© 2024-25 Bavacharan GV​ © Cambridge Maths Methods 3-4

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Unit 3 AOS 1

1F - Inverse Functions
●​ If f is classified as a one-to-one function (meaning only one
y-value for each x-value), then a new function, f -1 (inverse of
f), may be defined by:
−1
○​ 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑦 if 𝑓(𝑦) = 𝑥, ​for 𝑥 ∈ ran 𝑓, 𝑦 ∈ dom 𝑓
−1
○​ dom(𝑓 )=ran(𝑓)
−1
○​ ran(𝑓 )=dom(𝑓)
−1 −1
○​ 𝑓 ◦ 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 for all 𝑥 ∈ dom 𝑓
−1
○​ 𝑓 ◦ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 for all 𝑥 ∈ dom 𝑓
−1
○​ The point (𝑥, 𝑦) is on the graph of 𝑓 if and only if
the point (𝑦, 𝑥) is on the graph of 𝑓. Thus the graph
−1
of 𝑓 is the reflection of the graph of 𝑓 in the line
𝑦 = 𝑥.

🧮TI-Nspire Use
-​ Prior to using the calculator, switch the 𝑦 and 𝑥 variables in the equation
-​ Secondly, find the rule for the inverse of a function by solving the equation for 𝑦 (i.e.
solve(equation,y))
-​ Then you want to open a Graphs page and enter the original function (prior to switching the variables)
as 𝑓1(𝑥), then the inverse function (the one that we solved for) as 𝑓2(𝑥), and finally 𝑓3(𝑥) = 𝑥 (refer
to image below as an example)

3D - Combinations of Transformations
A sequence of transformations can be applied, and the rule for transforming points of the plane can be
described. For example, the sequence:
●​ a dilation of factor 3 from the 𝑥-axis
●​ followed by a translation of 2 units in the positive direction of the 𝑥-axis and 3 units in the negative
direction of the 𝑦-axis
●​ followed by a reflection in the 𝑥-axis
can be described by the rule (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥, 3𝑦) → (𝑥 + 2, 3𝑦 − 3) → (𝑥 + 2, 3 − 3𝑦)
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3−𝑦'
Let 𝑥' = 𝑥 + 2 and 𝑦' = 3 − 3𝑦. Then 𝑥 = 𝑥' − 2 and 𝑦 = 3
. The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) maps to
3−𝑦'
3
= 𝑓(𝑥' − 2). That is, the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) maps to the graph of 𝑦 = 3 − 3𝑓(𝑥 − 2)
 3

🧮TI-Nspire Use
-​ Define the Function
-​ Write 𝑦 = [transformed function] on the calculator
-​ The calculator provides the equation of the image of the graph under
this sequence of transformations
-​ The new function can also be entered into the transformation format
in the Graphs page (refer to right for an example)

3E - Determining Transformations
●​ Using DRT (Dilation, Reflection and Transformation) (in that specific
order) can help determine the sequence of transformations used to
transform one function into another
●​ If the equation has to redirect to the original base function, use TRD
(in that specific order)
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3
●​ E.g. Find the sequence of transformations which directs the graph of 𝑦 = 2 + 6 to the graph of
(𝑥−1)
1
𝑦= 2
𝑥
○​ Translation of 1 unit in the negative direction of the 𝑥-axis
○​ Translation of 6 units in the negative direction of the 𝑦-axis
1
○​ Dilation of 3
from the 𝑥-axis

3H - Determining the rule of a Function from its graph

Common rules that can be stated for a specific form:
𝑎
●​ Truncus: 𝑦 = 2 +𝑘
𝑏(𝑥−ℎ)
𝑎
●​ Hyperbola: 𝑦 = 𝑏(𝑥−ℎ) + 𝑘
𝑏(𝑥−ℎ)
●​ Exponential: 𝑦 = 𝑎 +𝑘
𝑛
●​ Parabolic, cubic, quartic, etc.: 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑏(𝑥 − ℎ) ) + 𝑘 (where n can be any positive integer)
●​ Root graph: 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑏(𝑥 − ℎ) + 𝑘
-​ The variables, ℎ and 𝑘, are imposed restrictions on where the graph can or can’t come into contact.

Transformation Notations

5A - Exponential Functions
+ 𝑥
●​ For 𝑎 ∈ ℝ \{1}, the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑎
has the following properties:
○​ The 𝑥-axis is an asymptote.
○​ The 𝑦-axis intercept is 1.
○​ The 𝑦-values are always positive.
○​ There is no 𝑥-axis intercept.
𝑏(𝑥−ℎ)
●​ Transformations can be applied to exponential functions. For example, the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑎 + 𝑘,
1
​ where 𝑏 > 0 can be obtained from the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 by a dilation of factor 𝑏
from the 𝑦
-axis followed by the translation (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥 + ℎ, 𝑦 + 𝑘)

𝑥
5B - 𝑒
1 𝑛
●​ Euler’s Number: 𝑒 = lim (1 + 𝑛
) ≈ 2. 71...
𝑛→∞
 5

●​ This is the natural base for exponential functions

𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑛𝑥
●​ 𝑦 = 𝑒 , 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑛𝑒
𝑛 𝑛
𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑛−1 𝑥
●​ 𝑦 = 𝑒 , 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑛𝑥 𝑒

5C - Exponential Equations
𝑥 𝑦 +
●​ 𝑎 = 𝑎 will imply that 𝑥 = 𝑦,​ for 𝑎 ∈ ℝ \{1}
●​ Index Laws:
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥+𝑦
○​ 𝑎 × 𝑎 = 𝑎
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
○​ 𝑎 ÷ 𝑎 = 𝑎
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥𝑦
○​ (𝑎 ) = 𝑎
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
○​ (𝑎𝑏) = 𝑎 𝑏
𝑥
𝑎 𝑥 𝑎
○​ ( 𝑏 ) = 𝑥
𝑏
−𝑥 1
○​ 𝑎 = 𝑥 and vice versa
𝑎
0
○​ 𝑎 = 1
1
𝑥
○​ 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎
●​ One method for solving an exponential equation, without using a calculator, is first to express both
sides of the equation as powers with the same base and then to equate the indices
𝑥+1 𝑥+1 3
●​ For example: 2 = 8⇔2 =2 ⇔𝑥 + 1 = 3⇔𝑥 = 2
2𝑥 𝑥
●​ Equations such as 3 − 6 × 3 − 27 = 0 can be solved by making a substitution. In this case,
𝑥
substitute 𝑎 = 3 to obtain a quadratic equation with a variable a 𝑎.

