT FEATURES OF REPUBLIC ACT 10591

Standards and Requisites for Issuance of and Obtaining a License to Own and Possess Firearms. In order to qualify and acquire a license to own and possess
a firearm or firearms and ammunition, the applicant must be a Filipino citizen, at least twenty-one (21) years old and has gainful work,

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Occupation or business or has filed an Income Tax Return (ITR) for the preceding year as proof of income, profession, business or occupation.
In addition, the applicant shall submit the following certification issued by appropriate authorities attesting the following:
1. The applicant has not been convicted of any crime involving moral turpitude;
2. The applicant has passed the psychiatric test administered by a PNP-accredited psychologist or psychiatrist;
3. The applicant has passed the drug test conducted by an accredited and authorized drug testing laboratory or clinic;
4. The applicant has passed a gun safety seminar which is administered by the PNP or a registered and authorized gun club;
5. The applicant has filed in writing the application to possess a registered firearm which shall state the personal circumstances of the applicant;
6. The applicant must present a police clearance from the city or municipality police office; and
7. The applicant has not been convicted or is currently an accused in a pending criminal case before any court of law for a crime that is punishable with
a penalty of more than two (2) years.
 Authority to Issue License. The Chief of the PNP, through the FEO of the PNP, shall issue licenses to qualified individuals and to cause the
registration of firearms.
Ownership of Firearms and Ammunition by a Licenses Issued to Individuals. Subject to the requirements set forth in this Act and payment of
Juridical Entity. A juridical person maintaining its required fees to be determined by the Chief of the PNP, a qualified individual may be issued the
own security force may be issued a regular license to appropriate license under the following categories;
own and possess firearms and ammunition under the 1. Type 1 license – allows a citizen to own and possess a maximum of two (2) registered
following conditions: firearms;
1. It must be Filipino-owned and duly registered 2. Type 2 license – allows a citizen to own and possess a maximum of five (5) registered
with the Securities and Exchange Commission firearms;
(SEC); 3. Type 3 license – allows a citizen to own and possess a maximum of ten (10) registered
2. It is current, operational and a continuing firearms;
concern; 4. Type 4 license – allows a citizen to own and possess a maximum of fifteen (15) registered
3. It has completed and submitted all its firearms; and
reportorial requirements to the SEC; and 5. Type 5 license – allows a citizen, who is a certified gun collector, to own and possess more
4. It has paid all its income taxes for the year, as than fifteen (15) registered firearms.
duly certified by the Bureau of Internal (NOTE: For Types 1 to 5 licenses, a vault or a container secured by lock and key or other security
Revenue. measures for the safekeeping of firearms shall be required. For Types 3 to 5 licenses, the citizen
must comply with the inspection and bond requirements)
Issuance of License to Manufacture or Deal In Firearms and Ammunition. Registration of Locally Manufactured and Imported Firearms. Local
Any person desiring to manufacture or deal in firearms, parts of firearms or manufacturers and importers of firearms and major parts thereof shall
ammunition thereof, or instruments and implements used or intended to be register the same as follows:
used in the manufacture of firearms, parts of firearms or ammunition, shall • For locally manufactured firearms and major parts thereof, the initial
make an application to: registration shall be done at the manufacturing facility: Provided, That

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• The Secretary of the Department of the Interior and Local Government firearms intended for export shall no longer be subjected to ballistic
(DILG) in the case of an application for a license to manufacture; and identification procedures; and
• The Chief of the PNP in the case of a license to deal in firearms and • For imported firearms and major parts thereof, the registration shall be
firearms parts, ammunition and gun repair. done upon arrival at the FEO of the PNP storage facility.
• License to Possess Ammunition Necessarily Included. The licenses • Use of an Imitation Firearm. An imitation firearm used in the
granted to qualified citizens or juridical entities as provided in Section 9 commission of a crime shall be considered a real firearm as defined
of this Act shall include the license to possess ammunition with a in this Act and the person who committed the crime shall be
maximum of fifty (50) rounds for each registered firearm: Provided; punished in accordance with this Act: Provided, That injuries caused
That the FEO of the PNP may allow more ammunition to be possessed on the occasion of the conduct of competitions, sports, games, or
by licensed sports shooters any recreation activities involving imitation firearms shall not be
• License and Scope of License to Deal – shall be issued by the Chief of punishable under this Act.
the PNP
GROUNDS FOR REVOCATION, CANCELLATION OR SUSPENSION OF LICENSE OR PERMIT
The Chief of the PNP or his/her authorized representative may revoke, cancel or suspend a license or permit on the following grounds:
• Commission of a crime or offense involving the firearm, ammunition, of major parts thereof;
• Conviction of a crime involving moral turpitude or any offense where the penalty carries an imprisonment of more than six (6) years;
• Loss of the firearm, ammunition, or any parts thereof through negligence;
• Carrying of the firearm, ammunition, or major parts thereof outside of residence or workplace without, the proper permit to carry the same;
• Carrying of the firearm, ammunition, or major parts thereof in prohibited places;
• Dismissal for cause from the service in case of government official and employee;
• Commission of any of the acts penalized under Republic Act No. 9165, otherwise known as the "Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002″;
• Submission of falsified documents or misrepresentation in the application to obtain a license or permit;
• Noncompliance of reportorial requirements; and
• By virtue of a court order.
IMPORTANT TERMS
1. Accessories – parts of a firearm which may enhance or increase the operational efficiency or accuracy of a firearm but will not constitute any of the
major or minor internal parts thereof such as, but not limited to, laser scope, telescopic sight and sound suppressor or silencer.
2. Antique Firearm – refers to any of the following: (1) firearm which was manufactured at least seventy-five (75) years prior to the current date but
not including replicas; (2) firearm which is certified by the National Museum of the Philippines to be curio or relic of museum interest; and (3) any
other firearm which derives a substantial part of its monetary value from the fact that it is novel, rare, bizarre or because of its association with
some
historical figure, period or event.

