Notes

Class XII Physics

Q. What is total internal reflection? State the essential conditions for the
phenomenon of total internal reflection to take place. Explain briefly with the
help of a necessary diagram, how the phenomenon of total internal reflection
is used in optical fibres.
Ans. Total internal reflection: When a ray of light travels from denser medium
to rarer medium, so that angle of incidence is more than critical angle, the ray is
totally reflected back in the denser medium. This phenomenon is called total
internal reflection.
Consider an object in the denser medium. A ray OA incident on XY bends away
from the normal. As the angle of incidence is increased, the angle of refraction
goes on increasing. For a certain angle of incidence, the refracted ray becomes
parallel to the surface XY or angle of refraction is 90°. This angle of incidence in
the rarer medium for which the angle of refraction is 90° in the denser medium
is called critical angle. When the angle of incidence is further increased, the ray
is totally reflected back in the denser medium. This phenomenon is called the
area of the coil.

Conditions for total internal reflection:

1. Ray of light must proceed from denser medium to rarer medium, and
2. Angle of incidence should be greater than
coil galvanometer critical angle.
By definition,
2 μ = sin C =sin C 1μ = 1
1
sin 90 or 2
sin C

Optical fibre
Optical fibres too make use of the total internal reflection principle. Optical
fibres consist of many thousands of very long fine quality, glass/quartz fibres.
They are coated with a thin layer of a material of low refractive index. For
example, the strand can be 0.0001 cm in diameter and the refractive index of
the main fibre 1.7 and that of coating 1.5.
Diagram

When the light is incident on one end of the fibre at a small angle, the light
passes inside. It undergoes repeated total internal reflections along the
fibre and finally comes out. The angle of incidence here is larger than the
critical angle of the fibre material with respect of its coating. Even if the
fibre is bent, the light can easily travel through along the fibre.
Or
State Huygen's Principle. Using Huygen's construction explain refraction
of a plane wave by a plane surface.
Ans. Huygen's Principle
(i) Each point of a wavefront becomes a source of new disturbance called
secondary wavelets which travel in all directions with the same speed
provided the medium remains the
same.
(ii) The secondary wavefront is the tangent plane joining all the wavelets.
Refraction of a plane wave by a plane surface
 According to Huygens' principle, every point on wavefront AB is a
source of secondary wavelets and the time during which wavelet from B
reaches C, the refracted wavelet from A would arrive at D.
BC AD
i.e. t=
v1
=
v2 ……..(i)
where v1, is the velocity of light in medium I and u2 is the velocity of light
in medium II.
Eqn. (1) can be written as
BC v 1
=
AD v 2
…..(ii)
Or BC = AC sin i

