You can sell freeware applications

True
False.
A combination of several programs sold as one package.
Integrated software.
Standalone software.
Productivity suits.
All of the above.
A set of programs that manage and coordinate computer resources
Backup utility
Operation system
Word processing
File management
Storage type that stores files online on a remote server is called:
Cloud storages
External Storages
Internal storages
Magnetic storages
The component that holds and maintains data in computer:
Storage device
Storage media
Processor
Motherboard
Read Only device describes the device that can only read data without
changing it:
True
False
Upgrade is the process of fixing problems and errors in a program:
True
False
Specific Application is another description for the vertical application:
True
False
One of the following does not belong to the list:
PIT
Platter
LAND
Optical
Bander needs to reduce file size, he shall use
Program utility
Compression utility
Driver utility
Backup utility
Smartphone is a telephone with computing capabilities:
True
False
One of the following does not belong to the list:
Ms. Office
Adobe suite
Corl word perfect office
Paint
The number of layers that CD has
2 layers
5 layers
3 layers
4 layers
Mobile contains 2 operating systems that deal with software and other
support the hardware
True
False
The result of processing is called:
Data
Processor
Information
Storage
A set of programs that manage and coordinate computer resources
Backup utility
Operating system
Word processing
File management
One of the following is not an organization computer:
Server
Super Computer
Tablet
Mainframe
The slowest storage solution is:
Hard drive
Solid-state Drive
Tape Drive
20 Tera RAM
To do a task, the processor uses the data that is stored on:
SSD
HDD
RAM
CD
RAM is not volatile memory:
True
False
This Value -11001- on a CD is mapped as:
Red
Pit-Pit-Land-Land-Pit
Land-Land-Pit-Pit-Land
Blue
Before playing the sound via speakers, it has to get converted into:
Digital
VRAM
Analog
RAMV
Printers with hammers that strike on a ribbon to leave the ink on paper:
Laser printer
None impact printer
Inkjet printer
Impact printer
Ali installs software that he can use only for 30 days free, this software is
mostly a:
Commercial software
Freeware software
Shareware software
All the above
Your personal computer operating system represents:
Real-time OS
Single user-single task OS
Single user-multi task OS
Multi-users OS
In computers, colors are represented as:
GBR
RGB
BGR
RGG
Program that is used to copy computer contents to another media:
Program utility
Compression utility
Driver utility
Backup utility
00FF00 hexadecimal represents:
Pure Blue
Pure Red
White
Pure Green
One of the following is not correct about Hard disk:
Random access
Read-only
Read and write
Magnetic
Computer saves data and information only permanently:
True
False
Ali just bought the “Smart-Draw” application to use in only on one PC, he
obtained:
Single-seat license
Site license
Volume license
None of the above
One of the following operation systems comes with an optional GUI:
Windows 98
IOS
Android
Linux
A set of chips that act as a temporary workspace in the computer:
Memory
CD
Hard drive
Mother Board
Productivity suits are the best solution to save you the hassle of buying
several applications separately:
True
False
ROM stands for:
Random Only Memory
Read-Only Memory
Random Optical Memory
Read Optical Memory
____________used o input text by speaking into a microphone:
Command
Stylus
Speech-recognition software
Handwriting-recognition software
RAM loses its contents when the power is off
True
False
Each track is divided into segments, that’s called:
Sectors
Sections
Cylinders
Platters
Computer represent texts using ASCII or Unicode:
True
False
Ahmed installed a creative common application called “Jamx” that’s mean he
can use all “Jamx” application features for free:
True
False
Saud Wants to install SUMADI, According to this requirement can Saudi install
it on his 40 SSD, Windows 10 and 265 RAM pc:

SUMADI system requirements:

• Windows 8 or above.
• Microsoft office.
• 40 GB SSD
• 128 RAM

Yes, he can.
No, he can’t.

The process of removing an application from the computer is known as:

Compress
Uninstall
Install
Reinstall
Joystick and touchpad are output devices:
True
False
One of the following is not a hexadecimal number:
A5
BB
5A
M1
The main types of software are:
Hardware and software
System software and application
Operating system and utilities
JAVA and Python
The software that is specialized in one task is known as:
Integrated software
Standalone software
Productivity suits
All the above.
Multiple answers can be selected in check box options:
True
False
The software that combines several features from many programs, is known
as:
Integrated software
Standalone software
Productivity suits
All of the above
One byte contains:
8 bits
4 bits
8 kb
4 kb
“In term of memory, Mega is larger than Giga:
True
False
General-purpose Application is another description for the vertical
applications:
True
False
One of the following is a magnetic storage device:
Hard drive
Solid-state drive
Tape drive
CD
Occurs when a file is broken into pieces that are saved in different places on a
hard drive.
File fragmentations
File checking
File system
File extinction
One of the following does not belong to the list:
Ms. Word application ‫ الن الكل يصنف‬dream clinic ‫سبب اختيار‬
Vertical ‫ ماعداه هو يصنف‬horizontal
Google chrome application
Dream-clinic billing application
Ms excel application
Integrated software is the best solution when the user is interested in some
feature in several programs:
True
False
The power option that copies data from the RAM to the Hard Disk is
Hibernate
Restart
Stand by
Format
One advantage of having VRAM is:
Free up space in the computer’s memory
Convert digital to analog
Achieving medical records in digital format
All the above
A type of computer that is used b only one user at a time:
Servers
Mainframe
PC
Supercomputer
The process of repairing an application on the computer is known as:
Compress
Uninstall
Install
Reinstall
System requirement for any application can be:
Software requirements only
Hardware requirements only
Both A+B
None of the answers
The process of adding and setting up an application to the computer is known
as
Compress
Uninstall
Install
Reinstall
The amount of time it takes for the device to begin reading the data:
Access time
Read/write head
Data transfer rate
RAM
SSD is faster than hard disk
True
False
One disk in the hard disk is called:
Sector
Cylinder
Platter
Segment
This type of software includes programs that allow you to use the computer to
listen to music or play games:
System software
Operation system
System utilities
Application software
One of the following would have more errors than the others:
Commercial software
Freeware software
Public IP software
Public domain software
Saud want an application but he had to pay the full price before using it this
software mostly is:
Commercial software
Freeware software
Shareware software
All of the above
Storage device is the components that hold and maintain data in a computer:
Ture
False
One of the following does not belong to the list
Android
IOS
Ms. Dos
Windows phone

The process of moving from Android to IOS can be described as:

