​Engineering Graphics​

​Unit 1 : Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and Computer Aided​

​Drawing​

​1.1 Principles of Engineering Graphics and its Significance​

​What is Engineering Graphics?​

​Engineering graphics is a way to share technical ideas using pictures, sketches, and drawings. It​
​helps engineers and technicians show and understand how things work or how they should be​
​made.​

​Main Principles of Engineering Graphics:​

​Orthographic projection: Showing 3D objects using flat, 2D views (like front, top, and side).​

​Descriptive geometry: Explaining the size and shape of objects.​

​Graphical representation: Using lines, colors, and symbols to share information.​

​Dimensioning and tolerancing: Giving exact sizes and limits for parts.​

​Visualization: Turning ideas into pictures to make them easier to understand.​

​Why Engineering Graphics is Important:​

​Clear communication: Helps share technical ideas without confusion.​

​Problem-solving: Drawings make it easier to understand and fix design issues.​

​Design and development: Helps create and improve products.​

​Documentation: Keeps a record of designs for future use.​

​Teamwork: Makes it easier for engineers and technicians to work together.​

​Learning: Helps students and trainees understand technical ideas.​

​Accuracy: Reduces mistakes by giving clear and exact information.​

​Creativity: Helps in coming up with new and better designs.​

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​1.2 Usage of Drawing instruments​

​Drafting work requires the use of the following instruments and supporting tools​

​1.​ ​Drawing Board​ ​6.​ ​Instrument Box​ ​11.​ ​Pencils​

​2.​ ​Set Squares​ ​7.​ ​Protractor​ ​12.​ ​Drawing​ ​Clips,​ ​Pins,​ ​and​
​3.​ ​French​ ​8.​ ​Compass​ ​Adhesive Tape​
​4.​ ​CurvesTemplates​ ​9.​ ​Set of Scales (Rulers)​
​5.​ ​Mini Drafter​ ​10.​ ​Drawing Sheets​

​1)​ ​Drawing Board​

​Drawing​ ​boards​ ​are​ ​used​ ​to​ ​hold​ ​and​ ​support​
​the​ ​drawing​ ​sheet.​ ​They​ ​are​ ​made​ ​o f​ ​softwood​
​and​ ​have​​a​​smooth,​​flat​​surface.​​One​​edge​​has​​a​
​hard​ ​ebony​ ​strip​ ​to​ ​guide​ ​the​ ​T-square.​
​First-year​​engineering​​students​​usually​​use​​a​​D2​
​size (half-size) drawing board.​

​2)​ ​Set-squares​
​Two​ ​common​ ​set​​squares​​are​​45°​​and​​30°–60°.​​They​​are​​used​​with​​a​​T-square​​to​​draw​​straight,​
​angled,​​and​​parallel​​lines​​accurately.​​Made​​o f​​clear​​acrylic,​​they​​have​​smooth,​​beveled​​edges​​with​
​measurement​ ​markings.​ ​The​ ​45°​ ​set​ ​square​ ​o ften​ ​includes​ ​a​ ​protractor,​ ​while​​the​​30°–60°​​o ne​
​may have French curves.​

​3)​ ​French Curve/Flexible Curve​

​A​ ​French​ ​curve​ ​is​ ​a​ ​plastic​ ​tool​ ​used​ ​to​ ​draw​ ​smooth,​
​freeform​ ​curves​ ​through​ ​non-aligned​​points.​​You​​match​​its​
​edge​​to​​a​​few​​points​​and​​trace​​the​​curve​​with​​a​​pencil.​​It​​can​
​also​ ​be​ ​built​ ​into​ ​a​ ​30°–60°​ ​set​ ​square.​ ​A​ ​flexible​ ​curve​​is​

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​another​​tool​​made​​o f​​bendable​​wire​​with​​a​​rubber​​coating​​that​​can​​be​​shaped​​as​​needed.​​It​​o ften​

​has​ ​markings​ ​and​ ​comes​ ​in​ ​different​ ​lengths​ ​(30–60​ ​cm).​ ​These​ ​tools​ ​are​ ​commonly​ ​used​ ​to​
​draw engineering curves, loci, sections, and intersections of solids.​

​4)​ ​Circle Template / Procircle​

​A​ ​transparent​ ​acrylic​ ​circle​ ​template​ ​is​ ​used​ ​to​ ​quickly​ ​draw​
​small​ ​circles,​ ​usually​ ​from​ ​2​ ​mm​ ​to​ ​30​ ​mm​ ​in​ ​diameter.​​It​​has​
​marks​ ​to​ ​help​​align​​circles​​with​​centerlines.​​It's​​best​​for​​circles​
​under 5 mm; for larger ones, a compass is more accurate.​

​5)​ ​Lettering Template​

​A​ ​Letter​ ​template​ ​is​ ​a​ ​plastic​ ​plate​ ​o n​
​which​​letters​​are​​carved,​​Fig..​​It​​may​​be​
​used​​for​​double​​stroke​​Gothic​​lettering​ ​.​
​For​ ​single-stroke​ ​lettering,​ ​the​ ​use​ ​o f​
​lettering​ ​templates​ ​is​ ​not​
​recommended.​

​6)​ ​Mini-Drafter​
​A​ ​mini​ ​drafter​ ​is​ ​a​ ​handy​ ​tool​ ​used​ ​to​ ​quickly​ ​draw​
​parallel,​​inclined,​​and​​perpendicular​​lines.​​It​​is​​fixed​​to​​the​
​top​ ​left​ ​corner​ ​o f​ ​a​ ​drawing​ ​board.​ ​It​ ​has​ ​an​ ​L-shaped​
​scale​ ​with​ ​mm​ ​and​ ​angle​ ​markings,​ ​connected​ ​by​ ​steel​
​bars​ ​and​ ​a​ ​clamp​ ​that​ ​lets​ ​it​ ​move​ ​smoothly​ ​across​ ​the​
​board.​