Coherent Sources
Coherent sources are those sources which emit continuously light of same
wavelength and magnitude either in the same phase or with a constant
phase difference.
Expression
Let the waves of two coherent sources be
Y1 = n sin wt
And y2 = b sin (wt + ϕ ),
where a and b are the respective amplitudes of the two waves and ϕ is the
constant phase angle by which the second wave leads the first
wave(see fig.].
According to superposition principle, the displacement y of resultant wave
is :
Y = y1 + y2 = a sin wt + b sin (wt + ϕ )
or y = a sin wt + b sin wt cos ϕ + b cos wt sin ϕ
or y = sin wt (a + b cos ϕ ) + cos wt. b sin ϕ
Substituting a + b cos. ϕ = A cos θ …….(1)
And b sin ϕ = A sin θ …….(2)
we have
y= sin wt. A cos θ + cos wt. A sin
or y = A [sin wt. cos θ+ cos wt. sin θ]
or y = A sin (wt + θ ),
where A is the amplitude of the resultant wave.
Squaring and adding (1) and (2), we have
a2 + b2 cos2 ϕ + 2ab cos ϕ + b2
sin2 ϕ = A2 cos2 θ + A2 sin2 0
or a2 + b2
(cos2 ϕ + sin2 ϕ +2ab cos 0) = A2 (cos2 θ + sin2 θ)
Or A2 =a2+ b2+2ab cos . ϕ
Since resultant intensity is proportional to square of amplitude,
i.e I α A2
or I α (a2 + b2+2ab cos ϕ )
or I = a2+ b2 + 2 ab cos ϕ ………(3)
(For convenience, we assume that intensity of light is equal to square of
amplitude)
(i) For constructive interference (or for maximum).
I should be maximum
i.e , cos ф = 1 and I max = ( a + b) 2
or ф = 0, 2 π, 4 π,………
or ф = 2 πn (where n- 0,1,2,…..)
λ λ
or path diff. = 2π ф= 2π 2 πn = n λ ….. (4)
So, for constructive interference (or for maximum intensity), path
difference should be integral multiple of λ.
(ii) For destructive interference (or for minima)
I should be minimum.
i.e., cos ф = -1 and Imin = (a - b)2
or ф =л, 3л, 5л,…………
or ф = (2n + 1) л
(where n = 0, 1, 2, ......)
λ
or path difference = 2π (2n+1) л
λ
or path difference =(2n + 1) 2 ………...(5)
So, for destructive interference (or for minimum intensity), path difference
λ
should be an odd multiple of 2π .
Variation of intensity with position
From above discussion, we find that intensity of light is maximum when
path difference is nλ i.e. ±2, 22, 32.... and minimum when path
Remaining
Q. Derive lens maker's formula for a thin biconvex lens. (H.B.S.E. 2005,
2006)
Ans. Lens maker's formula for biconvex lens
Sign Conventions
1. All the distances are measured from the optical centre of lens.
2. Distance measured in the direction of incident light is + ve.
3. Distance measured in the direction opposite to the direction of incident
light is negative.
Assumptions
1. Object is a point object.
2. Lens is thin so that distances are measured from the poles of its
surfaces.
 3. The aperture of the lens is small.
4. Angles of incidence and refraction are small.
Let C, and C2 be centres of curvature of two spherical surfaces ABC and
ADC with optical centre C. Letu, be the refractive index that of the of the
material of the lens and medium surrounding the lens where μ2>μ1.
Consider a point object O lying on the principal axis of the lens.

Refraction at the surface ABC. A ray of light OA, starting from O strikes the
surface ABC at A, with A,C, is a normal. On refraction it bends towards the
normal and proceeds along A,1,. Another ray OB starting from O and
incident at B, passes through optical centre C. If the lens material were
continuous, the two refracted rays would actually meet at 1. Thus 1, would
be the real image of the point object.

Applying spherical equation for surface

ABC
μ1 μ2 (μ2 + μ1)
OB BI1 BC1
This image I, acts as an object for spherical interface ADC and thus final
image 1, is formed. I, is the effective position of the image corresponding to the
lens ABCD as a whole. .. For surface ADC,
 Simple Microscope
Principle: When an object is placed between principal focus and optical
centre of a convex lens, a vertical and erect image will be formed on the
same side of the object.
Construction and Action
An ordinary convex lens of small focal length held close to the eye can be
used as magnifying glass or a simple microscope. The object is made to lie
between the lens and its focus so that image formed is virtual, erect and
magnified. As the object is to be seen clearly, the image is made to lie at
the distance of distinct vision from the eye. The course of rays indicating
the formation of image is shown in the figure.
 Magnifying Power
Magnifying Power of a magnifying glass is defined as the ratio of the angle
subtended at the eye by the image to the angle subtended by the object
when both are placed at the least distance of distinct vision and seen
directly.
In figure., the image AB is fomed at the distance of distinct vision and
subtends an ∟A'CB' =ẞ on the eye as it is held close to the lens. If the
object AB is also moved to the distance of distinct vision ie., to the position
EB', it would subtend an ∟ECB'a at the
eye.
Magnifying power, M =
 Revision at a glance :
1. Ray Optics : Ray optics is that branch of physics which is based on the
rectilinear propagation of light.
2. Refraction : Refraction is the phenomenon of change in the path of light
as it goes from one medium to another
3. Laws of refraction :
(i) The incident ray, the normal to the refracting surface at the point of
incidence and refracted ray all lie in the same plane.
(ii) The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction
is constant for any two given media.
This is called Snell's law,
sin ⅈ
i.e sin r = aµb a
µb = µb
µa

