Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22ESC143

MODULE - 2

I . AC Fundamentals:
Syllabus : Generation of sinusoidal voltage, frequency of generated voltage, definition and
numerical values of average value, root mean square value, form factor and peak factor of
sinusoidally varying voltage and current, phasor representation of alternating quantities.

Introduction:
 An Alternating Current is one in which the magnitude and direction of an electrical
quantity changes with respect to time.

Terminologies:
1. Amplitude
 It is the maximum value attained by an alternating quantity. Also called as maximum
or peak value.

2. Time Period (T)

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 It is the Time Taken in seconds to complete one cycle of an alternating quantity.

a
3. Instantaneous Value
 It is the value of the quantity at any instant.

4. Frequency (f)
 It is the number of cycles that occur in one second. The unit for frequency is Hz or
cycles/sec.
 The relationship between frequency and time period can be derived as follows.
 Time taken to complete f cycles = 1 second
 Time taken to complete 1 cycle = 1/f second
T = 1/f

5. Angular Frequency (ω)

 Angular frequency is defined as the number of radians covered in one second(ie the
angle covered by the rotating coil).
 The unit of angular frequency is rad/sec.

Average Value
 The arithmetic average of all the values of an alternating quantity over one cycle is
called its average value

Average value = Area under one cycle = 2 Im / π

Base

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22ESC143

RMS or Effective Value

 The effective or RMS value of an alternating quantity is that steady current (dc) which
when flowing through a given resistance for a given time produces the same amount
of heat produced by the alternating current flowing through the same resistance for
the same time.
Irms = Im / √2
Form Factor

The ratio of RMS value to the average value of an alternating quantity is known as Form
Factor
FF = RMS Value
Average Value

Peak Factor or Crest Factor

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The ratio of maximum value to the RMS value of an alternating quantity is known as the
peak factor

a
PF = MaximumValue
RMSValue

Phasor Representation
 An alternating quantity can be represented using
(i) Waveform
(ii) Equations
(iii) Phasor
 A sinusoidal alternating quantity can be represented by a rotating line called a
Phasor.
 A phasor is a line of definite length rotating in anticlockwise direction at a constant
angular velocity.
Phase
 Phase is defined as the fractional part of time period or cycle through which the
quantity has advanced from the selected zero position of reference.
Phase Difference
 When two alternating quantities of the same frequency have different zero points, they
are said to have a phase difference. The angle between the zero points is the angle of
phase difference.
In Phase
 Two waveforms are said to be in phase, when the phase difference between them is
zero. That is the zero points of both the waveforms are same.

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22ESC143

 The waveform, phasor and equation representation of two sinusoidal quantities which
are in phase is as shown. The figure shows that the voltage and current are in phase.

AC circuit with a pure resistance

Consider an AC circuit with a pure resistance R as shown in the figure. The alternating voltage v is

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given by
v  Vm sin ωt - (1)

The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the resistor is given as VR which is
the same as v.

a
Using ohms law, we can write the following relations

v Vm sin ωt
i R R
i  I m sin ωt ---------------
(2)

V
Where I m
m R

From equation (1) and (2) we conclude that in a pure resistive circuit, the voltage and current are
in phase. Hence the voltage and current waveforms and phasor can be drawn as below.

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22ESC143

Instantaneous power
The instantaneous power in the above circuit can be derived as follows

p  vi
p  (Vm sin ωt )(I m sin ωt )
p  Vm I m sin 2 ωt
Vm I m
p
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V I2
V I
p m m− m
(1 − cos 2ωt )

a 2 2 m cos 2ωt
The instantaneous power consists of two terms. The first term is called as the constant power term
and the second term is called as the fluctuating power term.

Average power
From the instantaneous power we can find the average power over one cycle as follows
π
2 V
1 I V I
m m
P ∫ m
− m
cos 2ωt dωt
2
π 0 2 2
π
2 V
V I 1 I
m − m cos 2ωt dωt
P m
∫ m

2
π
V2 I I0 2
m
P m
 Vm m
2 2 2

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22ESC143

P  V .I
As seen above the average power is the product of the rms voltage and the rms current.

AC circuit with a pure inductance

Consider an AC circuit with a pure inductance L as shown in the figure. The alternating voltage v is
given by

v  Vm sin ω
t Vtuadd ----------(1)

a
The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the inductor is given as VL which is
the same as v.

We can find the current through the inductor as follows

From equation (1) and (2) we observe that in a pure inductive circuit, the current lags behind the
voltage by 90⁰. Hence the voltage and current waveforms and phasors can be drawn as below.