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3. Arms Smuggling – refers to the import, export, acquisition, sale, delivery, movement or transfer of firearms, their parts and components and
ammunition, from or across the territory of one country to that of another country which has not been authorized in accordance with domestic
law
in either or both country/countries.
4. Ballistic coefficient – ability of bullet to maintain its velocity against air resistance.
5. Billiard Ball Ricochet Effect - as the shot begin to separate to each other, there is tendency for one shot to strike another causing changes of shot
course.
6. Confiscated Firearm – refers to a firearm that is taken into custody by the PNP, National Bureau of Investigation (NBI), Philippine Drug Enforcement
Agency (PDEA) and all other law enforcement agencies by reason of their mandate and must be necessarily reported or turned over to the FEO.
7. Demilitarized Firearm – refers to a firearm deliberately made incapable of performing its main purpose of firing a projectile.
8. Firearms Information Management System (FIMS) – refers to a computerized system that establishes a database of the licensee and the registered
firearms information and generates reports which include the printing of license and certificate of registration and disposition.
9. Forfeited Firearm – refers to a firearm that was forfeited by reason of court order as accessory penalty or for the disposition of firearms considered
as abandoned, surrendered, confiscated or revoked in compliance with existing rules and regulations by the FEO.
10. Gun Club – an organization with at least 15 licensed citizens as members, duly registered with and authorized by the FEO which is established for the
purpose of propagating gun safety and responsible gun ownership, proper appreciation and use of firearms by its members, for the purpose of sports
and shooting competition, self-defense and collection purposes.
11. Gunsmith – any person, legal entity, corporation, partnership or business duly licensed by the FEO to engage in the business of repairing firearms.
12. Harrison Gilroy – test used to gather antimony, lead and barium.
13. Imitation Firearm – refers to a replica of a firearm, or other device that is as substantially similar in coloration and overall appearance to an existing
firearm as to lead a reasonable person to believe that such imitation firearm is a real firearm.
14. Integrated Firearms Identification System (IFIS) – computerized firearms identification system used to capture and store into the database unique
identifying characteristics of bullets and cartridge cases for forensic comparison and identification of a particular firearm.
15. Light Weapons – are: Class-A Light weapons which refer to self-loading pistols, rifles, carbines, submachine guns, assault rifles and light machine
guns not exceeding caliber 7.62 mm which have fully automatic mode; and Class-B Light weapons which refer to weapons designed for use by two
(2) or more persons serving as a crew, or rifles and machine guns exceeding caliber 7.62 mm such as heavy machine guns, handheld under barrel and
mounted grenade launchers, portable anti-aircraft guns, portable anti-tank missile and rocket systems, portable launchers of anti-aircraft missile
systems, and mortars of a caliber of less than 100 mm.
16. Loose Firearm – unregistered firearm, an obliterated or altered firearm, firearm which has been lost or stolen, illegally manufactured firearms,
registered firearms in the possession of an individual other than the licensee and those with revoked licenses in accordance with the rules and
regulations.
17. Lucas Test – characteristic smell that decreases in intensity with lapse of time and it is observable immediately after firing.

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18. Metal fouling – when bullet travels in the tight fitting barrel, it is rotated by the lands and grooves, its surface is scraped by the lands and scraping is
ejected for the barrel and strike the target. It may lodge on clotting or may cause small abrasion or superficial lacerations on skin around main
wound.
19. Microgroove riffling – firearm with multiple hallow grooves.
20. Obturation – sealing of gunpowder gas after explosion from escaping so as to maintain high pressure in the firing chamber.
21. Small Arms – intended to be primarily designed for individual use or that which is generally considered to mean a weapon intended to be fired from
the hand or shoulder, which are not capable of fully automatic bursts of discharge, such as a Handgun which is a firearm intended to be fired from
the hand, which includes:
22. Pistol – is a hand-operated firearm having a chamber integral with or permanently aligned with the bore which may be self-loading;
23. Revolver – is a hand-operated firearm with a revolving cylinder containing chambers for individual cartridges.
24. Sodium Rhodizonate Test/Griess Test – test for the presence of nitrates.
25. Tampered, Obliterated or Altered Firearm – any firearm whose serial number or other identification or ballistic characteristics have been
intentionally tampered with, obliterated or altered without authority or in order to conceal its source, identity or ownership.
26. Thermal Weapon Sight – battery operated, uncooled thermal imaging device which amplifies available thermal signatures so that the viewed scene
becomes clear to the operator which is used to locate and engage targets during daylight and from low light to total darkness and operates in
adverse conditions such as light rain, light snow, and dry smoke or in conjunction with other optical and red dot sights.
27. Trigger pressure – amount of force necessary to fire a gun (hair trigger, 1.0 lb. or less.)