5D - Logarithms
𝑥
●​ 𝑦 = 𝑒 is equivalent to
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒(𝑦) = 𝑥
𝑥
●​ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎(𝑎 ) = 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑥) +
●​ 𝑎 𝑎 = 𝑥, 𝑥 = ℝ
●​ The inverse of the exponential
𝑥
function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 is
the logarithmic function
−1 + −1
𝑓 : ℝ → ℝ, 𝑓 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎(𝑥)

●​ Log Laws:
○​ Law 1 - 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎(𝑚𝑛) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎(𝑚) + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎(𝑛)
𝑚
○​ Law 2 - 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎( 𝑛
) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎(𝑚) − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎(𝑛)
𝑝
○​ Law 3 - 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎(𝑚 ) = 𝑝 × 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎(𝑚)
−1
○​ Law 4 - 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎(𝑚 ) =− 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎(𝑚)
 6

○​ Law 5 - 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎(1) = 0 and 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎(𝑎) = 1

●​ To evaluate 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎(𝑦), ask the question: “What power of 𝑎 provides the result of 𝑦

🧮TI-Nspire Use
-​ Type solve(equation,variable you’re trying
to find for)
-​ Note that 𝑙𝑛(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒(𝑥), and is a perfect
alternative. This can be obtained by
𝑥
pressing on the keypad ctrl + 𝑒 (refer to
image right for example)

5E - Graphing Logarithmic Functions

5F - Determining rules for graphs of exponential and logarithmic

functions
 7

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏(𝑥)
●​ Changing Bases formula: 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏(𝑎)

𝑥 (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏𝑎)𝑥
●​ Properties of Inverses: 𝑎 = 𝑏

🧮TI-Nspire Use
-​ Use menu > Algebra > Solve System of
Equations > Solve System of Equations and
complete as shown.
-​ Note: don’t use ‘𝑒’ from the variable

keyboard, but rather . By using the e

from the keyboard, it will be treated as a
variable. (Refer right for example)
 8

5G - Solution of exponential equations using logarithms

●​ E.g.:

●​ An exponential inequality may also be solved by taking 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 of both sides. For 𝑎 > 1, the direction of
the inequality stays the same (as 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎(𝑥) is strictly increasing). For 0 < 𝑎 < 1, the direction of
the inequality reverses (as 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎(𝑥) is strictly decreasing).

🧮TI-Nspire Use
-​ Use menu > Algebra > Solve and complete
as shown.
-​ Convert to a decimal answer using
ctrl+enter or menu > Number > Convert to
Decimal. (refer to right for an example)
-​ If asked, convert to the specific number of
decimal places required

5H - Inverses
𝑥
●​ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎(𝑎 ) = 𝑥 ​ for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎(𝑥) +
●​ 𝑎 = 𝑥​ for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ

🧮TI-Nspire Use
-​ First, rearrange the equation by switching
the 𝑥 and 𝑦 variables
-​ Solve the equation (i.e. solve(equation,y))
to provide an inverse function (refer to
image in right for example)
 9

5I Exponential growth and decay

𝑡

●​ Cell Growth: 𝑁 = 𝑁0 × 2 𝑇 , where 𝑁 is final no. of cells, 𝑁0 is initial no. of cells, 𝑡 is the time
(minutes), and 𝑇 is generation time (minutes)
𝑘𝑡
●​ Population Growth: 𝐴 = 𝐴0𝑒 , where 𝐴0 is the initial population, 𝐴 is the final population, 𝑘 is a
constant, and 𝑡 is time (years, unless specified)
−𝑘𝑡
●​ Population Decay: 𝐴 = 𝐴0𝑒 , where 𝐴0 is the initial population, 𝐴 is the final population, 𝑘 is a
constant, and 𝑡 is time (years, unless specified)

6A - Measuring angles in Degrees (°) and Radians (ᶜ)

●​ Conversion Between Radians to Degrees:
𝑐 180°
○​ 1 = π
●​ Conversion between Degrees to Radians:
𝑐
π
○​ 1° = 180
𝑐
●​ One radian (1 )is the angle subtended at the centre of the unit circle
by an arc of length 1 unit
π
●​ Degrees to Radians, × 180
180
●​ Radians to Degrees, × π

6B - Defining circular functions: sine, cosine and tangent

●​ 𝑃(θ) = (𝑐𝑜𝑠(θ), 𝑠𝑖𝑛(θ))
𝑠𝑖𝑛(θ)
●​ 𝑡𝑎𝑛(θ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(θ)
​ for 𝑐𝑜𝑠(θ) ≠ 0
●​ The circular functions are periodic:
○​ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2π + θ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(θ)
○​ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2π + θ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(θ)
○​ 𝑡𝑎𝑛(π + θ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(θ)
●​ Negative of angles:
○​ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 is an odd function, i.e. 𝑠𝑖𝑛(− θ) =− 𝑠𝑖𝑛(θ)
○​ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 is an even function, i.e. 𝑐𝑜𝑠(− θ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(θ)
○​ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 is an odd function, i.e. 𝑡𝑎𝑛(− θ) =− 𝑡𝑎𝑛(θ)
●​ Exact values:
 10

6C - Further Symmetry Properties and the Pythagorean Identity

●​ Complementary Relationships:
π
○​ 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 2 − θ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(θ)
π
○​ 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 2 − θ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(θ)
π
○​ 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 2 + θ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(θ)
π
○​ 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 2 + θ) =− 𝑠𝑖𝑛(θ)
●​ Pythagorean Identity:
2 2
○​ (𝑐𝑜𝑠(θ)) + (𝑠𝑖𝑛(θ)) = 1

6D - Sine and Cosine Graphs

●​ Sine Function:

●​ Cosine Function

+
●​ For 𝑎 and 𝑛 both being ℝ , the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝑡), 𝑦 =− 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝑡) and
𝑦 =− 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝑡) all features the same properties of:
2π
○​ Period being 𝑛
○​ Amplitude being 𝑎
○​ Maximal domain being ℝ
○​ Range of the function being [− 𝑎, 𝑎]
 11

6E - Solution of Trigonometric Terms

●​ For solving equations of the form 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑡) = 𝑏 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑏:
○​ First find the solutions in the interval [0, 2π]. This can be done using your knowledge of exact
values and symmetry properties, or with the aid of a calculator.
○​ Further solutions can be found by adding and subtracting multiples of 2π.
●​ For solving equations of the form 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝑡) = 𝑏 and 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝑡) = 𝑏:
○​ First substitute 𝑥 = 𝑛𝑡. Work out the interval in which solutions for 𝑥 are required. Then
proceed as in the case above to solve for 𝑥.
●​ Once the solutions for 𝑥 are found, the solutions for 𝑡 can be found.
1
●​ For example: To solve 𝑠𝑖𝑛(3𝑡) = 2
for 𝑡 ∈ [0, 2], first let 𝑥 = 3𝑡. The equation becomes
1
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥) = 2
and the required solutions for 𝑥 are in the interval [0, 6π].

🧮TI-Nspire Use
-​ Degrees mode:

-​ Radians Mode:

6F - Sketch graphs of horizontal translations of trig functions

●​ The graphs, 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛(𝑡 ± ε) and 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛(𝑡 ± ε) are translations of the graphs of of
𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝑡) and 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝑡) respectively
●​ The graphs are translated ∓ ε units parallel to the 𝑡-axis, where ± ε is referred to as the phase

​
6G - Sketch graphs of translations of trig functions
●​ The graphs, 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛(𝑡 ± ε) ± 𝑏 and 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛(𝑡 ± ε) ± 𝑏 are translations of the graphs of
of 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝑡) and 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝑡) respectively
 12

●​ The graphs are translated ∓ ε units parallel to the 𝑡-axis, where ± ε is referred to as the phase.
Additionally, the graphs are also translated ± 𝑏 units parallel to the y-axis.

6I - Determining Rules for Graphs of Circular Functions

●​ Base formula:𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝑥 − ε) + 𝑏

6J - The Tangent Function

●​ The tangent function is given by:
𝑠𝑖𝑛(θ)
○​ 𝑡𝑎𝑛(θ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(θ)
for 𝑐𝑜𝑠(θ) ≠ 0

​ ud means undefined, and therefore an asymptote is present

●​ Exact values that need to be considered:

○​ 𝑡𝑎𝑛(0) = 0
π 1 3
○​ 𝑡𝑎𝑛( 6 ) = = 3
3
π 3
○​ 𝑡𝑎𝑛( 4 ) = =1
3
π
○​ 𝑡𝑎𝑛( 3 ) = 3
π 3
○​ 𝑡𝑎𝑛( 4 ) = =1
3
 13

π
○​ 𝑡𝑎𝑛( 2 ) = 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
●​ Symmetry Properties:
○​ 𝑡𝑎𝑛(π + θ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(θ)
○​ 𝑡𝑎𝑛(− θ) =− 𝑡𝑎𝑛(θ)
●​ The period of 𝑡𝑎𝑛(θ) is π
(2𝑘+1)π
●​ The vertical asymptotes have equations θ = 2
where 𝑘 ∈ ℤ (Integers/ Whole Numbers)
●​ The axis intercepts are at θ = 𝑘π where 𝑘 ∈ ℤ
●​ If sin(nx) = k cos(nx), then tan(nx) = k.