Inductive reactance
The inductive reactance XL is given as

X L  ωL  2πfL
Vm
Im 
XL

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22ESC143

It is equivalent to resistance in a resistive circuit. The unit is ohms ( )

Instantaneous power
The instantaneous power in the above circuit can be derived as follows

P  vi
 (Vm sin ωt) (I m sin (ωt − π / 2))
 −Vm I m sin ωt cos ωt
Vm I m
− sin 2ωt
2
Average power
From the instantaneous power we can find the average power over one cycle as follows

Vtuadd VI
2
π
1 m m
sin 2 ω td
P 2 ∫— ωt
 π

P0
a0 2

The average power in a pure inductive circuit is zero. Or in other words, the power consumed
by a pure inductance is zero.
The voltage, current and power waveforms of a purely inductive circuit is as shown in the figure.

AC circuit with a pure capacitance

q  Cv
q  CVm sin ωt

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22ESC143

𝑑𝑞
i 𝑑𝑡
i  CVmω cos ωt
i  ωCVm sin(ωt  π / 2)
i  I m sin(ωt  π / 2) ---------------(2)

Where I m  ωCVm

Numericals:
1. The equation for an AC voltage is given by V = 0.04Sin (2000t +60)̊. Determine
the frequency, angular frequency, instantaneous voltage when t =160μs.

V = 0.04Sin (2000t +60°) Comparing with general equation

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V = Vm Sin (wt +ø)
w = 2∏f ;

a
f = 2000/2∏ = 318.30Hz.

T = 1/f = 3.14ms

For V = 0.04Sin (2000t +60°) put t = 160μs

V = 0.04Sin (2000(160*10-6) +60°) = 0.034V

2. Calculate the rms value and average value of an alternating quantity represented by

I = 141.42 Sin (314t-30°)

I = Im Sin (θ+φ)

Im = 141.42 A

Irms = Im /√2 = 141.42 /√2 = 99.99A

I av = 2 Im / ∏ = (2*141.42) / ∏ = 90.03A

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22ESC143

3. A pure Inductor of Inductance 20mH is connected across an ac supply of 230V,

50Hz. Find the current drawn by an Inductor.

Solution: L=20 x 10-3 H, V=230V and f=50Hz I=?

w.k.t XL = 2πf L = 2*Π*50*20 x 10-3

XL = 6.284 Ω

Therefore I = 𝑽 𝟐𝟑𝟎
XL =𝟔.𝟐𝟖 = 36.60 A
𝟒

4. The current drawn by pure capacitor 20μF is 1.382 A. connected across an ac

supply of 220V. Find the supply frequency.

Solution: C=20 x 10-6 F, V=220V and I= 1.382A f=?

𝑉 220
w.k.t Xc = =
I 1.382

Therefore
Xc =159.18Ω

Xc =
1

2𝜋𝑓𝐶
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1
f = 2𝜋CX =
c
1
2∗𝝅*159.18*20 x
10 -6 a =49.99 =50Hz

5. A 1mH inductor is connected across 200V 50Hz AC supply. Determine inductive

reactance, current taken by the inductor.

Sol :

Given: L= 1mH, v = 200∟0V, f = 50Hz.

To find: XL =? I =?

Sol:

XL = 2∏fL= 2x ∏x 50 x 1x 10-3 = 0.31 Ω,

I = V / XL= 200∟0/ 0.31 = 645.16∟-90

6. A capacitance of 100µF is connected across a 300V, 50Hz supply. Calculate the

capacitive reactance, current.

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22ESC143

Sol: Given: C = 100µF, V = 300∟0V, f = 50Hz

To find: XC=? I =?

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22ESC143

XC= 1 / 2∏fC = 1/ (2 *∏*50*100*10-6) = 31.83

Ω I = V / XC = 300∟0 / 31.83 = 9.42∟90 A

R-L Series circuit

Consider an AC circuit with a resistance R and an inductance L connected in series as shown in

the figure. The alternating voltage v is given by

v  Vm sin ωt
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The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the resistor is VR and that across
the inductor is VL.

VR=IR is in phase with I

VL=IXL leads current by 90 degrees
a
With the above information, the phasor diagram can be drawn as shown.

The current I is taken as the reference phasor. The voltage VR is in phase with I and the
voltage VL leads the current by 90⁰. The resultant voltage V can be drawn as shown in the
figure. From the phasor diagram we observe that the voltage leads the current by an angle Φ
or in other words the current lags behind the voltage by an angle Φ.

From the phasor diagram, the expressions for the resultant voltage V and the angle Φ can be
derived as follows.

V
VR2  VL2
VR  IR
VL  IX
L
(IR)2  (IX L
V )2
VI R2 
X L2
V
IZ

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22ESC143

Where impedance 2 2
Z R X
L

The impedance in an AC circuit is similar to a resistance in a DC circuit. The unit for impedance
is ohms

Instantaneous power
The instantaneous power in an RL series circuit can be derived as follows

p  vi
p  (Vm sin ωt) (I m sin (ωt − Φ)
Vm I m Vm I m
p cos Φ − cos(2ωt − Φ)
2 2

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a
The instantaneous power consists of two terms. The first term is called as the constant power term
and the second term is called as the fluctuating power term.