LEGAL MEDICINE
FORENSIC MEDICINE LEGAL MEDICINE MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE
 medical science which deals with application of  application of medical knowledge to the  deals with the organization and
medical knowledge to elucidate legal problems purposes of law and justice regulation of the medical profession

BRIEF HISTORY OF LEGAL MEDICINE

MEDICO LEGAL ASPECTS The greater the number of points of similarities and dissimilarities of two persons compared, the greater is the probability for
OF IDENTIFICATION the conclusion to be correct. This is known as the TJIW of Multiplicity of Evidence in Identification.
ORDINARY METHODS OF Characteristics which may easily be changed:
IDENTIFICATION 1. Growth of hair, beard or mustache
2. Clothing

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3. Frequent place of visit
4. Grade of profession
5. Body ornamentations
Characteristics that may not easily be changed:
1. Mental memory Speech
2. Gait – manner of walking
3. Ataxic – foot is raised high, thrown forward and brought down suddenly is seen in persons suffering from
tabes dorsalis.
a. Cerebellar – staggering movement is seen in cerebellar diseases.
b. Cow's Gait – swaying movement due to knock-knee.
c. Paretic – steps are short, the feet are dragged and the legs are held more or less widely apart.
d. Spastic – legs are held together and move in a stiff manner and the toes dragged. (robot)
e. Festinating gait – involuntary movement in short accelerating steps.
f. Frog gait – hopping gait resulting from infantile paralysis.
g. Waddling gait – exaggerated alternation of lateral trunk movement similar to the movement of the duck.
4. Mannerism – habit peculiar to a person
5. Complexion
6. Changes in the eyes
7. Facies – facial expression
8. Hippocratic facies
9. Mongolian facies
10. Facies Leonine
11. Myxedemic facies
12. Left - or right- handedness
13. Degree of nutrition
IDENTIFICATION OF BLOOD AND BLOOD STAINS
PHYSICAL 1. Solubility test: Recent blood shed is soluble in saline solution and imparts a bright red color.
EXAMINATIONS 2. Heat test: Solution of the blood stain when heated will impart a muddy precipitate.
3. Luminescence test: Stains on dark fabric mixed with mud, paint, etc. emit bluish-white luminescence in a dark room
when
sprayed with one of the two solutions: (3-amino-phthalic-acid-hydrazide-HCL or 3-amino-phthalic- acid-hydrazide-HCL)
CHEMICAL 1. Saline extract of the blood stain plus ammonia will give a brownish tinge due to the formation of alkaline hematin.
EXAMINATIONS 2. Benzidine test: A positive result will show blue color.

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3. Guaiacum test (Van Deen's Dyas' or Schombein's Test): If blood is present, a blue color is imparted by the mixture.
4. Phenolphthalein test (Kastle-Meyer Test): A positive result will show a pink color after the addition of hydrogen peroxide.
5. Leucomalachite Green test: It depends upon the fact that leucomalachite green is oxidized to malachite green with a
bluish-green or peacock-blue color by hydrogen peroxide solution.
MICRO-CHEMICAL TESTS 1. Hemochromogen crystal or Tokayama test: Crystals varying from salmon color to dark brown and pink and which are
irregular rhomboids or in clusters, may be seen. This test is positive to any substance containing hemoglobin.
2. Teichmann's blood crystals or Hemin crystals test: Dark Drown rhombic prisms of chloride of hematin are formed. This
is considered as the best of the micro-chemical test.
3. Acetone-haemin of Wagenhaar test: When examined under high power microscope, small dark, dichroic acicular
crystals of acetone-haemin are seen.
BIOLOGIC 1. Precipitin test determine whether the blood is of human origin or not.
EXAMINATIONS
KINDS OF DEATH
 Somatic Death or Clinical Death –  Molecular or Cellular Death – after  “Apparent Death" or "State Of Suspended
complete, persistent and continuous cessation of the vital functions of the body Animation” – transient loss of consciousness or
cessation of the vital functions of the there is still ^animal life among individual temporary cessation of the vital functions of the
brain, heart and lungs which maintain life cells. This is evidence by the presence body on account of disease, external stimulus
and health. of/excitability of muscles and ciliary or other forms of influence.^ It may arise
movements and other functions of especially in hysteria, uremia, catalepsy and
individual cells. electric shock.

METHODS OF DETECTING THE CESSATION OF HEART ACTION AND CIRCULATION

EXAMINATION OF THE HEART EXAMINATION OF THE PERIPHERAL CIRCULATION
1. Palpation of the Pulse 1. Magnus'Test – ligature is applied around the base of a finger with moderate tightness.
2. Auscultation for the Heart Sound at the 2. Opening of Small Artery
Precordial Area 3. Icard's Test – consists of the injection of a solution of fluorescein subcutaneously
3. Flouroscopic Examination 4. Pressure on the Fingernails
4. Use of Electrocardiograph 5. Diaphanous Test – fingers are spread wide and the finger webs are viewed through a strong light.
6. Application of Heat on the Skin
7. Palpation of the Radial Pulse
8. Dropping of Melted Wax