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​7)​ ​Instrument Box​

​An​​instrument​​box​​holds​​commonly​​used​​drawing​​tools​​like​​compasses,​​dividers,​​pencil​​and​​pen​
​points, inking pen, lead sticks, and more. It keeps the instruments organized and easy to carry.​

​8)​ ​Protractor​
​A​ ​protractor​ ​is​ ​used​ ​to​ ​draw​ ​and​ ​measure​ ​the​ ​angles.​ ​It​ ​is​
​available​ ​separately​ ​o r​ ​as​ ​a​ ​45°​ ​set-square.​ ​A​ ​medium-sized​
​transparent​ ​protractor​ ​capable​ ​o f​ ​mea-suring​ ​up​ ​to​ ​1°​ ​is​
​recommended.​

​9)​ ​Compasses​
​Compasses​ ​are​ ​used​ ​to​ ​draw​ ​circles​ ​and​
​arcs.​ ​Good-quality​ ​steel​ ​compasses​ ​ensure​
​accuracy. There are two main types:​
​Large​ ​Compass​ ​–​ ​Has​ ​a​ ​needle​ ​leg​ ​and​ ​a​
​pencil​​leg​​with​​a​​knee​​joint​​for​​adjusting​​the​
​pencil​​angle.​​It​​can​​draw​​circles​​larger​​than​
​25​ ​mm.​​A​​lengthening​​bar​​can​​be​​added​​to​
​draw​ ​circles​ ​over​ ​150​ ​mm​ ​in​ ​diameter.​ ​The​ ​pencil​ ​point​ ​can​ ​be​ ​replaced​ ​with​ ​a​ ​pen​ ​point​ ​for​
​inking.​
​Small​ ​Spring​ ​Bow​ ​Compasses​ ​–​ ​Include​ ​bow​ ​pencil​ ​and​ ​bow​ ​pen​​compasses,​​used​​for​​drawing​
​small circles under 25 mm in diameter.​

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​10)​ ​Dividers​
​Dividers​ ​are​ ​used​ ​to​ ​transfer​
​lengths​ ​from​ ​o ne​ ​place​ ​to​ ​another.​
​They​ ​are​ ​also​ ​used​ ​to​ ​set-off​
​desired​ ​distance​ ​from​ ​the​ ​scale​ ​o n​
​the​​paper.​​Sometimes,​​they​​are​​used​
​to​ ​make​ ​precise​ ​markings​ ​o n​ ​the​
​drawing.​ ​Heavy​ ​steel​ ​dividers​
​ensure perfection in drawing.​
​Two​​sizes​​o f​​dividers—(i)​​large​​divider,,​​and​​(ii)​​small​​spring​​bow​​divider,​​,​​are​​used​​in​​technical​
​drawing.​

​11)​ ​Roller Scale​

​A​ ​roller​ ​scale​ ​is​ ​a​ ​handy​ ​device​ ​used​ ​to​ ​draw​ ​parallel​ ​and​
​inclined​ ​lines.​ ​It​ ​consists​ ​o f​ ​a​ ​broad​ ​scale​ ​that​ ​includes​ ​a​
​protractor​​mounted​​o n​​a​​roller.​​The​​accuracy​​o f​​this​​device​​is​
​not​ ​comparable​ ​with​ ​the​ ​accuracy​ ​o f​ ​a​ ​T-square​​and​​drafter.​
​However, it is a speedy device and may be used for practice in classrooms.​

​12)​ ​Pencils:​
​Pencils​ ​are​ ​essential​ ​tools​ ​for​​drawing,​​and​​their​
​grades​ ​affect​ ​the​ ​quality​ ​o f​ ​work.​ ​The​ ​grade,​
​marked​ ​near​ ​the​ ​pencil's​ ​end,​ ​helps​ ​choose​ ​the​
​right​​o ne​​for​​different​​types​​o f​​lines.​​Pencils​​with​
​hexagonal or triangular shapes give a better grip.​
​For technical drawing, use three main grades:​

​HB (Soft) – for borders, lettering, and freehand sketching​

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​H (Medium) – for visible outlines and edges​

​2H (Hard) – for construction, dimension, center, extension, leader, hatching, and hidden lines​
​Lead​​pens​​can​​be​​used​​instead​​o f​​pencils,​​and​​they​​must​​match​​the​​correct​​lead​​grade.​​Different​
​colors can be used to identify different grades.​

​13)​ ​Drawing Clips, Pins and Adhesive Tape​

​Drawing​​clips,​​pins​​and​​adhesive​​tape​​are​​used​​to​​fix​​drawing​​paper/sheet​​o n​​the​​drawing​​board.​
​Drawing​ ​clips,​ ​,​​are​​used​​to​​clamp​​drawing​​sheet​​corners​​along​​drawing​​board​​edges.​​To​​fix​​the​
​corners​​o f​​the​​sheet​​o n​​the​​surface​​o f​​the​​board,​​we​​use​​a​​drawing​​pin,​​,​​o r​​adhesive​​tape,​​.​​Pins​
​pierce the sheet and the board creating holes on them. Adhesive tapes are free​

​14)​ ​Drawing Sheet​

​Drawing​ ​sheets​ ​are​
​the​ ​surfaces​ ​used​ ​for​
​making​ ​drawings​ ​with​
​pencils​ ​o r​ ​pens.​ ​They​
​come​​in​​standard​​sizes​
​defined​ ​by​ ​Indian​
​Standards​ ​(IS).​ ​As​ ​per​
​BIS,​ ​each​ ​sheet​ ​size​ ​is​
​half​ ​the​ ​size​ ​o f​ ​the​
​previous​ ​o ne​ ​(e.g.,​ ​A1​
​is​​half​​o f​​A0,​​A2​​is​​half​
​o f A1, etc.).​
​For​​practice​​in​​schools​
​and​ ​colleges,​ ​A2​ ​size​
​(also called half-imperial) and sometimes A1 size sheets are commonly used.​