🧮TI-Nspire Use
-​ To solve 𝑥-axis intercepts, enter the equation and the boundaries (minimum and maximum values) (i.e.
solve(equation,𝑥)|minimum (< or ≤) x (< or ≤) maximum) (refer down for example)

6K - General Solution of Trigonometric Equations

●​ By convention:
−1
○​ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 has range [0, π]
−1 π π
○​ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 has range [− 2
, 2
]
−1 π π
○​ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 has range (− 2
, 2
)
●​ For 𝑎 ∈ [− 1, 1], the general solution of the equation 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥) = 𝑎 is ​
−1
𝑥 = 2𝑛π ± 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑎),​ ​ where 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
●​ For 𝑎 ∈ ℝ, the general solution of the equation 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑥) = 𝑎 is ​
−1
𝑥 = 𝑛π + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝑎), ​ ​ where 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
●​ For 𝑎 ∈ [− 1, 1], the general solution of the equation 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑎 is ​
−1 −1
𝑥 = 2𝑛π + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑎) or 𝑥 = (2𝑛 + 1)π − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑎), ​ ​ where 𝑛 ∈ ℤ

🧮TI-Nspire Use
-​ Ensure that the calculator is in radians mode
-​ Solve the equation (i.e. solve(equation,𝑥))
(refer right for example)
-​ Note that fractions are used over
decimals to ensure an exact number is
produced (unless specified otherwise)
 14

1E - Composite Functions
●​ If range of 𝑓 ⊆ domain of 𝑔, the composition 𝑔 ◦ 𝑓 is defined and ​
𝑔 ◦ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) with 𝑑𝑜𝑚(𝑔 ◦ 𝑓) = 𝑑𝑜𝑚 𝑓
●​ If range of 𝑔 ⊆ domain of 𝑓 , the composition 𝑓 ◦ 𝑔 is defined and ​
𝑓 ◦ 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) with 𝑑𝑜𝑚(𝑓 ◦ 𝑔) = 𝑑𝑜𝑚 𝑔
●​ In general, 𝑓 ◦ 𝑔 ≠ 𝑔 ◦ 𝑓.

🧮TI-Nspire Use
-​ Define 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥)
-​ The rules for 𝑓 ◦ 𝑔 and 𝑔 ◦ 𝑓 can
now be found using 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) and
𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) (refer to right for example)

7B - Composite and Inverse Functions

●​ Composition of functions: The composition of 𝑔 with 𝑓 is written 𝑔 ◦ 𝑓 (read ‘composition of 𝑓
followed by 𝑔’) and the rule for the composite function is 𝑔 ◦ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)).
○​ If 𝑟𝑎𝑛 𝑓 ⊆ 𝑑𝑜𝑚 𝑔, then the composition 𝑔 ◦ 𝑓 is defined and 𝑑𝑜𝑚(𝑔 ◦ 𝑓) = 𝑑𝑜𝑚 𝑓.
−1
●​ Inverse functions: If 𝑓 is a one-to-one function, then a new function 𝑓 , called the inverse
●​ of 𝑓, may be defined by
−1
○​ 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑦 if 𝑓(𝑦) = 𝑥, for 𝑥 ∈ 𝑟𝑎𝑛 𝑓 and 𝑦 ∈ 𝑑𝑜𝑚 𝑓
●​ If 𝑓 is strictly increasing, then it is a one-to-one function.
●​ If 𝑓 is strictly decreasing, then it is a one-to-one function.

●​ E.g.
○​ D
 15

9A - The Derivative
𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
●​ Average Rate of Change formula: 𝑏−𝑎
from the two points 𝐴 (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) and 𝐵 (𝑏, 𝑓(𝑏))

●​ The derivative of the function 𝑓 is denoted 𝑓' and is defined by

𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
●​ 𝑓'(𝑥) = lim ℎ
ℎ→0
●​ The tangent line to the graph of the function 𝑓 at the point (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) is defined to be the line through
(𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) with gradient 𝑓'(𝑎).
●​ The value of the derivative of 𝑓 at 𝑥 = 𝑎 can be approximated by
𝑓(𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓(𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎−ℎ)
●​ 𝑓'(𝑎) ≈ ℎ
or 𝑓'(𝑎) ≈ 2ℎ
for a small value of ℎ.

🧮TI-Nspire Use
-​ To calculate a limit, use menu > Calculus > Limit (refer down for example)

Alternatively,
-​ Assign the function 𝑓(𝑥) as shown.

-​ Use menu > Calculus > Limit or the 2D-template palette , and complete as shown.
 16

9B - Rules for Differentiation

𝑛 𝑛−1
●​ For 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 , 𝑓'(𝑥) = 𝑛𝑎𝑥 , where 𝑛 ∈ ℤ\{0}
●​ Constant function: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐, then 𝑓'(𝑥) = 0.
●​ Multiple: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘 × 𝑔(𝑥), where 𝑘 is a constant, then 𝑓'(𝑥) = 𝑘 × 𝑔(𝑥).​
That is, the derivative of a number multiple is the multiple of the derivative.
●​ Sum: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) + ℎ(𝑥), then 𝑓'(𝑥) = 𝑔'(𝑥) + ℎ'(𝑥).​
That is, the derivative of the sum is the sum of the derivatives.
●​ Difference: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) − ℎ(𝑥), then 𝑓'(𝑥) = 𝑔'(𝑥) − ℎ'(𝑥).
That is, the derivative of the difference is the difference of the derivatives.
●​ Angle of inclination of tangent
○​ A straight line, the tangent, is associated with each point on a smooth curve.
○​ If α is the angle that a straight line makes with the positive direction of the x-axis, then the
gradient of the line is given by 𝑚 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(α).
●​ Increasing and decreasing functions
○​ A function 𝑓 is strictly increasing on an interval if 𝑥2 > 𝑥1 implies 𝑓(𝑥2) > 𝑓(𝑥1).
○​ A function f is strictly decreasing on an interval if 𝑥2 > 𝑥1 implies 𝑓(𝑥2) < 𝑓(𝑥1).
○​ If 𝑓'(𝑥) > 0 for all 𝑥 in the interval, then the function is strictly increasing.
○​ If 𝑓'(𝑥) < 0 for all 𝑥 in the interval, then the function is strictly decreasing.
𝑑
●​ Newton and Leibniz Notation (in general, 𝑑𝑥
(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓'(𝑥))

🧮TI-Nspire Use
-​ Finding the Derivative
𝑑
-​ Use menu > Calculus > Derivative and complete as shown. ( 𝑑𝑥 (equation)) (refer below for
example

-​ Alternatively, assign the function 𝑓(𝑥) as shown.