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CESSATION OF RESPIRATION
1. Expose the chest and abdomen and observe the movement during inspiration and expiration.
2. Examine the person with the aid of a stethoscope
3. Examination with a Mirror
4. Examination with a Feather or Cotton Fibers
5. Examination with a Glass of Water
6. Winslow's Test – there is no movement of the image formed by reflecting artificial or sun light on the water or mercury contained in a saucer and
placed on the chest or abdomen if respiration is not taking place.
CHANGES IN THE BODY FOLLOWING DEATH
1. Primary flaccidity or Post-mortem muscular irritability – there is complete relaxation and softening of all the muscles of the body.
2. Post-mortem rigidity or Rigor mortis – 3 to 6 hours after death the muscles gradually stiffen. It usually starts at the muscles of the neck and lower jaw
and spreads downwards to the chest, arms, and lower limbs.
Conditions Stimulating Rigor Mortis
a. Heat Stiffening – if the dead body is exposed to temperature above 75o it will coagulate the muscle proteins and cause the muscles to be
rigid.
b. Cold Stiffening – stiffening of the body may be manifested when the body is frozen, but exposure to warm conditions will make such
stiffening disappear.
c. Cadaveric spasm or instantaneous rigor – instantaneous rigidity of the muscles which occurs at the moment of death due to extreme nervous
tension
3. State of secondary flaccidity or secondary relaxation – after the disappearance of rigor mortis, the muscle becomes soft and flaccid. It does not respond
to mechanical or electrical stimulus. This is due to the dissolution of the muscle proteins which have previously been coagulated during the period of
rigor mortis.
4. Post-mortem Lividity or Cadaveric Lividity or Post-Mortem Suggillation or Post Mortem Hypostasis or Livor Mortis – the stoppage of the heart
action and the loss of tone of blood vessels cause the blood to be under the influence of gravity. Blood begins to accumulate in the most
dependent
portions of the body. (Completed after 12 hours
KINDS OF POST-MORTEM (CADAVERIC) LIVIDITY
• Diffusion lividity – appears during the later stage of its formation when the • Hypostatic Lividity – blood merely gravitates into the most
blood has coagulated inside the blood vessels or has diffused into the tissues of the dependent portions of the body but still inside the blood vessels
body. and
still fluid in form.
• Putrefaction is the breaking down of the complex proteins into simpler components associated with the evolution of foul smelling gasses.
• Marbolization is prominence of the superficial veins with reddish discoloration during the process of decomposition.

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• Mummification is the dehydration of the whole body which results in the shivering and preservation of the body.
• Saponification or Adipocere Formation- is the condition wherein the fatty tissues of the body are transformed to soft brownish-white substance known
as adipocere
PRESUMPTION OF DEATH PRESUMPTION OF SURVIVORSHIP
1. Disputable Presumption: That a person not heard from for seven years, is dead. 1. If both were under the age of 15 years, the older is
2. The absentee shall not be presumed dead for the purpose of opening his succession presumed to have survived.
till after an absence of ten years. 2. If both were above the age of 60, the younger is
3. If he disappeared after the age of seventy-five years, an absence of five years shall presumed to have survived.
be sufficient in order that his succession may be opened. 3. If one is under 15 and the other above 60, the former is
4. A person on board a vessel lost during a sea voyage, or an aeroplane which is presumed to have survived.
missing, who has not been heard of for four years since the loss of the vessel or 4. If both be over 15 and under 60, and the sexes be
aeroplane. different, the male is presumed to have survived, if the
5. A person in the armed forces who has taken part in war, and has been missing for sexes be the same, then the older.
four years. 5. If one be under 15 or over 60, and the other between
6. A person who has been in danger of death under other circumstances and his those ages, the latter is presumed to have survived.
existence has not been known for four years.
MEDICO-LEGAL INVESTIGATION OF DEATH
• Physical Injuries - effects of the • Defense wounds - • Vital reaction - sum total of all reactions of • Wound - the solution of
application of stimulus to the body result of instinctive tissue and organs for which activities of the natural continuity of
reaction of self- living cells are necessary. tissue of the living body
protection
CLASSIFICATION OF WOUNDS
AS TO SEVERITY 1. Mortal wounds
2. Non-mortal wounds
AS REGARDS THE RELATION 1. Coup injury – found at site of the application of force
OF THE SITE OF THE 2. Contre Coup – found opposite the site of the application of force.
APPLICATION OF FORCE AND 3. Coup Contre Coup – found at the site and also opposite the application of force
LOCATION OF INJURY 4. Locus minoris resistancia – found both at the site or opposite the site of the application of the force but in some
areas offering least resistance to the force applied.
5. Extensive Injury – injury involving a greater area beyond the site of the application of force.

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AS TO REGIONS OF ORGANS 1. Serious Physical Injury – incapacitate the subject for more than 30 days
(LEGAL CLASSIFICATION) 2. Less Serious Physical Injury – require medical attendance for 10 days or more but not more than 30 days
3. Slight Physical Injury and Maltreatment – injury that will incapacitate subject and require
medical attendance from 1 to 9 days
a. Incised wound – produced by forcible contact
b. Lacerated Wound – produced by forcible contact of the body with a blunt instrument.
c. Stab Wound – produced by a sharp-pointed and sharp edge instrument.
d. Punctured Wound – produced by a sharp-pointed instruments
e. Wound produced by powder explosion – firearm, Grenade, dynamite, etc.
f. Mutilation – intentional looping or cutting (Castration – reproductive organ)
MUSCULO-SKELETAL INJURIES DEATH BY ASPHYXIA
1. Sprain – partial or complete disruption in the - Term applied to all forms of violent death which results primarily from the interference with the
continuity of a muscular or ligamentous support process of respiration.
of a joint Classifications of Asphyxia:
2. Dislocation – displacement of the articular 1. Hanging
surface of bones. 2. Strangulations
3. Fracture – solution of continuity of bone •Strangulation by ligature
resulting from violence. •Manual strangulation or throttling
4. Strain– over-stretching •Special forms of strangulations: a.) Palmar strangulation; b.) Garroting; c.) Mugging or yoking; d.)
5. Subluxation– Incomplete dislocation Compression of the neck with stick.
3. Suffocation
•Smothering or closing of the mouth and nostrils by solid objects.
•Choking or closing of the air passage by obstruction of its lumen.
4. Asphyxia by submersion or drowning.
5. Asphyxia by pressure on the chest (Traumatic crush asphyxia).
6. Asphyxia by irrespirable gases.

