Nervous System

As we know, the functions of the organs/organ systems in our body must be

coordinated to maintain homeostasis. Coordination is the process through
which two or more organs interact and complement the functions of one
another. In our body the neural system and the endocrine system jointly
coordinate and integrate all the activities of the organs so that they function in
a synchronised fashion. The neural system provides an organised network of
point-to-point connections for quick coordination. The endocrine system
provides chemical integration through hormones. The neural system of all
animals is composed of highly specialised cells called neurons which can detect,
receive and transmit different kinds of stimuli.

Human Neural System

● The human neural system is divided into two parts :
1. the central neural system (CNS)
2. the peripheral neural system (PNS)
● The CNS includes the brain and the spinal cord and is the site of
information processing and control.
● The PNS comprises all the nerves of the body associated with the CNS
(brain and spinal cord).
● The nerve fibres of the PNS are of two types :
○ (a) afferent fibres
○ (b) efferent fibres
● The afferent nerve fibres transmit impulses from tissues/organs to the
CNS and the efferent fibres transmit regulatory impulses from the CNS to
the concerned peripheral tissues/organs.
● The PNS is divided into two divisions called somatic neural system and
autonomic neural system.
 ● The somatic neural system relays impulses from the CNS to skeletal
muscles while the autonomic neural system transmits impulses from the
CNS to the involuntary organs and smooth muscles of the body.
● The autonomic neural system is further classified into sympathetic
neural system and parasympathetic neural system.
● Visceral nervous system is the part of the peripheral nervous system
that comprises the whole complex of nerves, fibres, ganglia, and plexuses
by which impulses travel from the central nervous system to the viscera
and from the viscera to the central nervous system.

Neuron
● Neurons are the structural and functional unit of the neural system.
● A neuron is a microscopic structure composed of three major parts,
namely, cell body, dendrites and axon .
● The cell body contains cytoplasm with typical cell organelles and certain
granular bodies called Nissl’s granules.
● Short fibres which branch repeatedly and project out of the cell body also
contain Nissl’s granules and are called dendrites. These fibres transmit
impulses towards the cell body.
● The axon is a long fibre, the distal end of which is branched. Each branch
terminates as a bulb-like structure called synaptic knob which possess
synaptic vesicles containing chemicals called neurotransmitters.
● The axons transmit nerve impulses away from the cell body to a synapse
or to a neuro-muscular junction.
● Based on the number of axon and dendrites, the neurons are divided into
three types, i.e., multipolar (with one axon and two or more dendrites;
found in the cerebral cortex), bipolar (with one axon and one dendrite,
 found in the retina of eye) and unipolar (cell body with one axon only;
found usually in the embryonic stage).
● There are two types of axons, namely, myelinated and nonmyelinated.
● The myelinated nerve fibres are enveloped with Schwann cells, which
form a myelin sheath around the axon. The gaps between two adjacent
myelin sheaths are called nodes of Ranvier. Myelinated nerve fibres are
found in spinal and cranial nerves.
● Unmyelinated nerve fibre is enclosed by a Schwann cell that does not
form a myelin sheath around the axon, and is commonly found in
autonomous and the somatic neural systems.
Transmission of Impulses

● A nerve impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another through

junctions called synapses.
● A synapse is formed by the membranes of a pre-synaptic neuron and a
post-synaptic neuron, which may or may not be separated by a gap
called synaptic cleft.
● There are two types of synapses, namely, electrical synapses and
chemical synapses.
● At electrical synapses, the membranes of pre- and post-synaptic neurons
are in very close proximity.
● Electrical current can flow directly from one neuron into the other across
these synapses. Transmission of an impulse across electrical synapses is
very similar to impulse conduction along a single axon.
● Impulse transmission across an electrical synapse is always faster than
that across a chemical synapse. Electrical synapses are rare in our
system.
● At a chemical synapse, the membranes of the pre- and post-synaptic
neurons are separated by a fluid-filled space called synaptic cleft.
● Chemicals called neurotransmitters are involved in the transmission of
impulses at these synapses. The axon terminals contain vesicles filled with
these neurotransmitters.
● When an impulse (action potential) arrives at the axon terminal, it
stimulates the movement of the synaptic vesicles towards the membrane
where they fuse with the plasma membrane and release their
neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft.
● The released neurotransmitters bind to their specific receptors, present on
the post-synaptic membrane.
 ● This binding opens ion channels allowing the entry of ions which can
generate a new potential in the post-synaptic neuron. The new potential
developed may be either excitatory or inhibitory.