Update
Upgrade
Backup
None
Ali is using a software that he can access its code and alter it; this software is
mostly a:
Integrated software
Open-source software
Productivity suits software
Platform software
Separate piece of hardware connected to the computer via plug port or
wireless connection
Peripherals
RAM
OS
CPU
Omar discovers a lot of temporary files in his PC, to clear them he would use:
Program utility
Disk cleaner utility
Delete utility
Backup utility
One Cathode ray tube disadvantages:
Heavy and take up a lot of desk space
Very light and have a flat-screen
Produce sharp images
All of the above
The_____ connects hardware and allow data to travel from one device to
another
Motherboard
Software
CPU
RAM
Which of the following is considered an operating system:
Unix
Excel
PowerPoint
Web browser
GUI stands for:
Graphical User Interface
Graphical User Image
Graphical User Icon
Graphical Utilities Interface
“The reason for using File Compression is” Many answers:
Make file transmitting faster
Make it easier to find the file
To stop hacking
To meet the email attachment size
Web applications are very useful and they need to be installed on the
computer:
True
False

Video capture card converts video images into digital and compress it:
True
False
Software documentation can help in:
Make an application vertical
Troubleshoot problems
Obtain a site license
Create a new version
Bander just connects a new scanner to his PC, he shall run:
Compression utility
Driver utility
Backup utility
Program utility
One of the following does not belong to the list:
Windows 10
Unix
Excel
Disk clean up tool
The numbering system that is used usually to represent colors in computers
is:
Binary
Decimal
Octal
Hexadecimal

SEU bought AcadmyBoost so all the employees can use it on their computers,
SEU mostly applied for:
Single-seat license
Site license
Single-user license
None of the above
One of the following does not belong to the list:
CPU
Keyboard
Scanner
Printer
One of the following is an impact printer:
Laser printer
Dot matrix printer
Inkjet printer
All of the above
The second operation in computer-using life cycle is:
Input
Storage
Processing
Output
Modern video adapter contains extra processor called GPU:
True
False

The storage device that can read any saved data and modify it is called:
Read only device
Read and write device
Sequential device
Random device
To check he hard disk status and discover bad sectors, you need to run:
Disk cleaner
Disk scanner
Disk defragmenter
Disk format
The best description for multi-user system OS:
Allow the computer to perform several jobs at the same time for one user
Let one person do one task at a time
Allow many individuals to use one large computer
Used at home mostly
In magnetic disks, data is organized on the platter in concentric sets of rings
that’s called:
Points
Tracks
Head
Block
One of the following is a sequential device:
Hard drive
Solid-state drive
Tape drive
CD

POST stands for:

Power on self-test
Power one self-task
Power on some-test
Power on some-task
Game controller is a common output device that is used in gaming:
True
False
One of following is not a binary data:
1110000
1011100
1111211
0110111
The computer that has 4 processors is called:
Dual
Quad
Single
Double
Trackball is output device:
True
False
SSD is fast because it does not use file fragment:
True
False

ASCII code and Unicode are common system for coding:

Letters and Texts
Pictures
Voices
Videos
Select the jobs of the operating system, many answers:
Manage CPU and memory
Provide computer with power
Provide user interface
Cool down the computer.
Operating system can create and move folders with the help of utility:
True
False
One of the LCD advantages:
Heavy and take up a lot of desk space
Very light and have a flat-screen
Produce low-quality images
All of the above.
Unix is an example of a multiuser-multitask operating system:
True
False
Productivity suites and integrated software are the same as they combine
several features:
True
False

The component that reads the

stored data in the computer:
Storage device
Storage media
Processor
Motherboard
Hard disk has physical movement
True
False
The power option that shut
none essential features is
Shutdown
Restart
Stand by
Format
One of these features is not related to ROM:
Read only
Startup instruction
Permanent
Contains running programs
“volume” is another name for the single-seat license
True
False
Integrated software is defined software that stores pictures and create videos:
False
True

A graphic symbol that represents something on the computer

Icon
Desktop
Command
Antivirus
The stage that can discover that the keyboard is not connected properly is:
Boot
Shutdown
POST
CIMOS
One of the following does not belong to the list:
MS word
Driver utility
Windows 10
Android
Deleting the program’s icon on the desktop is the correct way for removing
the application:
True
False
One of the following does not belong to the list:
Edge browser Application Panda store billing: is VERTICAL.
MS. Access Application All of the others are Horizontal.

Ms. PowerPoint Applications

Panda Store Billing applications

The tool that reads data in CD:

Platter
Laser sensor
Pit
Magnetic pen
Having windows 10 or above is a “hardware system Requirement”
True
False
The smallest memory unit that can either be 0 or 1 is:
Analog
Digital
Bit
Motherboard
Handheld computer operating system represents:
Real-time OS
Single user-Single task OS
Single user- Multi task OS
Multi-users OS
Mobile contains 1 operating system:
True
False
The operating system type that is most likely used in the cars factory where
human interaction is limited:
Real-time OS
Single user – multi task OS
Single user - single task OS
Multi-users OS
SSD lose its contents when the power is off:
True
False
General- purpose Application ins another description for horizontal
applications
True
False

The main difference between freeware applications and public domain

applications is you cannot after freeware
True
False

Hard disk does not have physical movement

True
False

The printer that sprays ink onto the paper

Laser printer
Inkjet printer
Thermal printer
None

Unicode support more symbols than ASCII

True
False

One of the following is not a Read – only device

CD-ROM
DVD
Hard Disk
All the above

Device cannot be used to output images

LCD
Projector
Speakers
Printers

One of the following does not belong to the list:

WhatsApp
Disk defragmenter
Ms. Excel
Ms. Access

The process of moving from windows 95 to windows 10 can be described as

Update
Upgrade
Backup
Comprising

The type of operating system type that commonly installed on servers as UNIX
Real – time OS
Single user-single task OS
Single user – multiple task OS
Multi – users OS

SNAP (1.2a) would have fewer errors than SNAP(1.2)

True
False

Inkjet and Laser are types of

Printers
Software
Sound Cards
Screens

Specific Application is another description for the horizontal application:

True
False

The main job of the motherboard is to connect computer parts

True
False

FFFFFF hexadecimal represents

Black
Dark blue
Dark red
White
One of the following is not an individual computer
Desktop
Super computer
Tablet
Smartphone