4. Refraction : Refraction of light is the change in path of a ray of light as it

passes from one medium into another.
sin ⅈ
μ= sin r

5. Total internal reflection: Critic angle is the angle of incidence in the

denser medium for which angle of refraction in rarer medium is 90. When
angle of incidence in the dense medium is greater than critical angle
the ray is reflected back in the dense medium. The phenomenon is called
total internal reflection. In this case angle of incidence is equal to the angle
of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection .
Practical application of total internal reflection are mirage, optical fibre
brilliance of a diamond.
6. Refraction at spherical surface When light travels from rarer to dense
medium, then

but when it travels from denser to rare

medium, then
 1 1 1
7. Lens formula is = −
f v u

and lens maker's formula is the relation between the radii of curvatures R1, R2
of the curved surfaces of lens, then if f is the focal length of the lens, then
1
f = (μ-1) { 1
−
1
R1 R2 }
In our eye lens, we change its focal length by changing the radius of two sides of
eye lens by the action of ciliary muscles and zonule fibres.
8. Linear magnification of the image,
v f f −v
M= =
u f +u
=
f

9. Power of a lens is the reciprocal of its focal length. Power is measured in

dioptre (D).
Power (in dioptre) = 1/ f (in metre)
10. Dispersion is the phenomenon of splitting up of white light into constituent
colours when passed through prism. Dispersion is due to different refractive
indices μ for different wavelengths.
11. Interference of light is the redistribution of light energy amongst two or
more waves. Thomson Young first demonstrated interference of light waves by
double slit experiment.
12. Fringe width is the distance between two successives maxima or between
two successives minima. The fringe width ẞ is given by
λD
ẞ= d (for both dark and bright fringes.)

13. Coherent sources: The sources of light are said to be coherent if the phase
difference between the light waves emitted by them always remains constant.
[Link] : is the bending of light around sharp edges. It is because of the
interference of light waves from different points of the same wavefront.
15. Diffraction of light at a single slit is an example of Fraunhofer's diffraction. It
produces central maxima and followed by maxima and minima in both the sides
of central maxima. Each maxima is lesser brighter than its preceding maxima.
2 Dλ
Width of central maxima = d

Distance between central maxima and (2n+1) Dλ

Dλ
1st minima is d whereas (2n+1) Dλ

2 d
gives us the distance of maxima from the central maxima.
16. Polaroid is an artificially prepared polariser made of quinine iodosulphate.
These are used in sun glasses, wind screen, head light etc.

Q. Distinguish between interference and diffraction.

Ans Interference
1. It is due to superposition of two waves coming from two different coherent
sources of light.
2. All the fringes formed are of same width.
3. There is very good constrast between the dark and bright fringe.
4. The intensity of all the bright fringes is the equal.
Diffraction
1. It is due to superposition of waves coming from the different parts of the
same wave-front.
2. The fringes formed are not of the same width.
3. There is a very poor contrast between the dark and bright fringe.
4. The intensity of bright fringes is not equal.

Q- What is diffraction? Explain it with the help of diagram. [BSEH 2025]

Ans Diffraction is the bending of waves around the corners of an obstacle.
Diffraction at single slit: Let a parallel beam of light fall normally on a single slit
AB of width a. The diffracted beam falls on a screen kept at a distance D.
Central bright fringe : All the secondary waves which start from points
equidistant from C of plane wave front AB and travelling parallel to CO reach
point O in the same phase and produce central maximum.