-​ Use menu > Calculus > Derivative to differentiate as shown.
-​ To evaluate the derivative at 𝑥 = 1, use menu > Calculus >
Derivative at a Point. (refer to right for example)
 17

𝑛 −
9C - Differentiating 𝑥 when 𝑛 ∈ ℤ (negative integers)
𝑛 𝑛−1
●​ For 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 , 𝑓'(𝑥) = 𝑛𝑎𝑥 , where 𝑛 is a non-zero integer.
●​ For 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐, 𝑓'(𝑥) = 0, where c is a constant.

9E - The Chain Rule

●​ If 𝑔 is differentiable at 𝑥 and 𝑥 is differentiable at 𝑔(𝑥), then the composite function ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))
is differentiable at 𝑥 and
ℎ'(𝑥) = 𝑓'(𝑔(𝑥)) × 𝑔'(𝑥)
●​ Alternatively, if Leibniz notation is utilised, where 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢),
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑢
× 𝑑𝑥

🧮TI-Nspire Use
-​ First define 𝑔(𝑥) and ℎ(𝑥)
-​ Then define 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(ℎ(𝑥))
-​ Use menu > Calculus > Derivative and complete
as shown. (Refer right for example)

9F - Differentiating Rational
Powers
𝑝 𝑟 𝑟−1
●​ For any non-zero rational number 𝑟 = 𝑞
, if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 , then 𝑓'(𝑥) = 𝑟𝑥 .
●​ It really just follows the same rules as if it were an integer.
 18

𝑥
9G - Differentiation of 𝑒
𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝑥
●​ For 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 , 𝑓'(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑒 , where 𝑘 ∈ ℝ.

ℎ
𝑏 −1
●​ 𝑏 just happens to be Euler’s number, 𝑒 for the equation lim ℎ
ℎ→0

9H - Differentiation of the Natural Logarithm Function

𝑏 𝑑𝑦 𝑎
●​ If 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) for 𝑥 >− 𝑎
, then 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑎𝑥+𝑏
𝑓'(𝑥)
●​ If ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒(𝑓(𝑥), then the chain rule gives ℎ'(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑦 1
●​ 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒(𝑘𝑥), 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥

9I - Derivatives of Circular Functions

●​ If 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ, 𝑓(θ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘θ) , then 𝑓': ℝ → ℝ, 𝑓'(θ) = 𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘θ) .
𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
○​ This can be proved by lim θ = 1
θ→0
●​ If 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ, 𝑓(θ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘θ) , then 𝑓': ℝ → ℝ, 𝑓'(θ) =− 𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘θ) .
 19

2 𝑘
●​ If 𝑓(θ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑘θ), then 𝑓'(θ) = 𝑘 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑘θ) = 2 .
𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑘θ)
1
○​ 𝑠𝑒𝑐θ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ

9D - The graph of the Derivative Function

●​ The graph of the derivative function, 𝑓'(𝑥), shows the rate of change (slope) of the original function,
𝑓(𝑥).
●​ Where 𝑓'(𝑥) > 0, 𝑓(𝑥)is increasing.
●​ Where 𝑓'(𝑥) < 0, 𝑓(𝑥) is decreasing.
●​ Where 𝑓'(𝑥) = 0, 𝑓(𝑥) has a horizontal tangent (potential max, min, or saddle point).
●​ The 𝑦-value of the derivative graph at any 𝑥 is the slope of the tangent to the original graph at that 𝑥.

9J - The Product Rule

●​ Let 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) × 𝑔(𝑥). If 𝑓'(𝑥) and 𝑔'(𝑥) exist, then
○​ 𝐹'(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) × 𝑔'(𝑥) + 𝑓'(𝑥) × 𝑔(𝑥)
●​ Alternatively, if Leibniz notation is being used,
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
○​ 𝑑𝑥
=𝑢 𝑑𝑥
+𝑣 𝑑𝑥

9K - The Quotient Rule

●​ If Leibniz notation is being used,
○​ ​

𝑓(𝑥)
●​ Let 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)
, where 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0. If 𝑓'(𝑥) and 𝑔'(𝑥) exist, then

9L - Limits and Continuity

●​ A function 𝑓 is continuous at the point 𝑥 = 𝑎 if the following conditions are met:
○​ 𝑓(𝑥) is defined at 𝑥 = 𝑎
○​ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎
●​ A function is discontinuous at a point if it is not continuous at that point.
●​ A function is said to be continuous everywhere if it is continuous for all real numbers. All the
polynomial functions are continuous everywhere.
●​ Algebra of limits Assume that both lim 𝑓(𝑥) and lim 𝑔(𝑥) exist.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
○​ lim (𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥)​
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
That is, the limit of the sum is the sum of the limits.
○​ lim 𝑘 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘 lim 𝑓(𝑥), where 𝑘 is a given real number.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
○​ lim (𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) × lim 𝑔(𝑥)​
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
That is, the limit of the product is the product of the limits.
 20

lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎
○​ lim 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑔(𝑥) , provided lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
That is, the limit of the quotient is the quotient of the limits.

9M - When is a function differentiable?

𝑓(𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎)
●​ A function 𝑓 is said to be differentiable at 𝑥 = 𝑎 if lim ℎ
exists.
ℎ→0
●​ If a function is differentiable at a point, then it is also continuous at that point.

10A - Tangents and Normals

●​ Equation of a tangent Suppose (𝑥1, 𝑦1) is a point on the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). Then, if f is differentiable at
𝑥 = 𝑥1, the equation of the tangent to the curve at (𝑥1, 𝑦1) is given by 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑓'(𝑥1)(𝑥 − 𝑥1).
−1
●​ Gradient of normal If a tangent has gradient 𝑚, the normal has gradient 𝑚

🧮TI-Nspire Use
-​ Use menu > Calculus > Tangent Line and complete as
shown.
-​ The equation of the tangent can also be directed in a
Graphs application (refer right for example)

10B - Rates of Change

●​ For the function with rule 𝑓(𝑥):
𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
○​ The average rate of change for 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] is given by 𝑏−𝑎
○​ The instantaneous rate of change of 𝑓 with respect to 𝑥 when 𝑥 = 𝑎 is given by 𝑓'(𝑎)

10C - Stationary Points

●​ A point (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) on a curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be a stationary point if 𝑓'(𝑎) = 0.
𝑑𝑦
●​ Equivalently, a point (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) on 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is a stationary point if 𝑑𝑥
when 𝑥 = 𝑎.

🧮TI-Nspire Use
●​ Use menu > Actions > Define to define 𝑓(𝑥) =
[function].
●​ Define 𝑔(𝑥) to be the derivative ( menu >Calculus >
Derivative) of 𝑓(𝑥) as shown.
●​ Use the simultaneous equations solver ( menu >
Algebra > Solve System of Equations > Solve System
of Equations) to find a, b and c given any following
information (refer to right for example)
 21

10D - Types of Stationary Points

●​ A point (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) on a curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is said to
be a stationary point if 𝑓'(𝑎) = 0.
●​ Types of stationary points
A.​ Point 𝐴 is a local maximum:
●​ 𝑓'(𝑥) > 0 immediately to the left of 𝐴
●​ 𝑓'(𝑥) < 0 immediately to the right of 𝐴.
B.​ Point 𝐵 is a local minimum:
●​ 𝑓'(𝑥) > 0 immediately to the left of 𝐵
●​ 𝑓'(𝑥) < 0 immediately to the right of 𝐵.
C.​ Point 𝐶 is a stationary point of inflection.
●​ Stationary points of types 𝐴 and 𝐵 are referred to
as turning points

🧮TI-Nspire Use
-​ Graph 𝑦 =any function in an appropriate window
( menu > Window/Zoom > Window Settings).
(Refer down for example)

-​ Define 𝑓(𝑥) =any function.

a.​ 𝑓(𝑛) = 𝑟 with 𝑛 and 𝑟 being numbers
b.​ Use solve(𝑓(𝑥) = 0, 𝑥.
-​ Note: Alternatively, menu > Algebra > Zeros can be used to solve
equations equal to zero as shown.
c.​ Find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑛 as shown.
d.​ To find the stationary points, use solve
𝑑
( 𝑑𝑥 (𝑓(𝑥)) = 0, 𝑥)
and then substitute to find the y-coordinate. (Refer right
for example)
 22

-​ Note: Since the function was also defined in the Graphs application as 𝑓1, the name 𝑓1 could have
been used in place of f in these calculations.