One of the following is not an organization computer

Server
Super computer
Tablet
Mainframe

The cheapest storage solution is

Hard drive
Solid-state drive
Tape drive
20 Tera RAM

The ability to detect compatible devices

System check
System cleanup
Plug and play
System volume
Mobile contains 2 operating systems the deal with software only
True
False

Having 256Mb of RAM is a “software “ system requirement

True
False

The storage device that read the needed information directly without
searching the entire storage media is
Sequential device
Random access device
Magnetic device
Optical device

Sarah installs software that she can use only for 16 days free , this software is
mostly a
Commercial software
Freeware software
Shareware software
All the above

Freeware applications and creative common are the same as they give the
whole application for the user for free
True
False
Norah installed a public domain application “Easynath” that’s mean she can
alter and change the “Easymath” application source code
True
False

Sarah is about to creat a folder, to do this she would use

File manager utility
Program utility
Backup utility
Compressing utility

Update is the process of adding new features to a program

True
False

The storage device that uses laser light to read data

Sequential device
Random access device
Magnetic device
Optical device

Update is the process of fixing problems and errors in program

True
False

Operating system does not provide some security features

True
False

The power option that copies data from the RAM to the hard disk is
Hibernate
Restart
Stand by
Format

Productivity suite and integrated software are the same as they combine
several full- features programs in one package
True
False

An indented area on the CD surface is called

Platter
Pit
Sectors
Land

One of the following does not belong to this list

Disk cleaner
Ms. Publisher
Ms. Word
Snapchat
Buying a productive suits is more expensive than buying several standalone
software
True
False

One of the following considered as an example of web apps :

Ms. Word 2016
Ms. PowerPoint 2016
Google Doc
Ms. Excel 2016

FFFF00 hexadecimal represents

Dark blue
Dark red
Orange
Black

You can not sell freeware application

True
False

Sarah wants to remove an application from her PC, she shall run
Driver utility
Backup utility
Compression utility
Program utility
Which one is not input device?
Keyboard
Mouse
Speaker
Scanner

Web applications are very useful and they do not need to be installed on the
computer:
True
False

The output of the monitor is called hardcopy

True
False

The software that can be used online without installing is known as

Integrated application
Cloud application
Productivity application
All the above

A flat reflective area of the CD surface is called

Platter
Pit
Sectors
Land
Area on the computer where you perform your work…
Icon
Desktop
Command
Antivirus

Multiple answers can not be selected in check box options:

True
False

The process of loading the operating system is called

Installing
Boosting
Booting
CIMOS
Memory on the video adapter
VIVA
VRAM
VROM
RAMV

Instructions that tell software what action to do

Output
User command
Main board
Hexadecimal

The result of fully system backup is called system image

True
False

SSD is fast because it uses file fragment:

True
False

CRT consumes less power comparing to LCD

True
False

One of the following is not correct about CD:

Random access
Read-only
Read and write
Optical

All programs that tell the computer how to do a task is called

Hardware
Software
Processing
Input
The binary system uses numbers 0-9 and the letters A-F
True
False

Disk defragmenter utility is used

To break files into a small fragment
Collect the file parts and combine fragments in one place
Clear the hard drive
Check magnetic disk for errors

The digital camera is an …………… device?

Input
Output
Software
Storage
Unicode uses ……… to represent a character
16 bits
8 bits
9 bits
2 bits

The copyrighted software that is given away without cost is called

Shareware
Commercial
Freeware
Open source
Integrated software is not the best solution when the user is interested in
some feature in several programs:
True
False

Changing calculator OS that does two operations to fix some mistake

Recalculate
Upgrade
Backup
Update

Sarah just bought the “ funny – draw “ application to use it only one PC , she
obtained now
Volume license
Site license
Single-seat license
None of the above

Most scanner have a software that convert printed text into a digital text file
called:
OCR
CPU
CRT
LCD
What Is a Network?

A ne5t8work is a group or system of connected things. A computer network, which may be called a data

network , is two or more computing devices connected to each other so they can share data, devices, and

other resources. A network may be small, with just a few computers, or it maybe large, with thousands of

connected devices.

Home and many business networks are usually local area networks (LANs) . A LAN is a net- work in

which all the workstations and other equipment are near one another. Most home networksare set up so

family members can access the internet from different devices, such as a tablet,

smartphone, laptop, and even the television. Each device can connect to every other device on thenetwork.

Businesses usually use a client/server network , in which one powerful computer,

called the server, provides information and management services to the workstation computers,which are

called the clients .

A wide area network (WAN) connects computers and other resources that are far apart. A business

with offices in many places can use a WAN to link its LANs in different cities. Then, users from any of

the locations can, with the proper permissions, access the network.

Connecting to the Internet

The internet is a worldwide network of computers connected to each other using wiring such as twisted pair

telephone lines, coaxial cable, or fiber-optic cable, and wireless transmitters such as microwave, radio, or

infrared signals. Communication on the internet depends on all connected de-vices using software called

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) .

Internet service providers maintain the physical wiring for connecting to the internet. They installthe

cables that connect to homes and other buildings.

For wired internet access, you physically connect the computing device using an Ethernetcable.

For wireless internet access, you must have a wireless-enabled device such as a modemor router that is

physically connected to the internet, usually with an Ethernet cable. Thatdevice, or access point, then

transmits the signals to devices that have a wireless networkadapter or built-in radio transmitters and

receivers that enable wireless communication.

MODEM AND ROUTERS Modems and routers direct the input of data between multiple computers.

Originally, modems were used to send computer data over telephone lines so computers

could access the internet through dial-up. Modern modems can send information through cable,

satellite, or DSL. The modem converts the data from analog format to the digital format a computercan

understand, and then back to analog so it can be transmitted. Modem speed is measured in bits per second

(bps) , which is the amount of data that can be sent in one second. Routers for- ward data from one source

to another, such as between two computers or between a computer and the internet.

For internet access, a router is connected to a modem, usually using an Ethernet cable. The mo-dem

connects to an internet provider and the router directs the flow of data between the internet and computers.

NETWORK INTERFACE Cards Some computers are designed with the ability to connect to net- works.

Others need a network interface card (NIC) , which handles the flow of data to and fromthe computer in

both wired and wireless networks. If the network is put together by actual cables,those cables connect to the

NIC. NICs often have a light that blinks green and amber to alert you to activity it’s experiencing

BANDWIDTH Bandwidth is the amount of data that can be sent through a modem or network connection. The

more bandwidth, the faster the connection. It is usually measured in bits per second (bps) or in megabits

per second (Mbps). The more bandwidth, the more information can be transferred in a given amount of time.