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​Drawing Sheet (IS​ ​Size (mm)​ ​Drawing Board (IS​ ​Size (mm)​
​10711:2001)​ ​1444:1989)​

​A0​ ​1189 × 841​ ​D0​ ​1270 × 920​

​A1​ ​841 × 594​ ​D1​ ​920 × 650​

​A2​ ​594 × 420​ ​D2​ ​650 × 470​

​A3​ ​420 × 297​ ​D3​ ​500 × 350​

​A4​ ​297 × 210​ ​—​ ​—​

​Table: Recommended Sizes of Drawing Sheets and Drawing Boards​

​1.3 Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)​

​BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) is India’s National Standards Body, established on 1 April 1987,​
​replacing the earlier ISI. Its aim is to support industrial and commercial growth by creating​
​global-quality product standards. BIS works with international bodies like ISO and has published​
​several standards for technical drawings, including IS codes and SP 46:2003.​

​These standards should be followed during drawing practice.​

​1.4 Drawing sheet layout​

​Every drawing sheet is to follow a​

​particular layout. As standard practice​
​sufficient margins are to be provided on​
​all sides of the drawing sheet. The​
​drawing sheet should have a drawing​
​space and title page. A typical layout of​
​a drawing sheet is shown in the figure​

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​Borders​​: Leave a minimum 10 mm space all around​​the edges of the sheet.​

​Filing Margin​​: Leave at least 20 mm on the left side,​​including the border, for punching holes.​
​Grid Reference System​​: Used in industrial drawings​​to locate specific areas easily.​
​The sheet is divided into equal sections:​
​Horizontal edges are numbered.​
​Vertical edges are labeled with capital letters.​
​Borders​​: Leave a minimum 10 mm space all around the​​edges of the sheet.​
​Filing Margin​​: Leave at least 20 mm on the left side,​​including the border, for punching holes.​
​Grid Reference System​​: Used in industrial drawings​​to locate specific areas easily.​
​.​

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​The sheet is divided into equal sections:​

​Horizontal edges are numbered.​
​Vertical edges are labeled with capital letters.​
​Grid size​​: 25 mm to 75 mm.​
​Numbering and lettering start from the corner opposite the title box.​
​If the count exceeds available letters/numbers, use AA, BB, etc.​
​Not required for first-year engineering students.​
​Title Box: Placed in the bottom right corner of every sheet. It contains:​
​Identification Zone​​:​
​Drawing title​
​Part or identification number​
​Name of the owner/company​
​Additional Information Zone​​:​
​Projection method symbol​
​Scale used​
​Surface finish, tolerances, and other technical/admin details​

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​1.5 Zoning​

​Vertical and horizontal zoning may be used if necessary to provide orientation to the field of​
​drawings. Zoning is mandatory for multi sheet drawings “D” size and larger and single-sheet​

​drawings “E” size and larger. Zones shall be identified by alphabetical (uppercase) and numerical​
​entries in the margin spaces as indicated in Figure 1. Zone sizes shall be 81⁄2 inches (width) by 11​
​inches (length) for “E” and “J” size, 7 inches (width) by 10 inches (length) for “F” size, and 51⁄2​
​inches (width) by 81⁄2 inches (length) for “D” size.​

​Engineering​ ​drawing​ ​is​ ​supposed​ ​to​ ​give​ ​complete​​information​​about​​the​​shape​​and​​size​​o f​​the​

​o bjects​ ​like​ ​machine​ ​parts,​ ​buildings,​ ​etc.​ ​The​ ​shape​ ​o f​ ​the​ ​o bject​ ​is​ ​conveyed​ ​through​ ​the​
​appearance​ ​o f​ ​the​ ​drawing​ ​while​ ​the​ ​size​ ​description​ ​is​ ​expressed​ ​in​ ​the​ ​form​ ​o f​ ​figured​
​dimensions​​and​​notes.​​The​​Bureau​​o f​​Indian​​Standards​​has​​recommended​​various​​types​​o f​​lines,​
​letters​ ​and​​dimensions​​to​​be​​used.​​This​​topic​​introduces​​the​​standard​​practice​​for​​configuration​
​o f​​lines​​to​​specify​​shape,​​letters​​for​​writing​​notes,​​dimensions​​to​​convey​​the​​size​​and​​the​​correct​
​way of their implementation.​

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​1.6 Types of line (IMP)​

​Engineering drawing is supposed to give complete information about the shape and size of the​
​o bjects like machine parts, buildings, etc. The shape of the object is conveyed through the​
​appearance of the drawing while the size description is expressed in the form of figured​
​dimensions and notes. The Bureau of Indian Standards has recommended various types of lines,​
​letters and dimensions to be used. This chapter introduces the standard practice for​
​configuration of lines to specify shape, letters for writing notes, dimensions to convey the size​
​and the correct way of their implementation.​

​Sr. No.​ ​Representation​ ​Description​

​01​ ​Continuous line​

​02​ ​Dashed line​

​03​ ​Dashed space line​

​04​ ​Long dashed dotted line​

​05​ ​Long dashed double-dotted line​

​06​ ​Long dashed triplicate-dotted line​

​07​ ​Dotted line​

​08​ ​Long dashed short dashed line​

​09​ ​Long dashed double-short dashed line​

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​10​ ​Dashed dotted line​

​11​ ​Double-dashed dotted line​

​12​ ​Dashed double-dotted line​

​13​ ​Double-dashed double-dotted line​

​14​ ​Dashed triplicate-dotted line​

​15​ ​Double-dashed triplicate-dotted line​

​16​ ​Long dashed dotted line with both ends dark​

​S. No.​ ​Line Description and Representation​ ​Applications​

​1​ ​Continuous narrow lines​ ​(a) Imaginary lines of intersection​

​(b) Dimension line​

​(c) Extension line​

​(d) Leader line with reference line​

​(e) Hatching​

​(f) Outlines of revolved section​

​(g) Short centre lines​

​(h) Root of screw threads​

​(i) Dimension lines termination,​

​arrowheads​

(​ j) Diagonals for indication of flat​

​surfaces​

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(​ k) Bending lines on blanks and​