Average power
From the instantaneous power we can find the average power over one cycle as follows

2
1π V I V I
P ∫ m m cos Φ − m m cos(2ωt − Φ) dωt
2
π 0 2 2
P Vm I m cos Φ

2
P V m I m cos Φ

2 2
P  VI cos Φ
The voltage, current and power waveforms of a RL series circuit is as shown in the figure.

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22ESC143

As seen from the power waveform, the instantaneous power is alternately positive and negative.
When the power is positive, the power flows from the source to the load and when the power in
negative, the power flows from the load to the source. The positive power is not equal to the
negative power and hence the average power in the circuit is not equal to zero.
From the phasor diagram,

P  VI cos Φ
R
P  (IZ )  I 

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Z
PI2R

a
Hence the power in an RL series circuit is consumed only in the resistance.
The inductance does not consume any power.
Power Factor
The power factor in an AC circuit is defined as the cosine of the angle between voltage and
current i e cosΦ

P = VI cos Φ

The power in an AC circuit is equal to the product of voltage, current and power factor

R-C Series circuit

Consider an AC circuit with a resistance R and a capacitance C connected in series as shown

in the figure. The alternating voltage v is given by

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22ESC143

v  Vm sin ωt
The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the resistor is VR and that
across the capacitor is VC.

VR=IR is in phase with I

VC=IXC lags behind the current by 90 degrees
With the above information, the phasor diagram can be drawn as shown.

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a
The current I is taken as the reference phasor. The voltage VR is in phase with I and the
voltage VC lags behind the current by 90⁰. The resultant voltage V can be drawn as shown
in the figure. From the phasor diagram we observe that the voltage lags behind the current
by an angle Φ or in other words the current leads the voltage by an angle Φ.
R-L-C Series circuit

Consider an AC circuit with a resistance R, an inductance L and a capacitance C connected

in series as shown in the figure. The alternating voltage v is given by

v  Vm sin ωt

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22ESC143

The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the resistor is VR, the voltage
across the inductor is VL and that across the capacitor is VC.
VR=IR is in phase with I
VL=IXL leads the current by 90 degrees
VC=IXC lags behind the current by 90 degrees

With the above information, the phasor diagram can be drawn as shown. The current I is
taken as the reference phasor. The voltage VR is in phase with I, the voltage VL leads the
current by 90⁰ and the voltage VC lags behind the current by 90⁰. There are two cases that
can occur VL>VC and VL<VC depending on the values of XL and XC. And hence there are
two possible phasor diagrams. The phasor VL-VC or VC-VL is drawn and then the resultant
voltage V is drawn.

Three Phase AC circuits

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Syllabus: Advantages of 3-phase power, Generation of 3-phase power, Three-phase balanced
circuits, voltage and current relations in star and delta connections. Measurements of three
phase power using two wattmeter methods.

1.
a
Advantages of three-phase systems:

Three phase transmission lines require much less conductor material. The return
conductor is replaced by single neutral conductor of small size.
2. Three phase machine gives higher output than a single phase machine.
3. Three phase motor develops uniform torque whereas single phase motor develops
pulsating torque.
4. Three phase can generate rotating magnetic field & hence three phase induction motors
are self starting.
5. Three phase system can be used to supply domestic & industrial power.
6. Voltage regulation is better in three phase system compared to single phase supply.
7. Three phase system is more efficient & less expensive compared to single phase system.

Generation of three phase power :

Three phase power is generated using alternator. Alternator contains stator (stationary part)
and rotor (rotating part). The stator is cylindrical in shape and has slots in its inner periphery
as shown in the figure below. The conductors are placed in the slots. They are connected
either in star or delta. Rotor is a magnet with two poles ‘N & S’.

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22ESC143

Generation of three phase emf:

Stator conductors aa' , bb' and cc' are mutually displaced by 1200. As the rotor rotates , the
stator conductor cuts the flux and hence emf is induced in all 3 conductors.

eA = Em sinwt

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eB = Em sin(wt-120)

eC = Em sin(wt-240)

a
Phase sequence :

Phase sequence is the order in which the 3 phase voltages reach their maximum. It is either
'abc' or 'acb' .

'abc' sequence -- waveform 'a' reaches the peak first , followed by 'b' and 'c' .

'acb' sequence -- waveform 'a' reaches the peak first , followed by 'c' and 'b' .

In the figure , phase1 reaches the peak first , followed by 'phase 2' and 'phase 3' .

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22ESC143

Importance of phase sequence :

- 3 phase supply of a particular sequence is given to 3 phase load (static load). If the phase
sequence is changed then the direction of current flow will also change.