If you are online watching a movie on a tablet, while some- one else in your family is online researching a

topic for a report, and someone else is using IM tocommunicate with friends, you may notice a drop in

speed or interruption in a download. That’s beca5u9se all the devices require a lot of bandwidth, but there is

only a certain amount available.

BROADBAND Broadband is the general term for all high-speed digital connections that trans- mit at least

1.5 megabits per second (Mbps), though current broadband services usually transmit between 10 and 30

Mbps. Mobile phones use mobile broadband, which transmits around 10

Mbps. Many factors influence actual transmission speed, including the quality of the hardware de- vices, the

distance from the modem or router, and the number of people using the service at the

same time.
IP Addresses
Each device that connects to the internet has to be uniquely identified. To do this, every computeris

assigned a four-part number separated by periods called the internet protocol (IP) address .For example,

the IP address for your computer might be [Link]. Any device with an IP ad- dress can communicate

with any other device with an IP address over the internet. An IP address is usually automatically assigned

by a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server. You can locate your computer’s IP address

and connection speed in the Network and Sharing Center in Windows and in the Network Utility on

macOS.

Network Security

Both wired and wireless networks can be secured or unsecured. On an unsecured

network, thereare no barriers to access and anyone within the network can access

information. The internet is an unsecured network.

UNSECURED NETWORKS These networks allow for free flow of information but leave little protection

from hacking for the individual computers. They may be called public networks, although your home

network may also be unsecured. An unsecured wireless network can be accessed by any- one within range

of the wireless signal. It does not require a login or password and does not use encryption to protect data.

Your neighbor may be able to access your unsecured Wi-Fi network. Someone outside your building might

be able to read files, or access email, thereby learning personal information. Connecting to an unsecured

network exposes your data and hardware devices to risks.

SECURED NETWORKS Secured networks limit access and protect the computers and users. One way

secured networks prevent unauthorized access is by requiring users to enter an ID and password. Another

way is by using a firewall. You can secure a wireless network by using an encryption protocol such as

Wi-Fi Protected Access 2 (WPA2).

On a Windows computer, secure wireless connections are identified on the Internet Access [Link] the

Internet Access icon in the notification area of the taskbar. The word secured displays below all secured

connections.

VIRTUAL PRIVATE NETWORKS A virtual private network (VPN) is a private, secure network set up

through a public network. VPN users connect to an internet service provider (ISP) to access the private network

with a user name and password. VPNs are a more secure way to log into a private network from a

computer on a public network. They are often used by employees working remotely who need access

to the company’s network.

FIREWALLS A firewall is a filtering system that opens or blocks programs and ports to keep outside data

from entering a network. Firewalls are usually located on a gateway, such as a routerthat lets a network

access the internet. From that location the firewall can examine the packets trying to get into the network

and determine whether or not to let them through. Some firewalls arebuilt into a computer’s operating

system, such as Windows. You, or the system administrator,

can control what the firewall blocks and what it lets through by maintaining lists of allowed orblocked

programs and ports.

Using Public Computers

Public computers are available in public places for anyone to use. You might find them in hotel lobbies or

coffee shops. They are usually connected to unsecured or public networks. When youuse the computers

in your local library, you are using a public computer that other people use, too, putting your privacy at

risk. The computers in your school or home, however, are private and usually require an ID and

password for access.

When you visit a website, your browser saves information about the site to your computer. Storedinformation

includes cache , cookies , browser history , and even passwords. Storing this information helps web

pages load faster when you visit the same site again, or saves you the trouble of reentering a password.

However, it also creates a security risk. Someone can check the

cache or browser history and know which websites you visited. Cookies and saved password filescan

disclose your passwords or other private information you have typed into web forms.

To protect your information you can delete the cache, cookies, browser history, saved passwords,saved web

form information, and other saved browser files. You should do this any time you use a public computer,

and periodically on your own computer. If your computer ends up in the wrong hands, your private

information will not be as easily available. You should also log out of any web- sites or operating system

accounts before closing or exiting the computer. If you fail to log out, thenext person to use the computer has

access to all the files and information associated with your account.

Electronic Commerce

Electronic commerce, or e-commerce , is the use of telecommunications networks or the inter-net to

conduct business. Thanks to the internet and affordable computers, e-commerce has be-

come accessible to anyone who has an internet connection and a web browser. More and more internet users

are researching products, shopping, opening bank accounts, and trading stocks on-line. Many businesses

realize that they may lose customers if they do not have an online

presence.
 ONLINE SHOPPING When many people think of e-commerce, they think of shopping online.
61

Online shopping has grown in popularity due to security features built into popular web browsers. Every

year, online shopping gains in popularity, resulting in the closing of many actual stores and shopping malls.

A savvy e-commerce consumer knows how to use the power of the internet to research products and

compare prices before buying. The buyer also knows how to make sure he or she is using a reputable

website that will deliver the correct product in a timely manner. At many sites, buyers

can read product reviews posted by other buyers. At other sites, they can find vendor and product ratings.

Savvy e-commerce consumers also know not to give out personal or payment information without knowing

that the website is secure and honest.

SECURE ELECTRONIC TRANSACTIONS One of the keys to the growth of e-commerce is secureelectronic

transactions. Originally a standard that relied on digital signatures, secure electronic transaction now refers to

a variety of measures online vendors use to secure online transactions

so customers can bank and shop online without worrying that their private information will be mis-used, lost,

or stolen, which could result in identity theft and fraud.

A secure website uses encryption —coding—and authentication standards to protect onlinetransaction

information. That means your personal information, including debit card numbers and personal

identification numbers (PINs), are safe when you shop online. You can tell that you are

viewing a secure website because the letters “https” display to the left of the website name in the Address

bar of your browser. On an unsecured site, there is no “s.” Also, a small lock icon dis- plays in your web

browser’s status bar. You can double-click the lock icon to display details aboutthe site’s security system.

Online payment systems, such as PayPal, Google Wallet, or Apple Pay, let you avoid repeatedlyentering your

credit card number and other personal data when making transactions online. To usePayPal, or any other

secure online payment service, you sign up directly and provide your payment information only once. The

service keeps your records secure and handles payments to on- line vendors for you, using only secure

method.

Analog vs. Digital Communications

People often confuse the terms “analog” and “digital” when they are talking about communicationsor

computers. The difference is important but easy to understand.