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MEDICO-LEGAL ASPECT OF SEXUAL CRIMES
• Defloration – laceration or rupture of the hymen as a result of sexual intercourse.
• Virginity – condition of a female who has not experienced sexual intercourse and whose genital organs have not been altered by carnal connection
KINDS OF VIRGINITY
1. Moral Virginity – state of not knowing the nature of sexual life and not having experienced sexual relation
2. Physical Virginity – women who have reached sexual maturity but have not experienced sexual intercourse. (Either true or false Physical Virginity)
3. Demi-Virginity – condition of a woman who permits any form of sexual liberties as long as they abstain from rupturing the hymen by sexual act.
4. Virgo Intacta – women who have had previous sexual act or even habitually but had not given birth.

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QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
LEGAL BASIS OF DOCUMENTS
1. People vs. Moreno, CA, 338 O.G. 119: any written document by which a right is established or an obligation is extinguished
2. People vs. Nillosquin, CA, 48 O.G. 4453: every deed or instrument executed by person by which some disposition or agreement is proved, evidenced
or setforth
3. In relation to Criminal Jurisprudence under the Best Evidence rule: any physical embodiment of information or ideas; e.g. a letter, a contract, a
receipt, a book of account, a blur print, or an X-ray plate (Black’s Law Dictionary).
QUESTIONED DOCUMENT DISPUTED DOCUMENT STANDARD DOCUMENT
• One in which the facts appearing • Suggesting that there is an argument or controversy over the • Condensed and compact set of
therein may not be true, and are document, and strictly speaking this is true meaning. In this text, authentic specimens which, if
contested either in whole or part as well as through prior usage, however, “disputed document” adequate and proper, should
with respect to its authenticity, and “questioned document” are used interchangeably to signify contain a cross section of the
identity, or origin a document that is under special scrutiny. material from a known source.
TYPES OF HANDWRITING STANDARDS LEGAL BASIS OF DOCUMENTS WRITINGS WHICH DO NOT CONSTITUTE
DOCUMENTS
1. Collected Standards are KNOWN (genuine) 1. People vs. Moreno, CA, 338 O.G. 119: any 1. A draft of a Municipal payroll which is
handwriting of an individual such as signature written document by which a right is not yet approved by the proper
and endorsements on canceled checks, legal established or an obligation is extinguished. authority (People vs. Camacho, 44 Phil.
papers letters, commercial, official, public and 2. People vs. Nillosquin, CA, 48 O.G. 4453: 484).
private document and other handwriting such every deed or instrument executed by 2. Mere blank forms of official documents,
as letters, memoranda. person by which some disposition or the spaces of which are not filled up
2. Request standards are signature or other agreement is proved, evidenced or set forth. (People vs. Santiago, CA, 48 O.G. 4558).
handwritings (or hand printings) written by an 3. In relation to Criminal Jurisprudence under 3. Pamphlets or books which do not
individual upon request. the Best Evidence rule: any physical evidence any disposition or agreement
NOTE: Post Litem Motan Exemplars - writings embodiment of information or ideas; e.g. a are not documents but are mere
produced by the subject after evidential writings letter, a contract, a receipt, a book of merchandise (People vs. Agnis, 47 Phil.
have come into dispute and solely for the purpose account, a blur print, or an X-ray plate 945).
of (Black’s
establishing his contentions. Law Dictionary).
KINDS OF DOCUMENT
 PUBLIC – Notarized by a  OFFICIAL – Issued by the government  PRIVATE – Executed by  COMMERCIAL – Executed in
notary public or competent or its agents or its officers having the a private person accordance with the Code of