Q. A small bulb is placed at the bottom of a tank containing water to a depth

of 80 cm. What is the area of the surface of water through which light from
the bulb can emerge out? Refractive index of water is 1.33. (Consider the bulb
to be a point source).
Ans When light rays from the bulb S fall on the surface of water at an angle
greater than critical angle C, the rays will be totally internally reflected rays and
will not emerge out of water surface. From the fig., it is clear that the enclosed
in a cone of radius r will emerge out. Hence, the area on the surface of water
through which light can come out is equal to π r3 .

From the Fig.. tan C = r/h

r = h tan C
2 2
3 2 sin C sin C
Required area A = r = (tan C) =
π π π h2 2 = π h2 2
cos C 1−sin C
1 3
But Sin C = 1/ μ = 4∕3 = 4 and h = 80cm

A = 3.14 * (0.80)2 × (3/4)2 /1-(3/4)2 = 2.58 m2

Q. A prism is made of glass of unknown refractive index. A parallel beam of

light is incident on a face of the prism. By rotating the prism, the angle of
minimum deviation is measured to be 40°. What is the refractive index of the
material of the prism? The refracting angle of the prism is 60°. If the prism is
placed in water (refractive index 1.33), predict the new angle of minimum
deviation of a parallel beam of light.
Ans
Q. Double-convex lenses are to be manufactured from a glass of refractive
index 1.55 with both faces of the same radius of curvature. What is the radius
of curvature required if the focal length is to be 20 cm?
Ans. μ= 1.55, R, = R(say), R2=-R, f = +20 cm
According to lens maker's formula
1
f = ( μ-1) ( 1 1
−
R1 R 2 )
1
20 = (1.55 – 1) ( R1 + R1 ) = 0.55 x
❑
2
R

R = 0.55 × 2 × 20 cm
= 22.0 cm
Q. With the help of suitable diagram, sign conventions and assumptions,
derive Lens Maker's formula for a convex lens.
Ans Assumptions : (1) The lens is a thin lens.
(2) The aperture of the lens is small.
(3) The object O is point object lying on its principal axis.
(4) The incident ray, refracted ray and normal at the point of incidence all make
small angles with the principal axis.
The sign conventions:
(i) All distances are measured from the optical centre O of the lens.
(ii) The distances measured along the direction of the incident ray are taken as
positive and those measured opposite to the incident ray are taken as negative.
(iii) Height above the principle axis are taken as +ve and those below are taken
as --ve.

Derivation in Case of Convex Lens: Let O be a point object lying on the principal
axis of a thin convex lens.
For the refraction at the first surface, O is a point object lying in medium of
refractive index μ2 and I, its real image formed in a medium of refractive index
μ2 (if the medium were continuous), therefore,
This formula is called lens maker's formula because the lens manufacturers can
construct lenses
ting R., and R, in the eqn. (iv).
Q. What is the difference between virtual images produced by
(i) concave mirror (ii) convex mirror?
Ans A concave mirror produces an enlarged or magnified virtual image whereas
a convex mirror s a smaller or diminished virtual image.
Q. A concave lens is kept in contact with a convex lens of focal length 20 cm.
The combination works as a convex lens of focal length 50 cm. Find the power
of concave lens. [BSEH 2011]

P1⇒
100
Ans Here, f1 = 20 cm 20 = 5.0 D

P1⇒
100
f = 50 cm 50 = 2.0 D

But, P=P1+P 2 ⇒ 2D = 5D+P2

P2=-3.0 D
Q. What is refraction of light? State its laws.
Ans Refraction of light: It is the phenomenon by virtue of which a ray of light
changes its path when it goes from one medium to another medium.
If the ray of light enters from optically rarer medium into optically denser
medium, it bends towards the normal.
Laws of refraction: (i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal lie in
the same plane.
(ii) The ratio of sine of angle of incidence (i) to the sine of angle of refraction (r)
for a given pair of media remains constant (µ).
This constant is called refractive index of the medium in which light enters w.r.t.
to the medium from which light comes i.e.
Sin i/sin r = a µw
Q. A double convex lens of glass has refractive index 1.5. The radii of curvature
of both surfaces are 20 cm. If an object is placed at a distance 10 cm from the
lens, find the position of image formed.
Ans.