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In analog communications, sounds such as a person’s voice or music start as waves or vibrations in the

air. The vibrating air varies in frequency or pitch, which is how high or deep the sound is, as well as

strength or loudness. A small microphone in the telephone con- verts the sound waves into varying

patterns of electrical signals or radio waves. The pattern

of electrical signals or radio waves is similar to the pattern of the sound waves. These signals are converted
 back into sound waves by a small loudspeaker in the receiver.

In digital communications, sounds are converted into binary data (a series of 1s and 0s) at the caller’s end.

The stream of 1s and 0s is transmitted without any variation in the patternof electrical or radio waves. The

receiver converts the binary data back into sound waves.

Transmitting with Wires and Without

Cellular phones use radio waves for transmission. For homes that have landlines, wires connect the phone

jack in the wall to an interface box outside. Outside wires may be above or below ground. Wires also

connect the local loop with distant places. The connection from the phone tothe wires may be made at a

phone jack, or it may be to a cable modem . The cable modem isusually the same modem that

connects to broadband internet service. Broadband is high-capacity transmission that enables a large

number of messages to be communicated

simultaneously.

Traditional hard-wired landline phone services use twisted copper wires as the core of the cables that

transmit the voice information, but newer, higher-quality systems, such as coaxial and fiber- optic cable,

are used as well.

TWISTED PAIR At first, the entire telephone system depended on twisted pair technology.
505

Twisted pair refers to a pair of copper wires that are twisted together to reduce interference, or outside

noise. In the U.S. today, most homes and business buildings still have twisted pair wiring.

Twisted pair wiring can be either shielded (STP) or unshielded (UTP). Twisted pairs may beshielded to

prevent electric interference from other sources.

COAXIAL Another type of copper cable is called coaxial . A coaxial cable, or coax, is a tradi- tional analog

wire used to transmit cable television. These copper wires connect a cable in the home to a neighborhood

node, and from there to the service provider. The cable modem sends andreceives an electrical signal over

the wires.

FIBER-OPTIC CABLES Fiber-optic cables are strands of fiberglass that

transmit digital data by pulses of light. These cables can carry large quantities of

information. They work faster and more efficiently than copper wires. As they

get lower in price, it is likely that fiber-optic cables willeventually replace

copper completely.
 3G AND 4G Wireless communication frees users from traditional telephone lines. Messages are sent on

radio or infrared signals. Cell phones use radio signals. Cell phone networks are usually referred to as 3G

(short for third generation) or 4G (for fourth generation). These are referencesto the mobile

communication standard that lets mobile phones access the internet.

WI-FI Wi-Fi networks use radio signals to connect computers. If a cell phone has a Wi-Fi adapter, it can

transmit calls and provide other services using the internet. Wi-Fi makes cellular

calls possible in areas that have internet access but are out of range of cell towers. Access to theinternet

through wireless networks also allows smartphones to run online apps, including text messages, video calling,

instant messaging, and more.

SATELLITES A satellite telephone, or sat phone , transmits signals using communications satellites

orbiting Earth. The caller phone transmits a signal to a satellite, which sends the signal to aland-based

center, which then sends the signal to the receiving phone. The receiving phone can bea landline, a cell

phone, or another satellite phone. Because satellite phones do not rely on cell towers, they are useful in

remote areas, including at sea.

Competition Brings Choices

For more than 100 years, telephone service was provided only by telephone companies. The

Telecommunications Act of 1996, however, introduced competition into the telecommunicationsmarket.

Now, satellite companies, cable television companies, and businesses offering wireless

services compete with telephone companies to provide high-bandwidth digital [Link]

competition has created new, affordable methods for transferring voice, video, and data.

People are no longer bound to a single choice for their telecommunications needs. Think of the different

choices available to consumers at home and at work for sending and receiving voice, text, and images

quickly and reliably. In addition to analog phones and DSL services, choices include:

• Digital satellite systems

• Cable systems

• Wireless networks
 Using Modems

508 A device called a modem makes it possible for your computer and telephone lines to communi-cate, and

for your computer and TV cables to communicate. Your computer is a digital device. Thelocal loop that

connects you to the telephone system is analog. The word modem actually namesthe work the device

does: modulation and demodulation. Through modulation , the modem

changes the digital signal of the computer to the analog sounds used by telephones. Then, the data—in the

form of pictures, audio, or video—can travel over the telephone wires. When the datagets to its destination,

the receiving modem changes the analog signals back to digital. This

process is called demodulation . Modem speed is measured in bits per second (bps) , whichis the amount of

data that can be sent in one second.

DIAL-UP CONNECTIONS Back in the early 1990s, most people used phone lines and a device

called a dial-up modem to connect to the internet for data transmission. The basic process

forconnecting via a dial-up modem is the same as for a cable or standard modem. You

connect yourphone to a computer or router , which is a networking device that forwards

data packets between computer networks. This device connects to the modem. The

difference is that you use a telephone to dial a phone number for an internet service

provider. Once the connection is established, the modem encodes and decodes the audio

frequency signals to transfer data.

Today, fewer than 10% of U.S. households connect to the computer using the local phone line loop, and

they are generally located in rural areas where there is no other option. One problem with using dial-up is

that you cannot be on your computer and use your telephone simultaneously,so the computer modem

requires a dedicated phone line. Another drawback is slow speed. Dial- up modems can only transmit

56,600 bps, which has been surpassed by other technologies.

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Voice over Internet Protocol

Just as you can use your telephone to send and receive messages over the internet, you can use the internet

to send and receive messages over the telephone. Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) technology allows

you to have a telephone connection over the internet. VoIP uses data sent digitally, with the Internet

Protocol (IP), instead of analog telephone lines. People use VoIP totalk to each other from across the globe,

sometimes for free. Most VoIP applications, such as skype and facetime, integrate cameras so callers can see

each other during their calls

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Working with Broadband Transmission

Broadband is the general term for all high-speed digital connections that transmit at least 1.5
megabits per second (Mbps). Broadband technology is able to send multiple signals at the same

time. Several broadband technologies are available, including Digital Subscriber Line, cable,

fiber optic, and 4G, and more are on the horizon.

Fixed broadband refers to wired networks, such as fiber optic and Digital

Subscriber Line (DSL), which are used for television and internet access.

Mobile broadband refers to networks like 3G and 4G, which are used by cellular

phones and other mobile devices.

Broadband transmission speed is affected by distance from the local telephone switching station,

condition of the wiring and other equipment, and the number of people using the service.