​processing parts (l) Framing of details​

​(m) Indication of repetitive details​

(​ n) Interpretation lines of tapered​

​features (o) Location of laminations​

​(p) Projection lines​

​(q) Grid lines​

​2​ ​Continuous narrow freehand line​ (​ a) Preferably manually represented​

​termination of partial or interrupted​
​views, cuts and sections, if the limit is​
​not a line of symmetry or a centre line​

​3​ ​Continuous narrow line with zigzags​ ​(a) Preferably mechanically​

​represented termination of partial or​
​interrupted views, cuts and sections. If​
​the limit is not a line of symmetry or a​
​centre line​

​4​ ​Continuous wide line​ ​(a) Visible edges​

​(b) Visible outlines​

​(c) Crests of screw threads​

​(d) Limit of length of full depth thread​

(​ e) Main representation in diagrams,​

​maps, flow charts​

​(f) System lines (structural metal​

e​ ngineering) (g) Parting lines of​
​moulds in views​

​5​ ​Dashed narrow line​ ​(a) Hidden edges​

​(b) Hidden outlines​

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​1.7 Title block​

​Layout of the title box recommended for Engineering Drawing Course Is as shown in figure .​

​1.8 Lettering​

​Lettering​​is​​used​​for​​writing​​o f​​titles,​​sub-titles,​​dimensions,​​scales​​and​​o ther​​details​​o n​​a​​drawing.​

​Typical lettering features used for engineering drawing are shown in the above figure .​

​The​​following​​rules​​are​​to​​be​​followed​​in​​lettering.​​The​​letter​ ​sizes​​generally​​recommended​​for​
​various items are shown in Table.​

​Sr. No.​ ​Item​ ​Size (mm)​

​1​ ​Name of the company​ ​10, 14, 20​

​2​ ​Drawing numbers, letters denoting section planes​ ​10, 14​

​3​ ​Title of the Drawing​ ​7, 10​

​4​ ​Sub-titles and heading​ ​5, 7​

​5​ ​Dimensioning, Notes, Schedules, Material list​ ​3.5, 7​

​6​ ​Alteration entries and tolerances​ ​3.5​

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​Essential features of lettering – legibility, uniformity, ease, rapidity, and suitability for​
​microfilming/photocopying/any other photographic processes​
​No ornamental and embellishing style of letter​
​Plain letters and numerals which are clearly distinguishable from each other in order to avoid​
​any confusion even in case of slight mutilations​
​The Indian standard followed for lettering BIS: 9609​

​2.5​ ​3.5​ ​5​ ​7​ ​10​ ​14​ ​20​

​Specifications​ ​Value​
​mm​ ​mm​ ​mm​ ​mm​ ​mm​ ​mm​ ​mm​

​Capital letter height​ ​h​ ​2.5​ ​3.5​ ​5​ ​7​ ​10​ ​14​ ​20​

​Lowercase letter height​ ​a = (5/7)h​ ​–​ ​2.5​ ​3.5​ ​5​ ​7​ ​10​ ​14​

​Thickness of lines​ ​b = (1/14)h​ ​0.18​ ​0.25​ ​0.35​ ​0.5​ ​0.7​ ​1​ ​1.4​

​Spacing between characters​ ​c = (1/7)h​ ​0.35​ ​0.5​ ​0.7​ ​1​ ​1.4​ ​2​ ​2.8​

​Min. spacing between words​ ​d = (3/7)h​ ​1.05​ ​1.5​ ​2.1​ ​3​ ​4.2​ ​6​ ​8.4​

​Min. spacing between​

​baselines​ ​e = (10/7)h​ ​3.5​ ​5​ ​7​ ​10​ ​14​ ​20​ ​28​

​How to begin your drawing?​

​To start with the preparation of a drawing the procedure mentioned below may be followed:​

​1.​ ​Clean the drawing board and all the drawing instruments using a duster.​
​2.​ ​Fix the drawing sheet on the drawing board.​
​3.​ ​Fix the mini-drafter in a convenient position.​
​4.​ ​Draw border lines using HB pencil..​
​5.​ ​Complete the title box using HB pencil .​
​6.​ ​Plan spacing of drawings b/n two problems/views beforehand.​
​7.​ ​Print the problem number on the left top and then commence the drawing work.​
​8.​ ​Keeping the drawing clean is a must​
​9.​ ​Never sharpen pencils over drawing.​
​10.​ ​Clean the pencil point with a soft cloth after sharpening.​

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​11.​ ​Keep drawing instruments clean.​

​12.​ ​Rest hands lightly on drawing tools to prevent smudging graphite​
​13.​ ​Darken lines top to bottom, left to right to avoid smudging.​
​14.​ ​Use a brush to remove eraser particles. Never use hands.​
​15.​ ​Always use appropriate drawing pencils.​