- If the 3 phase supply is given to 3 phase induction motor , and if phase sequence is changed

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then the direction of current flow will reverse and also the direction of rotation
changes.

a
Balanced supply and balanced load :

Balanced supply :

If the magnitude of 3 phases are same and are displaced by 1200 it is said to be balanced
supply.

VA = VB = VC VA ≠ VB ≠ VC

All 3 vectors are All 3 vectors are displaced

displaced by 1200 by different angles

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22ESC143

Balanced load: If the impedances in all the three phases are equal in magnitude, then the load
is said to be balanced.

Relation between line & phase values of balanced star connections:

Let IR, IY, IB → Line Currents

VRY, VYB, VBR → Line Voltages

VR, VY, VB → Phase Voltages

Phase voltage is the voltage between line & neutral

Line voltage is the voltage between any two lines

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a
VL = √𝟑Vp IL = IPH

Relation between line & phase values of balanced delta connections:

Let IR, IY, IB → Line currents

IRY, IYB, IBR → Phase Currents

IL = √𝟑 Iph VL = Vph

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22ESC143

Numericals on Single & Three Phase AC Circuits

1. A circuit having a resistance of 12Ω inductance of 0.15H in series is connected across
a 100V, 50Hz supply. Calculate the inductive reactance, impedance, current.

Given: R = 12Ω, L = 0.15H, v = 100∟0V, f = 50Hz,

To calculate: XL = ?,Z = ?, I =?,
XL = 2∏fL= 2x ∏x 50 x 0.15= 47.1 Ω
Z = R + j XL = 12+ j 47.1 =48.6∟75.70 Ω
V=IZ
I = V / Z = 100∟0 / 48.6∟75.70 Ω

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= 2.05∟-75.70A

a
2. A circuit having a resistance of 12Ω inductance of 0.15H and a
capacitance of 100µF in series is connected across a 100V,
50Hz supply. Calculate the impedance, current, power factor.

3. A series circuit with resistance of 10ohms, inductance of 0.2 H and

capacitance 40micro F is supplied with a 100 V supply at 50 Hz. Find
current, power and power factor

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22ESC143

Z = R – j (Xc- XL) = 10-j 16.74 = 19.49∟-59.14

• I = V / Z = 100∟0 / 19.49∟-59.14 = 5.13∟59.14A
• Power factor = Cos (59.14) = 0.512
• P= VI cosФ =100*5.13*0.512 = 262.65W

4. A resistance of 100 ohms is connected in series with an inductance of 1mH in

each phase of a 400V star connected 50Hz three phase supply. Calculate inductive
reactance (ii) impedance per phase (iii) Total current (iv) power factor (v) active
power

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(vi) reactive power (vii) apparent power.
Given: R = 100, L = 1mH, VL= 400V, f= 50Hz
To Find: XL =? Zph =? Vph = ? , IL = Iph =? , Cos Φ =? , P = ?, Q=?,S =?

a
XL = 2*𝜋*f*L = 2* Π* 50*1*10-3 = 0.314

Zph = R + j XL = 100+j0.314 = 100 ∟0.179

V ph = VL / √3 = 400 / √3 = 230.94 V

IL = I ph = V ph / Z ph = 230.94 ∟0/ 100 ∟0.179 = 2.3 ∟-0.179 A

Cos Φ = Cos ( -0.179) = 0.99,

P = √3 VL IL Cos Φ = √3* 400 * 2.3 *0.99 = 1577.55W

Q = √3 VL IL Sin Φ = √3 * 400*2.3* sin (-0.179) = - 4.97VAR,

S = √3 VL IL = √3 *400*2.3= 1593.48VA.

5. A resistance of 50 ohms is connected in series with a capacitance of 150micro farad

in each phase of a 450V delta connected 50Hz three phase supply. Calculate
capacitive reactance (ii) impedance per phase (iii) line current and phase current (iv)
power factor (v) active power (vi) reactive power (vii) apparent power.

XC= 1 / 2∏fC = 1/ (2 *∏*50*150*10-6) = 21.22 Ω

Z ph= R – j Xc =50-j21.22 = 54.31∟-22.99

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22ESC143

I ph = V ph / Zph = 450∟0 / 54.31∟-22.99 = 8.28 ∟22.99 A

IL = √3Iph = √3 * 8.28 = 14.34 ∟22.99 A.

Cos Φ = cos (22.99) = 0.92

P = √3 VL IL Cos Φ = √3* 450 * 14.34 *0.92 = 10282.76W,

Q = √3 VL IL sin Φ = √3* 450 * 14.34 *0.39 = 4359VAR

S = √3 VL IL = √3 *450 * 14.34 = 11176.92VA

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a

Dept of EEE, SVIT