Generally speaking, a fixed broadband download speed of at least 10 Mbps is fast enough for
someone to stream a high-definition video while someone else in the house is surfing the

internet. In 2017, the average broad-band download speed in the U.S. was about 55 Mbps; the

average upload speed was just under 23 Mbps. The average mobile download speed in 2017 in

the U.S. was about 22 Mbps and the average upload speed was about 8.5 Mbps.

DSL One of the most common fixed broadband services is Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) . DSL

uses the same copper wires telephones use, but transmits data in digi tal form rather than analog.

Voice calls and DSL can exist simultaneously on copper lines, because each service has its own

frequency band.

DSL allows for very fast connections to the internet and features an “always-on” connection. DSL
service also requires a modem, which translates the computer’s digital signals into voltage sent

across phone lines to a central hub. There is one drawback to DSL: A user must be within a

few miles of a local telephone switchingstation for a connection to be made.

Different companies offer DSL at different levels of service and price. There are also two basic

types: asymmetric DSL (ADSL) , which has faster download speeds than upload speeds, and

symmetric DSL (SDSL) , which can send and receive data at the same speed. ADSL is more

common. SDSL is generally used by businesses, while ADSL is used in private homes and

businesses.

SONET Telephone companies that offer DSL and other internet connection methods rely on a

digital network called SONET . SONET stands for Synchronous Optical Network. It uses fiber optics

to provide faster connections and greater bandwidth— from 52 Mbps to up to a whopping 40

gigabits per second (Gbps).

 Internet and Television Access

If your family has cable television, the cable that provides your favorite television shows

probably also lets you connect to the internet and make landline-based tele-phone

calls. Connections usually are fast and reliable.

CABLE AND SATELLITE TV CONNECTIONS To connect your computer to a cable

service, you need a cable modem . Like analog modems, cable modems can be in- ternal

or external. A cable modem connects your computer to the local cable TV lineand

supports data transfer rates of up to 30 Mbps—over 500 times faster than the old dial-up

modem. However, this number can be misleading because most internet service providers

(ISPs) cap subscribers’ transfer rates to less than 6 Mbps to conserve bandwidth.

Cable modems download the signal from the internet and upload data to the inter- net.

Not all cable modems allow two-way communication and some two-way communications

work at different speeds. For example, downloading information may be faster than

uploading. Cable modems also require an analog phone line and an analog modem.

If you have satellite television, your family subscribes to a digital satellite system called a

Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service. Satellites receive signals from a central broadcast

center and then rebroadcast them around the globe. Most DBS systems also offer internet

access and data transfer services, but do not transmit telephone calls. Because satellites

can only transmit data to a subscriber, a modem and telephone line are needed to send

data, such as a pay-per-movie request, to theprovider.

The Importance of Bandwidth

Recall that bandwidth is the amount of data that can be sent through a modem or network

connection. The more bandwidth, the faster the connection. It is usually measured in bits

per second (bps) or in megabits per second (Mbps). The more bandwidth, the more

information can be transferred in a given amount of time. If you are online watching a

movie on a tablet while someone else in your family is on- line researching a topic for a

report, and someone else is using IM to communicate with friends, you may notice a drop in

speed or interruption in a download. That’s because each device requires a lot of bandwidth,

but there is only a fixed amount available.

The demand for bandwidth is always growing. People want increased bandwidth for

video streaming, VoIP calls, web-based conferences, and online learning. Some ways

companies are addressing the demand is to make more bandwidth available using

satellites, adopting 5G technology, and investing in telecommunications infrastructure.

Introducing Networks
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If your family owns two computers , can they both use the same printer? If your computers
are networked, they can.

Recall that a network is a group or system of connected things. A computer net- work,
which may be called a data network , is two or more computing devices connected to
each other so they can share data, devices, and other resources.

Networks allow users to share files and programs, as well as printers and other

equipment. They allow people to work together and to access the internet. A net- work

may be small, with just a few connected devices, or it may be large, with thou- sands. The

technology functions the same way, no matter how many devices are connected.

PHYSICAL MEDIA To create a computer network, each device must be able to

communicate with the network. This requires establishing the physical connection using

physical media . The medium can be any type of telecommunications connector: twisted

pair telephone lines, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, or a microwave, radio, or infrared

system. Working together, the network media and the computing device determine how

much data can be sent through the connector.

NETWORK INTERFACE CARDS Some computing devices are designed with the ability to

connect to networks. Others need a network interface card (NIC) , which handles the

flow of data to and from the device in both wired and wireless net- works. If the network

is put together by actual cables, those cables connect to the NIC. NICs often have a light

that blinks green and amber to alert you to any activity it may be experiencing. If the

network is wireless, the NIC is usually built in to the device, such as a phone, tablet, or

laptop. There are also standalone wireless net- work interface cards that can connect

through a USB port.

WIRELESS ACCESS POINTS Even wireless networks require physical media. In addition to

a wireless NIC in the device, the network needs a wireless transmitter, or hub, called a

wireless access point (WAP) . The WAP is the central transmitter for sending and

receiving wireless signals. It may be built in to the wireless router, or it may be a separate

device that connects to the router using an Ethernet connection.

Organizing Users

If you have more than one computing device at home, you probably identify them by each

user’s name—your laptop, Mom’s tablet, and so on. In businesses, schools, and other

organizations, a network is usually organized into workstations, each with its own name

and address. In both home and larger networks, pieces of equipment connected together

must be able to locate and communicate with one another.

NETWORK MEMBERS A workstation is a computer connected to a computer net- work.

It is often set up with the same operating system, applications, and access to resources as the

other computers in the network. In a large network, a workstation may also be called a

node by the people who take care of the network. A node is anything connected to the

network that can receive, create, store, or send data along distributed network routes. A

gateway is a node on your network that enables communication with other networks,

such as the router on a home network that lets you connect to the internet.

Smartphones, tablets, and other devices equip-ped for networking can be part of a

network.

WORKSTATION ALTERNATIVE Sometimes, in large organizations, network userswork

at a terminal , which usually includes a keyboard, a monitor, and a pointing device, such as

a mouse. A terminal can feel as if the computer is local, but it’s not. Users are actually

sharing time on a central computer, with their own work dis- played on their terminal’s

monitor.

Using terminals can save on the cost of purchasing

workstations. They are also useful in situations with limited
need for a workstation, such as a public computer in a library.