​1.9 Dimensioning​

​A​ ​drawing​​without​​dimensions​​is​​meaningless.​​Dimensions​​are​​necessary​​to​​show​​the​​exact​​size​
​o f​ ​an​ ​o bject.​ ​Dimensioning​ ​refers​ ​to​ ​the​ ​act​ ​o f​ ​giving​ ​dimensions,​ ​i.e.,​ ​length,​ ​width,​ ​height,​
​diameter,​ ​etc.,​ ​o f​ ​the​ ​o bject.​ ​This​ ​information​ ​is​ ​provided​ ​by​ ​giving​ ​numeric​ ​values​ ​to​ ​various​
​features​ ​o f​ ​the​ ​o bject​ ​o n​ ​the​ ​drawing.​ ​A​ ​feature​ ​is​ ​an​​individual​​characteristic​​such​​as​​a​​flat​​o r​
​cylindrical surface, a slot or a groove, a taper, a shoulder, a screw thread, etc.​
​BIS (SP 46: 2003) defines dimension as a numerical value expressed in appropriate units of​
​measurement and indicated graphically on technical drawings with lines, symbols and notes.​
​The important aspects of dimensioning are as follows:​
​Units​ ​of​ ​Measurement​ ​:​ ​On​ ​technical​ ​drawing​ ​we​ ​need​ ​to​ ​show​ ​lengths​ ​and​ ​angles.​ ​The​​most​
​convenient​ ​unit​ ​for​ ​length​ ​is​ ​millimetre.​ ​In​ ​civil​ ​engineering​ ​and​ ​architectural​ ​drawing,​ ​inch​ ​o r​
​foot is often used as a unit of length. Angles are shown in degrees.​
​Symbols :​​Symbols are incorporated to indicate specific​​geometry wherever necessary.​
​Notes​ ​:​ ​are​​provided​​to​​give​​specification​​o f​​a​​particular​​feature​​o r​​to​​give​​specific​​information​
​necessary during the manufacturing of the object.​
​Dimensioning is often done by a set of elements, which includes extension lines, dimension lines,​

​leader lines, arrowheads and dimensions.​

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​1.​​Dimension​​value​​It​​is​​a​​numerical​​value​​that​​is​​being​​assigned​​to​​the​​size,​​shape​​o r​​location​​o f​
​the​​feature​​being​​dimensioned.​​They​​are​​expressed​​in​​a​​specific​​unit​​(preferably​​millimetres)​​o n​
​drawings with relevant information.​
​2.​ ​Dimension​ ​lines​ ​These​ ​are​ ​thin​ ​continuous​ ​lines​ ​that​ ​show​ ​the​ ​extent​ ​and​ ​direction​ ​o f​ ​the​
​dimension.​ ​They​ ​should​ ​be​ ​placed​ ​8​ ​to​ ​10​ ​mm​ ​away​ ​from​ ​the​ ​o utlines​ ​and​ ​should​ ​be​ ​placed​
​uniformly​ ​6​ ​to​ ​8​ ​mm​ ​from​ ​each​ ​o ther.​ ​The​ ​dimension​ ​values​ ​are​ ​placed​ ​preferably​ ​near​ ​the​
​middle of the dimension lines.​
​3.​ ​Projection​ ​lines​ ​These​ ​are​ ​the​ ​thin​ ​continuous​ ​lines​ ​stretched​ ​o ut​ ​from​ ​the​ ​o utlines​ ​for​
​dimensioning​ ​and​ ​extended​ ​2​ ​to​ ​3​ ​mm​​beyond​​the​​dimension​​lines.​​They​​should​​be​​drawn​​in​​a​
​direction​ ​perpendicular​ ​to​ ​the​ ​feature​ ​to​ ​be​ ​dimensioned.​ ​Projection​ ​lines​ ​and​​dimension​​lines​
​should​ ​not​ ​cross​​o ther​​lines,​​unless​​this​​is​​unavoidable.​​Under​​special​​circumstances,​​projection​
​lines may be drawn obliquely, but parallel with each other as shown in Fig​
​4.​ ​Leaders​ ​or​ ​pointer​ ​lines​ ​These​ ​are​ ​the​ ​lines​ ​referring​​to​​a​​feature​​and​​notes.​​It​​is​​executed​
​using​​the​​thin​​continuous​​lines​​and​​terminated​​by​​arrow​​heads​​o r​​dots​​as​​shown​​in​​Fig.(a).​​Notes​
​and figures are written above the extended dimension lines.​
​Leaders​ ​should​ ​not​ ​be​ ​inclined​ ​at​ ​an​ ​angle​ ​less​ ​than​ ​30°​ ​as​ ​shown​ ​in​ ​Fig.(b)​ ​o r​ ​parallel​ ​to​
​adjacent​ ​dimensions​ ​o r​ ​projection​ ​lines​​where​​confusion​​might​​arise.​​Leaders​​are​​never​​drawn​
​vertical,​​horizontal,​​curved​​o r​​free​​hand.​​Usually​​they​​are​​drawn​​at​​any​​convenient​​angle​​30°,​​45°​
​and 60. Use of long leaders should be avoided.​

​5.​ ​Arrowheads​ ​Usually,​ ​arrowheads​ ​are​ ​used​ ​for​​the​​termination​​o f​​dimension​​lines.​​They​​may​

​be​​o pen​​at​​a​​convenient​​angle​​o f​​30°​​to​​90°,​​closed​​blank​​o r​​closed​​filled​​as​​shown​​in​​Fig.(a).​​The​
​closed​​filled​​arrowheads​​have​​length​​about​​three​​times​​the​​depth/width​​as​​shown​​in​​Fig.(b),​​and​
​are​ ​preferred​ ​in​ ​the​ ​engineering​ ​drawings.​ ​Usually,​ ​the​ ​length​ ​o f​ ​closed​ ​filled​ ​arrowheads​ ​is​ ​3​
​mm​ ​for​ ​small​ ​drawings​ ​and​ ​4​ ​to​ ​5​ ​mm​ ​for​​large​​drawings.​​Oblique​​stroke​​shown​​in​​Fig.(c)​​and​
​point​ ​shown​ ​in​ ​Fig.(d)​ ​may​ ​be​ ​used​​in​​lieu​​o f​​arrowheads​​when​​the​​space​​to​​accommodate​​the​
​arrowheads termination is insufficient.​