​
10E - Absolute Maximum and Minimum values
●​ For a continuous function 𝑓 defined on an interval [𝑎, 𝑏]:
○​ if 𝑀 is a value of the function such that 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑀 for all 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏], then 𝑀 is the absolute
maximum value of the function
○​ if 𝑁 is a value of the function such that 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑁 for all 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏], then 𝑁 is the absolute
minimum value of the function.

10F - Maximum and Minimum Problems

●​ Here are some steps for solving maximum and minimum problems:
○​ Where possible, draw a diagram to illustrate the problem. Label the diagram and designate
your variables and constants. Note the values that the variables can take.
○​ Write an expression for the quantity that is going to be maximised or minimised. Form an
equation for this quantity in terms of a single independent variable. This may require some
algebraic manipulation.
○​ If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is the quantity to be maximised or minimised, find the values of 𝑥 for which
𝑓'(𝑥) = 0.
○​ Test each point for which 𝑓'(𝑥) = 0 to determine whether it is a local maximum, a local
minimum or neither.
○​ If the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is defined on an interval, such as [𝑎, 𝑏] or [0, ∞), check the values of
the function at the endpoints.
 23

Unit 4 AOS 1

10H - Newton’s Method for finding

solutions to equations
Formula:
𝑓(𝑥𝑛) +
𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑓'(𝑥𝑛)
, where 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
 24

11A - Estimating the Area Underneath the graph

Divide the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] on the 𝑥-axis into 𝑛 equal subintervals [𝑥0, 𝑥1], [𝑥1, 𝑥2], [𝑥2, 𝑥3],..., [𝑥𝑛−1, 𝑥𝑛] as
illustrated.
Estimates for the area under the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) between 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏:
●​ Left-endpoint method
𝑏−𝑎
𝐿𝑛 = 𝑛
[𝑓(𝑥0) + 𝑓(𝑥1) +... + 𝑓(𝑥𝑛−1)]
●​ Right-endpoint method
𝑏−𝑎
𝑅𝑛 = 𝑛
[𝑓(𝑥1) + 𝑓(𝑥2) +... + 𝑓(𝑥𝑛)]
●​ Trapezium rule
𝑏−𝑎
𝑇𝑛 = 2𝑛
[𝑓(𝑥0) + 2𝑓(𝑥1) + 2𝑓(𝑥2) +... + 2𝑓(𝑥𝑛−1) + 𝑓(𝑥𝑛)]
These methods are not limited to
situations in which the graph is either
increasing or
decreasing for the whole interval.
They may be used to determine the
area under the curve
for any continuous function on an
interval [𝑎, 𝑏].
●​ Exact area
Let 𝑓 be a continuous
function on a closed interval
[𝑎, 𝑏] such that 𝑓(𝑥) is
positive for all 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏].
The exact area under the
graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) from
𝑥 = 𝑎 to 𝑥 = 𝑏 is called the
definite integral of 𝑓(𝑥)
from 𝑥 = 𝑎 to 𝑥 = 𝑏, and is
𝑏
denoted by ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥.
𝑎

11B - Antidifferentiation - Indefinite Integrals

●​ If 𝐹'(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥), then ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝑐, where 𝑐 is a real number constant.

𝑟+1
𝑟 𝑥
●​ ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑟+1
+ 𝑐, 𝑟 ∈ ℚ\{− 1} (ℚ is a set of rational numbers)

●​ Properties of Antidifferentiation

○​ Sum: ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

○​ Difference: ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

○​ Multiple: ∫ 𝑘 × 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥, where 𝑘 is a real number

 25

𝑟
11C - The Antiderivative of (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
𝑟 1 𝑟+1
●​ ∫(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎(𝑟+1)
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐, 𝑟 ≠− 1

●​ For 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 > 0,​

1 1
○​ ∫ 𝑎𝑥+𝑏
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐

●​ For 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 < 0,
1 1
○​ ∫ 𝑎𝑥+𝑏
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒(− 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏) + 𝑐

●​ For 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 ≠ 0,
1 1
○​ ∫ 𝑎𝑥+𝑏
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒|𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏| + 𝑐

🧮TI-Nspire Use
-​ Use > Calculus > Integral to find the integral of any given
function
-​ This integral can also be accessed using the 2D-template
palette or (refer right for example)
-​ Use > Calculus > Integral to find an antiderivative of any
given function
-​ Add 𝑐 to find the general antiderivative of the give function
-​ Use 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒( ) to determine the value of 𝑐 as shown (refer right for
example)

𝑘𝑥
11D - The Antiderivative of 𝑒
𝑘𝑥
●​ The general antiderivative of 𝑒 is shown as below:
𝑘𝑥 1 𝑘𝑥
○​ ∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘
𝑒 + 𝑐, where 𝑘 ≠ 0

4𝑥 1 4𝑥
●​ E.g. ∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = 4
𝑒 +𝑐
 26

11E - The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus and the Definite Integral

●​ Signed Area:

𝑏
●​ For any continuous function 𝑓 on an interval [𝑎, 𝑏], the definite integral ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 gives the signed
𝑎
area enclosed by the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) between 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏.
●​ Fundamental theorem of calculus
○​ If 𝑓 is a continuous function on the interval [𝑎, 𝑏], then
𝑏
𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [𝐺(𝑥)]𝑎 = 𝐺(𝑏) − 𝐺(𝑎)
𝑎
where 𝐺 is any antiderivative of 𝑓.
●​ Properties of the definite integral
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
○​ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑐
𝑎
○​ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑎
𝑏 𝑏
○​ ∫ 𝑘 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
○​ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝑎
○​ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 =− ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑏

11F - Finding the Area under a Curve

Finding areas:
●​ If 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 for all 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏], then the area of the region contained
between the curve, the 𝑥-axis and the lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 is given
𝑏
by ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
●​ If 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 0 for all 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏], then the area of the region contained
between the curve, the 𝑥-axis and the lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 is given
𝑏
by − ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
●​ If 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) with 𝑓(𝑐) = 0 and 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 for 𝑥 ∈ (𝑐, 𝑏] and
𝑏 𝑐
𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 0 for 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑐), then the area of the shaded region is given by ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + (− ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥)
𝑐 𝑎
 27

11G - Integration of Circular Functions

1
●​ ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 + 𝑎)𝑑𝑥 =− 𝑘
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥 + 𝑎) + 𝑐

π 1 π
○​ E.g. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(3𝑥 + 4
)𝑑𝑥 =− 3
𝑐𝑜𝑠(3𝑥 + 4
)+𝑐

1
●​ ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥 + 𝑎)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 + 𝑎) + 𝑐

π 1 π
○​ E.g. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥 + 3
)𝑑𝑥 = 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥 + 3
)+𝑐

11H - Miscellaneous Exercises

🧮TI-Nspire Use
-​ Use the Integral template from the Calculus menu and complete as displayed below (any function)
 28

11I - The Area of Region Between two

Curves
To find the area of the shaded region bounded by the two curves and the
𝑏
lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏, use ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 −
𝑎
𝑏 𝑏
∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 where 𝑓 and 𝑔 are continuous functions
𝑎 𝑎
on [𝑎, 𝑏] such that 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥) for all 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏].