Central Neural System

● The brain is the central information processing organ of our body, and
acts as the ‘command and control system’.
● The human brain is well protected by the skull. Inside the skull, the brain is
covered by cranial meninges consisting of an outer layer called dura
mater, a very thin middle layer called arachnoid and an inner layer
(which is in contact with the brain tissue) called pia mater.
● The brain can be divided into three major parts:
○ (i) forebrain
○ (ii) midbrain
○ (iii) hindbrain
Forebrain
● The forebrain consists of cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus.
● Cerebrum forms the major part of the human brain. A deep cleft divides
the cerebrum longitudinally into two halves, which are termed as the left
and right cerebral hemispheres.
● The hemispheres are connected by a tract of nerve fibres called corpus
callosum.
● The layer of cells which covers the cerebral hemisphere is called cerebral
cortex and is thrown into prominent folds.
● The cerebral cortex is referred to as the grey matter due to its greyish
appearance. The neuron cell bodies are concentrated here giving the
colour.
● The cerebral cortex contains motor areas, sensory areas and large
regions that are neither clearly sensory nor motor in function. These
regions called association areas are responsible for complex functions like
intersensory associations, memory and communication.
 ● Fibres of the tracts are covered with the myelin sheath, which constitute
the inner part of the cerebral hemisphere.
● They give an opaque white appearance to the layer and, hence, are called
the white matter. The cerebrum wraps around a structure called
thalamus, which is a major coordinating centre for sensory and motor
signalling.
● Another very important part of the brain called hypothalamus lies at the
base of the thalamus. The hypothalamus contains a number of centres
which control body temperature, urge for eating and drinking.
● It also contains several groups of neurosecretory cells, which secrete
hormones called hypothalamic hormones.
● The inner parts of cerebral hemispheres and a group of associated deep
structures like amygdala, hippocampus, etc., form a complex structure
called the limbic lobe or limbic system.
● Along with the hypothalamus, it is involved in the regulation of sexual
behaviour, expression of emotional reactions (e.g., excitement,
pleasure, rage and fear), and motivation.
Midbrain
● The midbrain is located between the thalamus/hypothalamus of the
forebrain and pons of the hindbrain.
● A canal called the cerebral aqueduct passes through the midbrain.
● The dorsal portion of the midbrain consists mainly of four round swellings
(lobes) called corpora quadrigemina.
Hindbrain
● The hindbrain comprises pons, cerebellum and medulla (also called the
medulla oblongata).
● Pons consists of fibre tracts that interconnect different regions of the
brain. The cerebellum has a very convoluted surface in order to provide
the additional space for many more neurons.
 ● The medulla of the brain is connected to the spinal cord.
● The medulla contains centres which control respiration, cardiovascular
reflexes and gastric secretions.
● Three major regions make up the brain stem; mid brain, pons and medulla
oblongata. The brain stem forms the connections between the brain and
spinal cord.
Reflex action and Reflex Arc
● The entire process of response to a peripheral nervous stimulation that
occurs involuntarily, i.e., without conscious effort or thought and requires
the involvement of a part of the central nervous system is called a reflex
action.
● The reflex pathway comprises at least one afferent neuron (receptor) and
one efferent (effector or excitor) neuron appropriately arranged in a
series.
● The afferent neuron receives signal from a sensory organ and transmits
the impulse via a dorsal nerve root into the CNS (at the level of spinal
cord).
● The efferent neuron then carries signals from CNS to the effector.
● The stimulus and response thus forms a reflex arc as shown below in the
knee jerk reflex.