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​6.​​Placement​​of​​dimensions​​Dimensions​​should​​be​​placed​​o n​​the​​view​​which​​shows​​the​​relevant​
​features more clearly. The two recommended systems of placing the dimensions are as follows:​
​6.1​​Aligned System​
​i.​ ​Linear​ ​dimensioning​ ​All​ ​dimension​ ​values​ ​are​ ​placed​ ​above​ ​the​ ​dimension​ ​lines​ ​as​ ​shown​​in​
​Fig.(a).​ ​The​ ​values​ ​can​ ​be​ ​read​ ​from​ ​the​ ​bottom​ ​o r​ ​the​ ​right-hand​ ​edges​​o f​​the​​drawing​​sheet.​
​Figure(b)​ ​shows​ ​the​ ​recommended​ ​direction​ ​that​ ​has​ ​to​ ​be​ ​used​ ​for​ ​writing​ ​the​ ​dimension​
​values​​for​​the​​inclined​​dimension​​lines.​​As​​far​​as​​possible,​​dimension​​lines​​should​​not​​be​​placed​
​in 30º zone, shown by hatching in Fig.(b)​

​ii. Angular dimensioning Angular dimensions and their deviations are dimensioned in the same​
​manner as that of linear dimensions. Figure(a) shows the recommended direction that has to be​
​used for writing the dimension values. In certain cases, dimension values may be written​
​horizontally as shown in Fig.(b), if this improves clarity.​

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​6.2​​Unidirectional System​
​i.​ ​Linear​ ​dimensioning​ ​All​ ​dimension​​values​​are​​placed​​upright​​as​​shown​​in​​Fig.(a),​​so​​that​​they​
​may​ ​be​ ​read​ ​from​ ​the​ ​bottom​ ​edge​ ​o f​ ​the​ ​drawing​ ​sheet.​ ​For​ ​inserting​ ​a​ ​dimension​ ​value,​​the​
​dimension​​line​​is​​broken​​in​​the​​middle.​​Figure(b)​​conveys​​that​​there​​is​​no​​restriction​​for​​writing​
​the​ ​dimension​ ​values​ ​for​ ​the​ ​inclined​ ​dimension​ ​lines.​ ​This​ ​system​ ​is​ ​advantageous​ ​o n​ ​large​
​drawings where it is inconvenient to read dimensions from the right-hand side.​

​ii.​ ​Angular​ ​dimensioning​ ​Angular​ ​dimensions​ ​and​​their​​deviations​​are​​dimensioned​​in​​the​​same​

​manner​ ​as​ ​that​ ​o f​ ​linear​ ​dimensions.​ ​Given​ ​below​ ​Figure​ ​suggests​​the​​correct​​o rientation​​and​
​method for writing dimension values.​

​1.10 Geometric dimensioning & tolerances (IMP)​

​Geometric​ ​Dimensioning​ ​and​ ​Tolerancing​ ​(GD&T)​ ​is​ ​a​ ​system​ ​used​ ​in​ ​engineering​ ​and​
​manufacturing​ ​to​ ​define​ ​and​ ​communicate​ ​the​ ​allowable​ ​variation​ ​in​ ​the​ ​shape,​ ​o rientation,​
​location,​ ​and​ ​size​ ​o f​ ​a​ ​part.​ ​It's​ ​essential​ ​for​ ​ensuring​ ​that​ ​parts​ ​fit​ ​and​ ​function​ ​correctly​ ​in​
​assemblies—even when produced by different vendors or across different production batche​​s.​

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​As​​the​​image​​illustrates​​the​​core​​concepts​​o f​​Geometric​​Dimensioning​​and​​Tolerancing​​(GD&T).​​It​
​starts​ ​with​ ​the​ ​Specification,​ ​showing​ ​an​ ​ideal​ ​CAD​ ​model​ ​with​​perfect​​dimensions.​​In​​contrast,​
​Reality​ ​reflects​ ​actual​ ​manufactured​ ​parts,​ ​which​ ​o ften​ ​have​ ​surface​ ​irregularities​ ​and​
​dimensional​ ​variations.​ ​GD&T​ ​bridges​ ​this​ ​gap​ ​using​ ​the​ ​Envelope​ ​Principle,​ ​ensuring​ ​parts​ ​fit​
​within a defined boundary to maintain functionality.​
​The​ ​Maximum​ ​Material​ ​Condition​ ​(MMC)​ ​represents​ ​the​ ​state​ ​with​ ​the​ ​most​ ​material​ ​(e.g.,​
​smallest​ ​hole),​ ​allowing​ ​for​ ​tighter​ ​fits​ ​and​ ​additional​ ​tolerance​ ​(bonus​ ​tolerance).​ ​The​ ​Least​
​Material​​Condition​​(LMC)​​reflects​​the​​o pposite,​​where​​strength​​o r​​clearance​​matters​​most.​​GD&T​
​helps​ ​ensure​ ​that​ ​even​ ​imperfect​ ​parts​ ​will​ ​assemble​ ​and​ ​function​ ​correctly,​ ​improving​
​consistency, reducing costs, and enabling effective quality control​​.​

​1.10.1 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing Symbols Chart​

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​APPLICATION​ ​TYPE​ ​CHARACTERISTIC​ ​SYMBOL​

​Straightness​

​Flatness​
​Individual Features​ ​Form​
​Circularity​

​Cylindricity​

​Line Profile​
​Profile​
​Surface Profile​

​Individual or Related Features​ ​Angularity​

​Orientation​ ​Perpendicularity​

​Parallelism​

​Position​

​Location​ ​Concentricity​

​Related Features​ ​Symmetry​

​Circular Runout​
​Runout​
​Total Runout​

​1.11 Geometric Constructions(IMP)​

​Ex. 1. Bisect (a) an 80 mm long line and (b) a circular arc AB.​

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​a) b)​

​Please see Figures (a) and (b):​

​1. Draw an arc or a line PQ that is 80 mm long as specified.​
​2. Adjust the compass such that the radius is more than half of PQ's length. Arcs above and below​
​the line (or arc) PQ should be drawn, using P as the center.​
​3. Draw arcs above and below PQ with the same radius with Q as the center. Then, intersect the​
​previously drawn arcs at R and S.​
​4. A straight line should be drawn connecting locations R and S. The perpendicular bisector of​
​PQ, which splits it into two equal sections, is line RS.​