11J - Applications of Integration

●​ Average Value of a Function
 29

𝑏
1
𝑏−𝑎
× ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 for an interval [𝑎, 𝑏]
𝑎

12D - Algorithms and Pseudocode

This chapter introduces how algorithms and pseudocode can be used in mathematical problem-solving,
especially for approximations and numerical methods in calculus.

Key Concepts:

Algorithms

●​ Defined as a finite, clear sequence of steps to perform a specific task.

●​ Often used in mathematics for solving equations or evaluating functions.

Pseudocode

●​ A way to describe algorithms using a structured but informal syntax.

●​ Bridges the gap between natural language and programming code.

Topic 1: Derivative Approximation

You learn to approximate derivatives using two formulas:

●​ Forward difference:​
𝑓(𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓'(𝑎) ≈ ℎ
●​ Central difference:​
𝑓(𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎−ℎ)
𝑓'(𝑎) ≈ 2ℎ

➡ You are asked to write a pseudocode that compares the two methods as h halves repeatedly (0.5, 0.25,
0.125...) and determines which one converges faster to the true derivative.

Topic 2: Newton’s Method

Used to numerically solve equations like:

𝑓(𝑥) = 0

Given a function 𝑓(𝑥) and its derivative 𝑓'(𝑥), Newton’s method uses:

𝑓(𝑥𝑛)
𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑓'(𝑥𝑛)

The algorithm is implemented with a while loop to update 𝑥 until the function
value is close to 0.

3 2
Example: Solving − 𝑥 + 5𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 4 = 0 starting at 𝑥 = 3. 8

Skills Practised:
 30

●​ Writing and modifying functions in pseudocode.

●​ Using while loops for iterative methods.
●​ Tracking convergence and assessing approximation quality.

📌 Pseudocode Tips:
●​ Use define, for, while, if, return, and indentation to structure logic clearly.
●​ Use desk checks to test your pseudocode by tracking variables manually through iterations.

Unit 4 AOS 2

1D - Sum and Products of Functions

●​ Sum of functions
(𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥), where
𝑑𝑜𝑚(𝑓 + 𝑔) = 𝑑𝑜𝑚 𝑓 ∩ 𝑑𝑜𝑚 𝑔
●​ Difference of functions
(𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥), where
𝑑𝑜𝑚(𝑓 − 𝑔) = 𝑑𝑜𝑚 𝑓 ∩ 𝑑𝑜𝑚 𝑔
●​ Product of functions
(𝑓 · 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) · 𝑔(𝑥), where
𝑑𝑜𝑚(𝑓 · 𝑔) = 𝑑𝑜𝑚 𝑓 ∩ 𝑑𝑜𝑚 𝑔
●​ Addition of ordinates This technique
can be used to help sketch the graph
of the sum of two functions. Key points to consider when sketching 𝑦 = (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥):
○​ When 𝑓(𝑥) = 0, (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥).
○​ When 𝑔(𝑥) = 0, (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥).
○​ If 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are positive, then (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) > 𝑔(𝑥) and (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) > 𝑓(𝑥).
○​ If 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are negative, then (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) < 𝑔(𝑥) and (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) < 𝑓(𝑥).
○​ If 𝑓(𝑥) is positive and 𝑔(𝑥) is negative, then 𝑔(𝑥) < (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) < 𝑓(𝑥).
○​ Look for values of 𝑥 for which 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) = 0.
 31

6H - Addition of Ordinates for Circular Functions

7C - Sum and product of Functions and Addition of Ordinates

13A - Sample Spaces and Probability

●​ The sample space, ε, for a random experiment is the set of all possible outcomes.
●​ An event is a subset of the sample space. The probability of an event 𝐴 occurring is denoted by 𝑃𝑟(𝐴).
●​ Equally likely outcomes If the sample space ε for an experiment contains 𝑛 outcomes, all of which are
1
equally likely to occur, we assign a probability of 𝑛
to each outcome. Then the probability of an event
𝐴 is given by:
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑛(𝐴)
𝑃𝑟(𝐴) = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠
= 𝑛(ε)
●​ Estimates of probability When a probability is unknown, it can be estimated by the relative frequency
obtained through repeated trials of the random experiment under consideration. In this case,
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠
𝑃𝑟(𝐴) ≈ 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠
for a large number of trials
●​ Whichever method of determining probability is used, the rules of probability hold:
○​ 𝑃𝑟(𝐴) ≥ 0 for all events 𝐴 ⊆ ε
○​ 𝑃𝑟(∅) = 0 and 𝑃𝑟(ε) = 1
○​ The sum of the probabilities of all outcomes of an experiment is 1.
 32

○​ 𝑃𝑟(𝐴') = 1 − 𝑃𝑟(𝐴), where 𝐴' is the complement of 𝐴

○​ 𝑃𝑟(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃𝑟(𝐴) + 𝑃𝑟(𝐵) − 𝑃𝑟(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵), the addition rule
●​ If two events 𝐴 and 𝐵 are mutually exclusive (i.e. if 𝐴 and 𝐵 have no outcomes in common), then
𝑃𝑟(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 0 and therefore 𝑃𝑟(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃𝑟(𝐴) + 𝑃𝑟(𝐵)

13B - Conditional Probability and Independence

●​ Conditional probability The probability of an event 𝐴 occurring when it is known that some event 𝐵
has already occurred is called conditional probability and is written 𝑃𝑟(𝐴|𝐵).
●​ In general, the conditional probability of an event 𝐴, given that event 𝐵 has already occurred, is given
by
𝑃𝑟(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
𝑃𝑟(𝐴 | 𝐵) = 𝑃𝑟(𝐵)
if 𝑃𝑟(𝐵) ≠ 0
This formula may be rearranged to give the multiplication rule of probability:
𝑃𝑟(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃𝑟(𝐴 | 𝐵) × 𝑃𝑟(𝐵)
●​ Law of total probability The law of total probability states that, in the case of two events 𝐴 and 𝐵,
𝑃𝑟(𝐴) = 𝑃𝑟(𝐴|𝐵) 𝑃𝑟(𝐵) + 𝑃𝑟(𝐴|𝐵 ') 𝑃𝑟(𝐵' )
●​ Independence Two events 𝐴 and 𝐵 are independent if the occurrence of one event has no effect on the
probability of the occurrence of the other, that is, if
𝑃𝑟(𝐴 | 𝐵) = 𝑃𝑟(𝐴)
●​ Events A and B are independent if and only if
𝑃𝑟(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃𝑟(𝐴) × 𝑃𝑟(𝐵)

13C - Discrete Random Variables

●​ For any discrete probability function 𝑝(𝑥), the following two conditions must hold:
1.​ Each value of 𝑝(𝑥) belongs to the interval [0, 1]. That is,
0 ≤ 𝑝(𝑥) ≤ 1 for all 𝑥
2.​ The sum of all the values of 𝑝(𝑥) must be 1. That is,

∑ 𝑝(𝑥) = 1
𝑥
●​ To determine the probability that X takes a value in the interval from 𝑎 to 𝑏 (inclusive of the bounds),
add the values of 𝑝(𝑥) from 𝑥 = 𝑎 to 𝑥 = 𝑏:

𝑃𝑟(𝑎 ≤ 𝑋 ≤ 𝑏) = ∑ 𝑝(𝑥)
𝑎≤𝑥≤𝑏

13D - Expected Value, Variance and Standard Deviation

●​ The expected value (or mean) of a discrete random variable 𝑋 may be considered as the long-run
average value of 𝑋. It is found by summing the products of each value of 𝑋 and the probability that 𝑋
takes that value. That is,

µ = 𝐸(𝑋) = ∑ 𝑥 × 𝑃𝑟(𝑋 = 𝑥)
𝑥

= ∑ 𝑥 × 𝑝(𝑥)
𝑥
●​ The variance of a random variable 𝑋 is a measure of the spread of the probability distribution about its
mean µ. It is defined as
2 2
σ = 𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑋) = 𝐸[(𝑋 − µ) ]
●​ An alternative (computational) formula for variance is
 33

2 2
𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑋) = 𝐸(𝑋 ) − [𝐸(𝑋)]
●​ The standard deviation of a random variable X is defined as
σ = 𝑠𝑑(𝑋) = 𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑋)
 34

14A: Bernoulli Sequences and the Binomial Probability Distribution

●​ A Bernoulli sequence is a sequence of trials with the following properties:
○​ Each trial results in one of two outcomes, which are usually designated as either a success, 𝑆,
or a failure, 𝐹.
○​ The probability of success on a single trial, 𝑝, is constant for all trials (and thus the probability
of failure on a single trial is 1 − 𝑝).
○​ The trials are independent (so that the outcome of any trial is not affected by the outcome of
any previous trial). m
●​ The number of successes, 𝑋, in sequence of 𝑛 Bernoulli trials is called a
binomial random variable and has a binomial probability distribution, written
𝑋 ∼ 𝐵𝑖(𝑛, 𝑝) and:
𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−𝑥
𝑃𝑟(𝑋 = 𝑥) = ( 𝑥 )𝑝 (1 − 𝑝) ​​ 𝑥 = 0, 1,..., 𝑛

🧮TI-Nspire Use
-​ Press > Probability > Distributions > Binomial PDF and complete the
following instructions
-​ Additionally, you could also directly type the command and the parameter
values (refer right for examples)

14B - The Graph, Expectation and Variance of a Binomial

Distribution
●​ If 𝑋 is the number of successes in 𝑛 trials, each with probability of success 𝑝, then the expected value
and the variance of 𝑋 are given by
○​ 𝐸(𝑋) = 𝑛𝑝
○​ 𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑋) = 𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝)

14C - Finding the Sample Size

 35

🧮TI-Nspire Use
e.g. To find the smallest value of n such that 𝑃𝑟(𝑋 ≥ 2) > 0. 95, where
𝑝 = 0. 48:
-​ Start by rearranging the inequality to form 𝑃𝑟(𝑋≤1) < 0. 05
-​ Press >Probability>Distributions>Inverse Binomial N and
complete the following parameters (refer right for example, matrix is
optional but recommended if you do General Maths)

15A - Continuous Random Variable

●​ A probability density function 𝑓 (or its natural extension) must satisfy the following two properties:
1.​ 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 for all 𝑥
∞
2.​ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 1
−∞
●​ If 𝑋 is a continuous random variable with density function 𝑓, then
𝑏
𝑃𝑟(𝑎 < 𝑋 < 𝑏) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎
which is the area of the shaded region.
●​ Definite integrals may need to be evaluated over unbounded intervals:
𝑎
○​ To integrate over the interval (− ∞, 𝑎], find lim ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥.
𝑘 → −∞ 𝑘
○​ To integrate over the interval [𝑎, ∞), find
𝑘
lim ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥.
𝑘→∞ 𝑎
○​ To integrate over the interval (− ∞, ∞), find lim
𝑘
lim ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥.
𝑘→∞ 𝑘

🧮TI-Nspire Use
-​ The graph is as shown. The piecewise function template
has been used in this example; access the template using
(Refer right for example)

​
 36

15B - Mean and Percentiles for a Continuous Random Variable

●​ For a continuous random variable 𝑋 with probability density function 𝑓:
∞
○​ The mean or expected value of 𝑋 is given by µ = 𝐸(𝑋) = ∫ 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
−∞
∞
○​ The expected value of 𝑔(𝑋) is given by 𝐸[𝑔(𝑋)] = ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
−∞
𝑝
○​ The value 𝑝 of 𝑋 which is the solution of an equation of the form ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑞 is called a
−∞
percentile of the distribution.
○​ Top 25% is another way of saying 75th percentile. The same algorithm can be used for other
percentages

🧮TI-Nspire Use
-​ Assign the function 𝑓 as shown; access the piecewise function
template using
●​ You can leave the last domain blank, and it will
autofill as ‘Else’​
●​ Using fractions will provide an exact answer

15C - Measures of spread

 37

16A - The Normal Distribution

16B - Standardisation and the 68–95–99.7% rule

𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑥−µ

●​ 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
or more simply, in symbols, 𝑧 = σ
 38

16C - Determining Normal Probabilities

●​ 𝑃𝑟(𝑍 > 𝑎) = 1 − 𝑃𝑟(𝑍≤𝑎)
●​ 𝑃𝑟(𝑍 <− 𝑎) = 𝑃𝑟(𝑍 > 𝑎)
●​ 𝑃𝑟(− 𝑎 < 𝑍 < 𝑎) = 1 − 2 𝑃𝑟(𝑍≥𝑎) = 1 − 2𝑃𝑟(𝑍≤ − 𝑎)
𝑚
●​ To find the median probability, the following equation is to be used: ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 0. 5, wherein we
0
want to solve for 𝑚

🧮TI-Nspire Use
-​ Use > Probability > Distributions > Normal Cdf and
complete as shown
-​ When using ∞, press the library function to find the symbol (refer
right for example)
-​ Use > Probability > Distributions > Inverse Normal and
complete as shown (refer below for example)
 39

16D - Solving Problems using the Normal Distribution

🧮TI-Nspire Use
Use >Probability>Distributions>Normal Cdf and complete as shown (Refer down for example)
 40

16E - The Normal Approximation to the Binomial Distribution

●​ µ = 𝑛 × 𝑝
2
●​ σ = 𝑛 × 𝑝(1 − 𝑝)
●​ σ = 𝑛 × 𝑝(1 − 𝑝)

17A - Populations and Samples

●​ A population is the set of all eligible members of a group which we intend to study.
●​ A sample is a subset of the population which we select in order to make inferences about the
population. Generalising from the sample to the population will not be useful unless the sample is
representative of the population.
●​ A sample of size 𝑛 is called a simple random sample if it is selected from the population in such a
way that every subset of size n has an equal chance of being chosen as the sample. In particular, every
member of the population must have an equal chance of being included in the sample.
●​ The population proportion 𝑝 is the proportion of individuals in the entire population possessing a
particular attribute, and is constant.
●​ The sample proportion 𝑝̂ is the proportion of individuals in a particular sample possessing the
attribute, and varies from sample to sample. The sample proportions 𝑝̂ are the values of a random
variable .

17B - The Exact Distribution of the Sample Proportion

●​ The distribution of a statistic which is calculated from a sample is called a sampling distribution.
𝑋
●​ The sample proportion 𝑃ˆ = 𝑛
is a random variable, where 𝑋 is the number of favourable outcomes
in a sample of size 𝑛.
 41

●​ The distribution of 𝑃ˆ is known as the sampling distribution of the sample proportion.