Ensuring Communication

Once a network is created, the computers and other connected equipment can

communicate with one another. The communication on a network is called network

traffic . Network traffic is the electronic pulses of information sent by the network cards to

carry data through the network wires to its destination. Specifically, computers

communicate with languages called protocols.

A protocol sets a standard format for data and rules for handling it. There are many

different protocols available to use on networks. For computers to speak with one

another, they must use the same protocol.

KINDS OF PROTOCOLS There are two protocol categories: open and [Link] open
protocol is available for anyone to use. For example, the most common open protocol is the
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) , which is used by computers on
the internet.

A proprietary protocol , however, is not open to everyone. Instead, only people who buy

certain equipment, services, or computers can use it. Some personal digital assistants, digital

cameras, and even dial-up internet services use proprietary proto- cols. Overall, however,

open protocols are more common. Both manufacturers and consumers benefit from open

protocols that allow a broad range of connections.

A STACK OF PROTOCOLS The protocols networks use to communicate are oftencalled a

protocol suite . A protocol suite is the stack, or collection, of individual protocols that

determines how the network operates. For example, TCP/IP is not just one network
language, but many smaller ones. Each small protocol in this suite has a specific job to
do in a specific order. Working together, protocols allow computers to communicate.

Working with Others

Everyone on a network has the ability to access programs and data stored anywhereon

the network. You might use an application like Google Docs, which is stored on a

network rather than on your own computer, or you might print a document on a printer

that is located on a different floor than your computer. Of course, for security, you can

specify sharing levels for folders and files to control who can access
the stored data. Publicly shared folders allow anyone access. Shared folders may be
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shared only with authorized users. Sometimes shared folders are accessed using

shared links. That means you send a link to someone to allow them to access thefolder.

Networks also let people work together in new and exciting ways. People on a net- work

can collaborate more easily than those working on standalone systems.

Synergy is the effect a group effort can create. People working together on a net- work
can sometimes accomplish more than people working alone on unconnected computers.

Using a Network

The steps you use to access network resources are basically the same as those you use to

work on your own computer. Your actions may seem simple enough, but be- hind the

scenes, the network’s hardware and software are performing complex tasks.
Some tasks you can accomplish using a network include:

• Scheduling a meeting Instant

• messaging Sending email

• Videoconferencing Exchanging

• documents Playing games

Introducing LANs
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A school lab with its ten computers networked together is an example of a local area network

(LAN) . A LAN is a network in which all the workstations and other equipment are near one another.

LANs can be set up in any defined area, such as ahome, a school, an office building, or even a

cluster of shops.

A LAN can have just a few or several hundred users. Small or large, a LAN lets itsmembers share

equipment and information, resulting in lower costs. Some of the key functions that benefit LAN

users include sharing files, using collaborative soft- ware, and sharing peripherals.

SHARING FILES Through a computer’s operating system, people connected to a LAN can participate

in file sharing . File sharing is making files available to more than one user on the network. The file

is stored on a network server so anyone withpermission rights may access the file from any location.

USING COLLABORATIVE SOFTWARE Collaborative software enables the net-work to help people work
together more closely. With collaborative software, users can share calendars, work on a document
together, or even hold meetings through the network. Collaborative software is also called groupware

SHARING PERIPHERALS In addition to sharing files and software, a LAN allows users to access

remote resources , such as printers, fax machines, or any other equipment, that is not connected

directly to your computer, but is connected to the network.

Using a Peer-to-Peer Network

Your peers are your equals. In a peer-to-peer (P2P) network , all the computers are equals. Peer-

to-peer networks are usually small, having anywhere from two toten computers.
SHARING FILES In a P2P network, each user decides whether any files on his or her

computer will be shared. You can share the files with one person, a few people, or

everyone on the network. The reverse is true, too. Other workstations may have files

you’d like to access through the network—and you can if you have permission.

CREATING A P2P NETWORK A P2P network is easy to create, since all of the

workstations are equals. The operating system of each computer typically has built- in

file-sharing abilities. The workstations are connected to each other through the network

cable. In some systems, the network cables all connect to a central device called a hub. A

hub handles the flow of traffic from computer to computer.

EVALUATING P2P NETWORKS A P2P network is ideal for small offices andhomes. In a

large business, however, peer-to-peer networking has some drawbacks:

• Security problems can arise.

• Data can be hard to back up.

• With many users, file sharing can become difficult.

• Finding shared files can be difficult.

• Managing resources can be complicated.

These problems occur because resources are scattered across many computers. If one

computer fails or is turned off, its resources are no longer available to the network.

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Using a Client/Server Network

Large businesses usually use a client/server network . With this system, one pow- erful

computer provides information and management services to the workstation computers,

which are called clients .

CREATING A CLIENT/SERVER NETWORK The main computer in a client/server

system is called the file server , or the server. It contains the network operating system,

other programs, and large data files. The network operating system (NOS) manages

and secures the entire network. It controls access, permissions, and all aspects of network

use, and provides a directory, or list, of all resources available on the network. Only

those who provide a username and a password can use the network. It centralizes and

protects data and controls what users can do with files. Thus, a client/server network is

far more secure than a P2P network.

 EVALUATING A CLIENT/SERVER NETWORK For a large office, file servers arebetter than peer-
to-peer networks, for several reasons:

• They offer a central location for files.

• Data is easy to back up and easy to recover.

• Servers are faster than workstations.

• Servers are rarely turned off, although they can be offline for maintenance.

• Security is easier to maintain.

What Is a WAN?
5 26
A wide area network (WAN) connects computers and other resources that are miles or even

continents apart. A business with offices in many places can use a WAN to link its LANs in different

cities. Then, users from any of the locations can, with the proper permissions, access the network. The

company can maintain a centralized information technology infrastructure, while each user can access

files, printers, and other resources as if they were local. As far as users are concerned, working on a

WAN is no different than working on a LAN.

Once a WAN is created, users may not even realize the files they are sharing are re- mote. And that’s the

way it should be. Users should not worry about the physical lo- cation of the shared files, just that the

files are available.

How Is a WAN Controlled?

Like a client/server LAN, a WAN is controlled by a network operating system (NOS). A NOS is

especially helpful on a WAN because there are so many users andresources to manage. The NOS

also helps network administrators secure the re- sources throughout the network.

Creating WANs

To create a WAN, LANs are connected through high-speed data lines called back- bones .
Organizations attach to the backbone at a point of presence (POP) . Buthow do they get to the
POP? There are several options.
ISDN AND DSL These technologies use ordinary telephone lines to attach to the backbone. Special

adapters or modems provide ways to deal with digital data.