​Ex. 2. Divide an 80 mm long straight line into seven equal parts.​

​1. Draw an 80 mm long straight line AB.​

​2. Draw another line AC at any convenient acute angle with AB.​

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​3. Set the divider to a convenient length and mark off seven equal spaces on AC. Let these points​
​be 1’, 2’, 3’, 4’, 5’, 6’, and 7’.​
​4. Join 7’ to B.​
​5. Set the drafter along 7’B and draw parallel lines through points 1’, 2’, 3’, 4’, 5’ and 6’ to meet AB​
​at points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 respectively. These points divide AB in seven equal parts. A scale can​
​also be used to lay off equal intercepts on line AC as shown in Figure​

​Ex. 3. Draw an angle of 75° and bisect it with the help of a​

​compass.​
​1. Draw an angle AOB which is equal to 75°.​
​2. Set compass to any convenient radius and with centre O,​
​draw an arc CD to meet lines OA and OB at points C and D​
​respectively.​
​3. Reset the compass to any radius greater than half of chord​
​length CD. With centres C and D respectively, draw arcs to intersect each other at point P.​
​4. Join O to P. Line OP is the bisector of the angle AOB​

​Ex. 4. Locate the centre of the arc shown in Fig​

​1. Draw two chords CD and EF of any convenient​
​lengths in the arc.​
​2. Draw PQ as the bisector of chord CD .Similarly, draw​
​RS as the bisector of chordEF.​
​3. Let the lines PQ and RS, produced if required,​
​intersect each other at point O. The point O is the​
​required centre of the arc.​

​Ex. 5. Divide a 50 mm diameter circle into 12 equal​

​segments.​
​1. Draw a circle with centre O and 50 mm diameter.​
​2. Using a drafter, draw diameters AG and DJ, perpendicular​
​o f each other.​

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​3. Draw arcs of radius equal to the radius of the circle (= 25 mm) and centre A to meet the​
​circumference of the circles at points C and K.​
​4. Similarly, draw arcs of the same radius (= 25 mm) and centres D, G and J respectively, to meet​
​the circumference of the circle at points B, F, E, I, H and L. The points divide the circumference of​
​the circle into 12 equal segments.​

​Ex. 6. Draw an arc of 20 mm radius connecting two​

​straight lines inclined at 75° to each other.​
​1. Draw an angle CAB of 75°.​
​2. Draw a line PQ parallel to AB at a distance 20 mm.​
​3. Draw another line RS parallel to AC at a distance 20 mm​
​to intersect line PQ at point O.​
​4. With centre O and radius 20 mm, draw an arc EF. The​
​arc EF is tangential to both lines AB and AC​​.​

​Ex. 7. Draw a regular pentagon of 40 mm side.​

​Method 1​​Refer to Fig.(a).​
​1. Draw a 40 mm long line AB.​
​2. Set compass to radius AB and draw circle 1 and circle 2 with centres A and B respectively. Let​
​circles 1 and 2 intersect each other at points P and Q.​
​3. With centre P and same radius AB, draw an arc to intersect circle 1 and circle 2 at points R and​
​S respectively.​
​4. Join PQ to meet arc RS at point M.​
​5. Join RM and produce it to meet circle 2 at point C.​

​6. Join SM and produce it to meet circle 1 at point E.​

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​7. Draw arcs with radius AB and centres C and E respectively, to intersect each other at point D.​
​8. Join ABCDE to obtain the required pentagon.​
​Method 2​​Refer to Fig.(b).​
​1. Draw a 40 mm long line AB and mark its mid-point P .​
​2. Erect line BQ perpendicular and equal to AB.​
​3. Draw an arc with centre P and radius PQ to meet AB produced at point M. Line AM is the​
​diagonal of the pentagon.​
​4. Draw an arc with centre A and radius AM to intersect the arc with centre B and radius AB at​
​point C.​
​5. Draw another arc with centre A and radius AB to intersect the arc with centre B and radius AM​
​at point E.​
​6. Draw arcs of radius AM with centres A and B respectively, to intersect each other at point D.​
​7. Join ABCDE to obtain the required pentagon.​
​Method 3​​Refer to Fig.(c).​
​1. Draw a 40 mm long line AB.​
​2. Draw 40 mm long lines AE and BC, both inclined at 108° with line AB.​
​3. With centres C and E and radius AB, draw arcs to intersect each other at point D.​
​4. Join ABCDE to obtain the required pentagon.​
​Method 4​​Refer to Fig.(d).​
​1. Draw a 40 mm long line AB.​
​2. Draw a line PD as the perpendicular bisector of line AB .​
​3. Set the length of PD equal to 1.54 times of the length of the side AB.​
​4. Draw arcs with radius AB and centres B and D respectively, to intersect each other at point C.​
​5. Draw arcs with radius AB and centres A and D​
​respectively, to intersect each other at point E.​
​6. Join ABCDE to obtain the required pentagon.​

​Ex. 8. Draw a regular hexagon of 40 mm side.​

​1. Draw a 40 mm long line AB.​
​2. Draw lines A2 and A4 inclined at 60° and 120°​
​respec-tively with AB. Also, draw lines B1 and B3​
​inclined at 60° and 120° respectively with AB.​

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​3. Draw arcs with radius AB and centres A and B to inter- sect A4 and B1 at F and C respectively.​
​Also, draw arcs with radius AB and centres C and F to intersect A2 and B3 at D and E​
​respectively.​
​4. Join ABCDEF, to obtain the required hexagon.​