●​ When the population is small, the sampling distribution of the sample proportion 𝑃ˆ can be determined
using our knowledge of selections.
●​ When the population is large, the sampling distribution of the sample proportion 𝑃ˆ can be determined
by assuming that 𝑋 is a binomial random variable with parameters n and p. In this case, the mean and
standard deviation of 𝑃ˆ are given by 𝐸(𝑃ˆ) = 𝑝 and 𝑠𝑑(𝑃ˆ) = 𝑝(1 − 𝑝)

𝑛!
●​ = 𝑥!(𝑥−𝑛)!

17D - Confidence Intervals for the Population Proportion

●​ The value of the sample proportion 𝑝̂ can be used to estimate the population proportion 𝑝. Since this is
a single-valued estimate, it is called a point estimate of 𝑝.
●​ An interval estimate for the population proportion 𝑝 is called a confidence interval for 𝑝.
●​ In general, an approximate 𝐶% confidence interval is given by
𝑝̂(1−𝑝̂) 𝑝̂(1−𝑝̂)
(𝑝̂ − 𝑘 𝑛
, 𝑝̂ + 𝑘 𝑛
)
𝐶
where 𝑘 is such that 𝑃𝑟(− 𝑘 < 𝑍 < 𝑘 = 100
) , and:
●​ 𝑝 is the population proportion (unknown)
●​ 𝑝̂ is a value of the sample proportion
●​ 𝑛 is the size of the sample from which 𝑝̂ was calculated.
●​ The distance between the sample estimate and the endpoints of the confidence interval is called the
margin of error (𝑀) and, for a 𝐶% confidence interval, ​
𝑝̂(1−𝑝̂)
​ 𝑀=𝑘 𝑛
●​ A 95% confidence interval for a population proportion 𝑝 will have margin of error approximately equal
to a specified value of 𝑀 when the sample size is
𝑘 2 * *
𝑛 = ( 𝑀 ) 𝑝 (1 − 𝑝 )
*
○​ where 𝑝 is an estimated value for the population proportion 𝑝.

​
 42

LazyMath UDF Tips

1.​ 🎉Functions
No. Name Syntax Use

1 Asymptotes ⚠ asymp(function, variable) Determines vertical and horizontal

asymptotes

2 Composite Function Check ccheck(Outer, Inner) Checks if a composite exists and

gives maximal domain

3 Discriminant discrim(function, variable, Calculates discriminant of a

15) quadratic

4 Domain and Range ⚠ domrang(function, variable) Finds domain and range (may be
approximated)

5 Intercepts intercepts(function, Finds x- and y-intercepts

variable)

6 Intersects intersects(f1, f2, variable) Finds intersection points of two

functions

7 Intersects with Domain intersectsd(f1, f2, Intersections in restricted domain

variable, lower, upper)

8 Inverse Function inverse(function, variable, Finds the inverse of a function

x in domain of f)

9 Inverse Intersections ⚠ inverse(function, number of Finds parameter k for intersections

intersections) with inverse

10 Angle Between Lines lineang(Line1, Line2, Finds angle between two lines (in
Variable) radians)

11 Unique/None/Infinite Sol. linesolve(Eq1, Eq2) Checks number of solutions of two

lines

12 Property Check pcheck(function, variable, Determines if function satisfies a

LHS, RHS) property

13 Point Information pointinfo(x1, y1, x2, y2) Gradient, midpoint, intercepts,

distance

14 Polynomial Fit polyfit({x1,y1,...}) Fits a polynomial through points

15 Transformations transform(function, Applies given transformations

{transformations}) (symbolic)
 43

16 Transformation Solve ⚠ trans_solve(Original, Image, Finds transformation from f to

Variable) image

17 Bisection ⚠ bisec(function, variable, Bisection method root estimate

lower, upper, iterations)

2.​ 〰️Calculus
No. Name Syntax Use

1 Average Rate of Change avgroc(f, var, lower, upper) Average rate of change between two
x-values

2 Average Value avgval(f, var, lower, upper) Average value of a function

3 Bound Area boundarea(f1, f2, var) Area between two functions

4 Bound Area (Restricted) boundaread(f1, f2, var, Area in restricted domain

lower, upper)

5 Integral Guess intguess(...) Helps estimate values for integration

MCQs

6 Newton’s Method newtons(f, var, x₀, Finds root via Newton's method
iterations)

7 Number of Roots ⚠ nroot(poly, var, param, no. Finds param for a given number of roots
of roots)

8 Number of Stationary Points ⚠ nstp(poly, var, param, no. Finds param for given number of stationary
stp) points

9 Number of Points of Inflection ⚠ npoi(poly, var, param, no. Finds param for given number of POIs
poi)

10 Points of Inflection ⚠ pois(f, var) Finds POIs of a function

11 Sign Table signtab(f, var) Sign test for determining stationary point
nature

12 Stationary Points stps(f, var) Finds SPs of a function

13 Tangent Solve tangsolve(f, var, x₀, y₀) Finds tangent(s) through point

14 Trapezoidal Approximation trapapprox(f, var, lower, Approximate integral using trapezoids

upper, n trapezia)
 44

3.​ 🎲Continuous Probability

No. Name Syntax Use

1 Continuous Conditional Prob. ccondpr(pdf, lower, upper) / Finds conditional probability for continuous
Normal format dist.

2 Confidence Interval confint(n, p̂, .conf) Builds confidence interval with z-score and
error

3 Confidence Interval Solve confintsolve(LB, UB, Solves for sample size or confidence from
n/SD/.conf) CI

4 Continuous Dist. Info ⚠ continfo(f, var, lower, upper) Mean, E(X), Var(X), SD of a PDF

5 Inverse Normal invnormvals(μ, σ, P) Converts prob to value for a normal

distribution

6 Normal Solve normsolve(...) Finds μ or σ based on lower/upper + prob

4.​ 🃏Discrete Probability

No. Name Syntax Use

1 Binomial Solve binomsolve(outcome, p, Finds number of trials

threshold)

2 Discrete Conditional Prob. dcondpr(...) Conditional prob for binomial, table, or

PMF

3 Binomial Dist. Info binominfo(n, p) Mean, variance, SD of binomial dist

4 Hypergeometric CDF hypergeocdf(n, pop, success, Interval probability without replacement

LB, UB)

5 Hypergeometric PDF hypergeopdf(n, pop, success, Specific outcome probability

outcome)

6 Inverse Binomial invbinomial(n, p, prob) Outcome for a known probability

7 Probability Table prtable({outcomes}, {probs}) Mean, variance, SD of probability table

8 Sample Binomial Dist. samplebinom(n, p) Sample prop distribution of binomial dist

 45

9 Sample Binomial Probability samplebinompr(n, p, LB, UB) Prob for sample prop over interval

10 Sample Hypergeometric Dist. samplehypergeo(n, pop, Sample prop dist of hypergeo dist
success)

11 Sample Hypergeometric Prob. samplehyppr(n, pop, success, Prob for sample prop (hypergeo)
LB, UB)

5.​ 👽Miscellaneous
No. Name Syntax Use

1 Column Augment ca(Ans, {variables}) Converts long x/y list into matrix

2 Domain Solve dsolve(eq, var, LB, UB) Solves equations in restricted domain

3 Graph Information graphinfo(f, var, “ ” or Key features of a graph

bounds)

4 Trigonometric Solve ⚠ trigsolve(eq, var, LB, UB) Solves trig equations/inequalities

5 Trigonometry Info ⚠ triginfo(f, var, LB, UB) Amp, period, intercepts, TP, etc.
 46

VCAA Formula Sheet (Updated 2024)