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public official with authority to do so and the offices, without the Commerce or any Mercantile
solemnities required by law. which in accordance with their creation. intervention of a notary Law
public.
HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATION
 Writing – visible result of a very complicated series of acts, being as a  Handwriting – visible effect of bodily movement which is an almost
whole or a combination of certain forms which are very visible result unconscious expression of certain ideas associated with script
of mental and muscular habits acquired by long continued painstaking form.
effort
KINDS OF WRITINGS HANDWRITING STROKE MOVEMENT IN HANDWRITING
1. Cursive – 1. Arc – curved formed inside the top curve of loop as in small letters “h,” “m,” “n,” 1. Finger Movement – usually
connected; writing and “p.” employed by children and
in which one letter 2. Baseline – imaginary alignment of writing illiterates.
is joined to the 3. Beard – rudimentary initial up stroke of a letter 2. Hand Movement – produced by
next. 4. Blunt – beginning and ending stroke of a letter the movement or action of the
2. Script – separated 5. Buckle/Buckleknot – loop made as a flourished which is added to the letters, as in whole hand with the wrist as
or printed writing. small letter "k & b", or in capital letters "A," "K,”,"P;" the horizontal end loop stroke the center of attraction.
3. Block – all CAPITAL that are often used to complete a letter. 3. Forearm Movement –
LETTERS. 6. Diacritic – “t" crossing and dots of the letter "i" and "j." An element added to movement of the shoulder,
complete a certain letter, either a cross bar or a dot. hand and arm with the support
7. Eye/Eyelet/Eyeloop – small loop or curved formed inside the letters. This may occur of the table.
inside the oval of the letters "a, d, o.” 4. Whole Forearm Movement –
8. Hesitation – irregular thickening of ink when writing slows down or stop while the action of the entire arm without
pen take a stock of the position. resting.
9. Hiatus/Pen Jump – gap occurring between a continuous strokes without lifting the NOTE: The muscle involved in
pen. making an upward strokes is
10. Retracing – going back over the stroke extensor, flexor for downward
11. Patching – retouching or going back over a defective portion of a written stroke. strokes.
EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURES
• Signature is the name of a person written by him/her in a document as a sign of acknowledgement.
1. FORMAL – complete correct signature 2. FORMAL – complete correct signature for 3. CARELESS SCRIBBLE – for the mail carrier,
for an important document such as will. an important document such as will. delivery boy or the autograph collector.

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GENUINE SKILLED FORGERY UNSKILLED FORGERY RANDOM FORGERY

KINDS OF FORGERY
SIMPLE No attempt has been made to make a copy of facsimile of the genuine writing.
SIMULATED Forged signature written in free hand. (Most skillful)
TRACED Made by some tracing process or outline form.
Kinds of Tracing Method:
1. Carbon Process – carbon paper is interlined between the genuine signature and the document intended to be forged or placed at
the top
2. Indention Process – intended or canal like outline of the genuine signature. Tracing with considerable pressure the outline of
the signature with a sharp pointed instrument.

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3. Transmitted light Process – strong light directed through the two sheets of paper either from below or behind.
DIFFERENCE OF FORGERY, COUNTERFEITING AND FALSIFICATION
• Counterfeiting – crime of • Falsification – act/process of making • Forgery – act of falsely making or materially altering, with intent to
m a k i n g , circulating or the content/s of a document not the defraud, any writing which if genuine, might be of legal efficacy or
uttering false coins. intended content. the
foundation of a legal liability. (Bank notes/Documents payable to bearer)
IMPORTANT TERMS
1. Actual breakage – Any peculiarity of typewriting caused by actual damage to the type face metal.
2. Altered document – Any form of changes either addition or deletion to an original content of document.
3. Ancient document – A document that is more than 30 years kept in a place where it is normally to be found it genuine and not embellished by any
alteration.
4. Calligraphy - Good writing (Cacography means bad writing).
5. Charred Documents – Partly burned or brittle document (NOTE: Infrared Light is best used in examining charred documents)
6. Cuneiform - The earliest writing system in the world.
7. Clogged typeface - Characterized by dirty print due to constant used without cleaning of the type bar or due to use of new carbon.
8. Digital Signature - Electronic signature consisting of a transformation of an electronic document or an electronic data message using an asymmetric or
public cryptosystem such as that a person having the initial untransformed electric document and the signer’s public key can accurately determine.
9. Electronic Document – Information, data, figures, symbols or other modes of written expression, described or however represented which is received,
recorded, transmitted, stored, processed, retrieved or produced electronically.
10. Elite typeface – Spaced 12 characters to the horizontal inch.
11. Graphometry - Analysis of handwriting by means of comparison and measurement.
12. Insertion or Interlineation - Addition of writing and other material between lines or paragraphs or the addition of whole page to a document.
13. Invisible writing - Writing that has no visible ink strokes made by sympathetic ink such as acids, juice and others.
14. Obliteration – Is the process of smearing over an original writing to make it illegible.
15. Off-its’s-feet – Character outline is not equally printed, that is the printing is heavier in one side than the remainder of the outline of the character.
16. Papyrus – A thick precursor to modern paper made from the pith of the papyrus plant, Cyperus papyrus.
17. Pica typeface – Spaced 10 characters to the horizontal inch.
18. Rebound – Character prints a double impression with the lighter one slightly off set to right or left.
19. Tremor – Weakening of the stroke characterized by wavering or shaky strokes.
20. Twisted letter - A typeface defect in which characters are designed to be printed at a certain angle to the baseline. Once leans to the left, or right of
its proper position.

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21. Vertical malalignment – Character printing above or below of its proper position

TECHNICAL ENGLISH 1 & 2 (SECOND PART & OVERVIEW)