​Ex. 9. Draw a regular pentagon and a regular heptagon of 40 mm sides, using general​
​Method.​

​1. Draw a 40 mm long line OA.​

​2. Draw a semicircle AP with centre O and radius OA.​
​3.​​Divide​​the​​semi-circular​​AP​​into​​n​​equal​​parts,​​where​​n​​is​​the​​number​​o f​​sides​​o f​​the​​polygon​
​(n​​=​​5​​for​​pentagon​​and​​n​​=​​7​​for​​heptagon).​​Starting​​from​​point​​P,​​mark​​these​​divisions​​as​​1,​​2,​​3,​
​4, etc.​
​4. Join O2, O3, O4, etc.​
​5. Draw an arc with centre 2 and radius OA to cut the line O3 produced at B.​
​6.​ ​Draw​ ​another​ ​arc​ ​with​ ​centre​ ​B​ ​and​ ​the​ ​same​ ​radius​ ​OA​ ​to​ ​cut​ ​line​ ​O4​ ​produced​ ​at​ ​C.​ ​For​
​heptagon,​ ​proceed​ ​to​ ​draw​ ​arcs​ ​with​ ​centres​ ​C​ ​and​ ​D,​ ​radius​ ​OA​ ​to​ ​meet​ ​lines​ ​O5​ ​and​ ​O6​
​produced at points D and E, respectively.​
​7. Join the points O, 2, B, C, …, A and obtain the required polygon​
​End of Unit 1 Notes​

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​References:​

​1. Agrawal B. and Agrawal C. M., Engineering Graphics, TMH Publication, 2019.​

​2. D A Jolhe, Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD, McGraw Hill Education 2017​

​3.​​The ASME Y14.5 GD&T Standard | GD&T Basics​

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​Question Bank:​

​Q. No.​ ​Question​ ​Marks​ ​BTL​

​Q.1​ ​What is the name of the line X?​

​2​ ​BL 1​

​Q.2​ ​Match the following gd nt symbols & description​

​1)Straightness a)​
​2)Cylindricity b)​ ​2​ ​BL 2​
​3)flatness c)​
​4)Circularity d)​

​Q.3​ ​Match the following gd nt symbols & description​

​1)Angularity a)​
​2)Profile of a surface b)​
​2​ ​BL 2​
​3)Profile of line c)​
​4)perpendicularity d)​

​Q.4​ ​Match the following gd&t symbols & description​

​1)position a)​
​2)parallelism b)​ ​2​ ​BL 2​
​3)symmetry c)​
​4)concentricity d)​

​Q.5​ ​Illustrate difference between unidirectional & aligned dimensioning​

​2​ ​BL 2​
​method with pictorial presentation.​

​Q.6​ ​Which of the following dimensions is according to the ‘aligned​

​2​ ​BL 1​
​system’ of dimensioning?​

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​Q.7​ ​What is the name of line type 1 & 2 ?​

​2​ ​BL 1​

​Q.8​ ​The wrongly represented line in the below figure is _______​

​2​ ​BL 4​

​Q.9​ ​Draw GD & NT Symbols for​

​Straightness -​
​Flatness -​
​Circularity -​ ​2​ ​BL 3​
​Perpendicularity -​
​Position -​
​Concentricity -​

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​Q.10​ ​Draw given type of lines​

​Hidden line -​
​2​ ​BL 3​
​center line -​
​cutting line -​

​Q.11​ ​Use necessary drawing instruments to draw Fig in a square of 100​

​mm​

​4​ ​BL 3​

​Q.12​ ​Write the type of line name of​

​a,b,c,d,e​

​4​ ​BL 2​

​Q.13​ ​Write type of lines of labels from 1 to 15​

​4​ ​BL 2​

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​Q.14​ ​Write type of lines of labels from 1 to 8​

​4​ ​BL 2​

​Q.15​ ​Write type of lines of labels from 1 to 10​

​4​ ​BL 2​

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​Q.16​ ​The orthographic views of an object are shown in Figure . The​

​dimensions in the figure are named with labels 1 to 9​

​4​ ​BL 4​

​Q.17​ ​Use necessary drawing instruments to draw Fig in a square of 100​

​mm​

​4​ ​BL 3​

​Q.18​ ​Identify the line type and draw the diagram with labelled line type.​

​4​ ​BL 4​

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​Q.19​ ​Use necessary drawing instruments to redraw a given drawing in the​

​circle of diameter 100 mm.​

​4​ ​BL 3​

​Q.20​ ​Use necessary drawing instruments to redraw a given drawing in the​

​circle of diameter 90 mm.​

​4​ ​BL 3​

​Q.21​ ​Bisect (a) an 80 mm long line and (b) a circular arc AB.​ ​6​ ​BL 3​

​Q.22​ ​Divide an 80 mm long straight line into seven equal parts.​ ​6​ ​BL 3​

​Q.23​ ​Draw an angle of 75° and bisect it with the help of a compass​ ​6​ ​BL 3​

​Q.24​ ​Divide a 50 mm diameter circle into 12 equal segments.​ ​6​ ​BL 3​

​Q.25​ ​Draw an arc of 20 mm radius connecting two straight lines inclined​

​6​ ​BL 3​
​at 75° to each other.​

​Q.26​ ​Draw a regular heptagon of 40 mm sides, using a general method.​ ​6​ ​BL 3​

​Q.27​ ​Draw a regular hexagon of 40 mm sides, keeping a side vertical​ ​6​ ​BL 3​

​Q.28​ ​Draw a regular hexagon of 40 mm sides, keeping a side horizontal.​ ​6​ ​BL 3​

​Q.29​ ​Draw a regular pentagon of 40 mm side.​ ​6​ ​BL 3​

​Q.30​ ​Draw an arc of 20 mm radius connecting two straight lines inclined​

​6​ ​BL 3​
​at 75° to each other.​

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