LEASED LINES Some companies rent a private end-to-end connection, called a leased line or

dedicated line, from a telecommunications company. Leased lines arealways active, and guarantee a

single open circuit will be available between two points at all times. The data transfer rate of a leased

line varies depending on the type of line, but is usually about the same as a symmetric DSL line.

T1 LINES Larger companies and many school districts lease T1 lines . T1 lines can be either copper or

fiber optic, and they allow data to be sent at more than 1.5 mil- lion bps.

PERMANENT VIRTUAL CIRCUITS A permanent virtual circuit (PVC) allows multiple users’ data to travel
the line at once. Thus, they are cheaper than private lines. Most PVCs use a technology called frame
relay . Frame relay allows voice,data, and video to travel on the same line and at the same time.

Network Architecture
533
Network architecture is the science of designing a network. In many cases, a systems engineer is

hired to find out what the network will be used for, and to design a network the operating system can
handle.

Small networks are generally not very complicated. The network administrator first connects the

network card of each workstation to the network cable, and then usually connects the cable to a hub.

The administrator also has to make sure the operating system of the computer is set up to participate

in the network. On larger net- works, however, the job becomes more complicated.

FOLLOWING RULES Recall that all network communication, large or small, is based on and must

follow common rules, called protocols. These rules were developed by the International Standards

Organization (ISO).

The rules specific to computer networks are called the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)

model. These rules define what happens at each step of a network operation and how data flows

through it. The OSI model has seven layers.

 Layer 7, the application layer, is at the top. Layer 1, the physical layer, is at the

bottom. Each layer communicates with the layer above and below it to en- sure

that networking takes place. During transmission, on the sending computer, data

flows from the application layer, down through each layer in the model, and out

through the network. On the receiving computer, data flows back up through

the model.

Sometimes layers 1, 2, and 3 are called the lower layers. They define rules for

how information is sent between computers over a network. The upper layers,

or layers 4, 5, 6, and 7, define how applications interact with the network.

Each layer has a job to do to prepare outgoing data for the network and in-

coming data for the operating system. All layers are important, but layer 3,
the network layer , deserves special attention because that is the stage of the
process when data is transferred from one router to another.

LAYERS OF THE OSI MODEL

Layer Purpose

7. Communicate with the operating

Application system to do an actual job

6. Package data from the operating

Presentation system so the lower layerscan
understand it
5. Session Create and end communication
between two devices on the
network
4. Transport Manage the flow of data within
the network and check forerrors

3. Network Rout and address data traffic

2. Datalink Choose the right physical

protocols for the data

1. Physical Define the actual network

hardware, such as cabling and
timing
 Network Topology

If you were to create a map of your neighborhood, you might include streets, lakes, and

hills. A map of a network shows the physical structure of the network, includingservers,

workstations, and other network devices. The network’s layout is called thenetwork

topology

Topology isn’t only concerned with where to put equipment, however. The design of a

network must also solve another problem: Only one computer on a network can transmit at a

time. When two computers try to access the network at the same time, they’re in contention

. If both sent their data at the same time, there could be a collision , and the data could

become all mixed together.

To avoid such collisions, each computer divides its data into very small, fastmovingpackets.

Network equipment or software transmits these packets. Users typicall

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Choosing a Network Topology

Each LAN can have a different combination of computers, printers, and other equipment. The LAN

designer chooses a network type to connect the components. Each type of network can be described

by its topology: bus, ring, star, star bus, and mesh.

BUS TOPOLOGY An older network design, bus topology is rarely used now. In abus, devices are

connected to a single network line like a string of holiday lights.

When one network device fails, the entire network fails, and adding new devices tothe network can

also be tricky.
 RING TOPOLOGY As its name suggests, ring topology connects all the network devices

in a circle. To control collisions, such networks pass tokens , or special units of data,

around the ring. Only the workstation that has control of the token cansend other data

onto the network. Because of the token-passing technique, these networks are also called

token rings , or, if the network is wireless, wireless to- ken rings . Like bus topology,

one fault can disrupt a ring network, but this net- work type has the advantage of not

requiring a network server.

STAR TOPOLOGY Star topology design connects each network device to a central hub.

A hub is a connection point for all the computers, printers, and other equipment on the
537
network. Adding and removing devices to a star network is easy. If the hub loses power

or fails, however, the network devices will not be able to communicate. Star topology

avoids collisions by using strategies that manage contention.

STAR BUS TOPOLOGY Star bus topology connects multiple star networks

alonga bus. It is the most common design used in LANs today. Suppose each

classroom in your school had its own network with its own hub. The hub in

each classroom could then be connected to a common line, called a backbone

. A backbone is a fast network medium that provides communication among

all of the networks. It links all the hubs in the school, for example,

expanding the reach of each network.

MESH TOPOLOGY In mesh topology the components are all connected

directly to other components. Because this topology connects devices with

multiple paths, redundancies exist. But, because all devices are cross-

connected, the best path from one to another can be taken at any time. The

drawback to mesh topology is that needing at least one and a half connections

for each computer makes it very ex- pensive to construct. This topology is
usually used in the internet structure.

Exploring Ethernet

Recall that Ethernet is the most common networking technology used on

LANs. To create the network, Ethernet cables plug into Ethernet ports on

computers, LANs, and cable or DSL modems. Ethernet and star bus

topology work together toensure fast data transfers, logical network design,

and fewer collisions. Ethernet uses a rule called Carrier Sensing Multiple

Access/Collision Detection, or CSMA/CD . This protocol governs how

network devices communicate and what happens if they break the rules.

ETHERNET COMMUNICATIONS Like a well-mannered conversation,

CSMA/CD requires each network device to take turns transmitting, or

speaking. A device will tune in to the network to determine whether another

device is speaking. If not, it will transmit the data. Every workstation on the
network receives the data.

However, only the device the data is intended for actually accepts it.
ETHERNET COLLISIONS If two devices transmit at the same time, a collision

occurs. In that case, each of the conflicting devices waits a random number of

milliseconds and then attempts to transmit again. The random waiting time

helps preventanother collision.

Star bus topology expands a network’s reach. As more devices are added to

a single network and as more networks are connected, the chance of

multiple collisionsincreases. To solve this problem, Ethernet often uses

bridges, switches, or routers to divide the network into segments. To reduce

congestion, messages are routed to the proper segment rather than to the

entire network