 Technical - having special and usually practical knowledge especially of a mechanical or scientific subject
 Report - an account given of a particular matter, especially in the form of an official document, after thorough investigation or consideration by an
appointed person or body.
 Technical Report – skillful writing of a document containing the account of events after a thorough investigation.
 Police report - document that states all of the facts, circumstances, and timeline of events surrounding an incident executed and used by the police.
 Police Report Writing -backbone of criminal investigation and prosecution.
QUALITIES OF A GOOD POLICE REPORT
1. Accurate - This means that the police report is in exact conformity to fact (errorless). A fact is something that has been objectively verified. Facts
must be reported correctly and without error. If it’s a criminal incident report, the elements of the crime are a must for accuracy.
2. Clear - The language and format in one’s police report must be simple and direct to the point. Clear means plain or evident to the mind of the reader.
3. Complete - A report must answer the “who”, what, when, where, why and how questions (5W’s and 1H).
4. Concise - This means that the police report says much with a few words as possible. Conciseness relates to the elimination of unnecessary words and
does not mean short.
5. Factual - A report must be factual. A fact is something that has been objectively verified and is presented objectively. One must report the facts
correctly and without error.
6. Objective - One must remember that there are always two sides to every story and both sides have the right to be told.
7. Prompt - A report must be completed in a timely manner and submitted at the soonest possible time.
TYPES OF REPORTS
1. Formal reports are carefully structured; they stress objectivity and organization, contain much detail, and are written in a style that tends to
eliminate such elements as personal pronouns.
2. Informal reports are usually short messages with natural, casual use of language. The internal memorandum can generally be described as an
informal report.
3. Informational reports (annual reports, monthly financial reports, and reports on personnel absenteeism) carry objective information from one area
of an organization to another.
4. Analytical reports (scientific research, feasibility reports, and real-estate appraisals) present attempts to solve problems.
5. Proposal Report- variation of problem-solving reports and it is a document prepared to describe how one organization can meet the needs of
another.

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6. Vertical or Lateral Reports- This classification refers to the direction a report travels. Reports that more upward or downward the hierarchy are
referred to as vertical reports; such reports contribute to management control. Lateral reports, on the other hand, assist in coordination in the
organization. A report traveling between units of the same organization level (production and finance departments) is lateral.
7. Internal or External Reports:
8. Internal reports travel within the organization. External reports, such as annual reports of companies, are prepared for distribution outside the
organization.
9. Periodic reports- are issued on regularly scheduled dates. They are generally upward directed and serve management control. Preprinted forms and
computer-generated data contribute to uniformity of periodic reports.
10. Functional Reports- This classification includes accounting reports, marketing reports, financial reports, and a variety of other reports that take their
designation from the ultimate use of the report. Almost all reports could be included in most of these categories. And a single report could be
included
in several classifications.
FORMS OF REPORTS
LETTER FORM MEMORANDUM FORM
Common for reports of five or fewer pages that are directed to Common for short (fewer than ten pages) informal reports distributed within an
outsiders. These reports include all the normal parts of a letter, but organization. The memo format of “Date,” “To,” “From,” and “Subject” is used.
they may also have headings, footnotes, tables, and figures. Personal Like longer reports, they often have internal headings and sometimes have visual
pronouns are used in this type of report. aids.

Common parts of a normal Formal Letter Common parts of a Memorandum:

 Sender’s address – contains the name and address of the Heading – contains the following:
sender of the letter; usually placed on the top most part of TO: (readers' names and job titles)
the letter. FROM: (your name and job title)
 Date - Whoever receives the letter needs to know when DATE: (complete and current date)
the letter was written. SUBJECT: (what the memo is about, highlighted in some way)
 Recipient’s address – contains the full name and exact  Opening – contains the purpose of the memorandum.
address of the recipient of the letter.  Context - is the event, circumstance, or background of the problem you
 Salutation - A “To whom it may concern” or “Dear Sir or are solving.
Madam” is a good way to ensure that your letter goes  Summary - is a brief recounting of the entire memo, including
nowhere discussion/background, conclusions, and recommendation.
 Body – contains the full message of the letter. Stay  Closing/Conclusion - After the reader has absorbed all of your
professional, be clear and concise, and quickly convey the information, you want to close with a courteous ending that states
point of the letter. what action you want your reader to take. Make sure you consider

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 Closing/signature - Stick with a more formal closing such as reader will benefit from the desired actions and how you can make those
“Sincerely” or “Thank you. actions easier.

LEGAL FORMS
Legal form is a prototype of an instrument to be employed in a legal transaction or a judicial proceeding that includes the primary essential matters, the
appropriate technical phrases or terms, and any additional material required to render it officially accurate, arranged in suitable and systematic order, and
conducive to adaptation to the circumstances of the particular case.
COMMON LEGAL FORMS IN THE PHILIPPINES
 COMPLAINT – a sworn written statement charging a person with an offense, subscribed by the offended party, any peace officer, or other public
officer charged with the enforcement of the law violated.
 INFORMATION — an information is an accusation in writing charging a person with an offense, subscribed by the prosecutor and filed with the court.
 AFFIDAVIT - is a formal written statement of facts voluntarily made by an affiant under an oath or a public official such as the notary public or a
person authorized to do so. It will be used to prove the truthfulness of a certain statement in court.
 AFFIANT - the person who swears to the affidavit.
Judicial Affidavit JURAT - refers to an act in which an individual on a single
Contents of judicial Affidavit. - A judicial affidavit shall be prepared in the language known to occasion:
the witness and, if not in English or Filipino, accompanied by a translation in English or 1. Appears in person before the notary public and
Filipino, and shall contain the following: presents an instrument or document;
1. The name, age, residence or business address, and occupation of the witness; 2. Personally known to the notary public or identified
2. The name and address of the lawyer who conducts or supervises the examination of the by the notary public through competent evidence of
witness and the place where the examination is being held; identity as defined by these Rules;
3. A statement that the witness is answering the questions asked of him, fully conscious 3. Signs the instrument or document in the presence
that he does so under oath, and that he may face criminal liability for false testimony or of the notary; and
perjury; 4. Takes an oath or affirmation before the notary
4. Questions asked of the witness and his corresponding answers, consecutively numbered, public as to such instrument or document.
that:
 Show the circumstances under which the witness acquired the facts upon which he The basic form for an affidavit has four (4) parts:
testifies; 1. A statement that the affiant is swearing under oath to
 Elicit from him those facts which are relevant to the issues that the case presents; the truthfulness of the information contained in the
and affidavit
 Identify the attached documentary and object evidence and establish their 2. The information that is being sworn to
authenticity in accordance with the Rules of Court;

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 The signature of the witness over his printed name; and 3. The signature of the affiant
 A jurat with the signature of the notary public who administers the oath or an 4. The attestation of a notary public or other official
officer who is authorized by law to administer the same. authorized to administer oaths

1. Affidavit of Desistance - It means the complainant states that he/she did not really intend to institute the case and that he is no longer interested in
testifying or prosecuting.
2. Affidavit of Recantation – means the witness who previously gave a testimony subsequently declares that his/her statements were not true.
3. Affidavit of Loss - is a written statement that describes the facts concerning the loss of an object, usually a document such as an identification card, a
driver's license, passport, or documents relating to the registration of vehicles.
4. Affidavit of Arresting Officers – a formal written statement of facts executed by the arresting officer/s surrounding an arrest on a specific case. Also
known as Joint Affidavit of Arrest.
5. Affidavit of Witness/es – a written statement about which he/she has knowledge that are relevant to the case, signing the document and swearing
under oath.
 WITNESS - is a person with personal knowledge of a situation or incident.
6. Affidavit of Undertaking - voluntarily executed in order to attest to the truthfulness of the foregoing narration of facts and undertaking under pain of
administrative, criminal and civil liabilities, and for whatever legal purpose it may serve.
7. Affidavit of Disinterested Persons – contains the sworn statements of two disinterested persons clarifying discrepancies in a person’s name. The two
persons who will sign the affidavit should:
 Be disinterested persons or have no interest in the subject-matter of the affidavit.
 Not be related to the person subject of the affidavit
 Have personal knowledge of the facts subject of the affidavit.
DEFINITION OF TERMS:
 Assumption – pertains to the belief of somebody that something is true without having anyproof.
 Affidavit - summary judgment. The kind of affidavit necessary to support a summary judgement is that affidavit from which it may be clearly drawn
that certain facts pleaded by either party are certain, undisputed and indubitable which dispense with the hearing or trial of the case. (PNP
definition).
 After operation report - it is a report that may be rendered after any successful police operation that leads to the arrest of any member or some
members of syndicated crime group.
 After soco report - it is a report rendered by the team leader of the SOCO that conducted the scene of the crime operations, processing or
investigation.
 Agents report - it is a report rendered by a documented agent who answers an intelligence requirement.
 Agreement - Proposal. A proposal remains an offer even if not answered and irrespective of the length of time that has passed. It only becomes an
agreement when accepted by the other party. (PNP definition).
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 Book of account - a book containing charges and showing a continuous dealing with persons generally. To be admissible in evidence, it must be kept
as an account book and the charges made in the usual course of business.
 Case officer - the person responsible for and in charge of the investigation of the case.
 Police blotter - a record or log where all types of operational and under cover dispatches shall be recorded containing the 5 "W" and 1 "H"(Who,
What, Where, When, Why, and How of an information.
 Chronological Order – refers to the arrangement of events and/or actions in the order or byte time of their occurrence.
 Crime Solution Efficiency - means the number of crimes solved after the arrest of the suspects and filing of charges against them.
 Crime Clearance Efficiency - means the number of crimes considered solved because the suspects have been identified and charged but they remain
at large.
 Crime Incidence - the number of crimes reported as index or non-index crimes within a given period.
 Crime Volume - is a basic indicator of the frequency of known criminal activity. It represents the number of reported offenses.
 Crime Trend - represents the percentage change in crime based on data reported in a prior equivalent period.
 Crime Rate - the measure that gives an index of crime occurring in a particular jurisdiction for a specific time period.
 Coherence – means logically or aesthetically consistent so that all the separate facts formation fit together and add up to a harmonious or
credible whole report
 Fact – refers to anything which either through careful observation or investigation, has been proven to exist as to have happened
 Hearsay – pertains to information that is heard from other people.
 Jargon – refers to the language or technical term that is used by a group, profession or culture, especially when the words and phrases are not
understood or used by other people.
 Police Report - report made by the police containing the initial statement made by the victim at the time she or he reported the crime. A police
report consists of a testament, specific details of the event and names of people involved.
 Slang – pertains to the words, expressions and usage that are casual, vivid, racy or playful replacement for standards ones which are often short-
lived and are usually considered unsuitable for formal context
 Summary of information (SOI) - an intelligence report rendered regarding any illegal activity or violation of laws being observed by intelligence
operatives within a given area of responsibility. This is the usual basis of case operations hence, information received should be cared, validated,
countered checked, analyzed and evaluated.
 Spot report - refers to an immediate initial investigative or incident report addressed to higher headquarters pertaining to the commission of the
crime, occurrence of natural or man-made disaster or unusual incidents involving loss of lives and damage of properties.
 Tactical interrogation report - the report rendered by an interrogator which contain the following information
 Tone – is a writer’s attitude toward a subject, an audience and the self

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