OL/IGCSE Pak Studies PAGE 1 Geography Notes

CLIMATE
OL/IGCSE Pak Studies PAGE 2 Geography Notes
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LEARNING OUTCOMES!
Candidates should be able to:

 know the distribution of temperature and rainfall, including monsoon,

depressions and convectional rain
 know seasonal and regional variations, and the factors contributing to
them, including depressions, thunderstorms and cyclones (typhoons)
 understand the causes of the monsoon (knowledge of the causes of other
types of rain is not required)
 describe and explain the characteristics of the climate of the arid, semi-
arid, humid and highland regions, including seasonal variations
 know the influence of latitude and longitude on day length and climate
 understand the influence of the climate (both the benefits it brings and
the problems it causes) on the economy and on the lives of the people: –
the influence of low temperature, ice and snow on the lives of people in
the mountains – the influence of rain storms and flooding on agriculture,
industry and communications – the problems caused by drought and
shortage of water supply on agriculture and industry.
OL/IGCSE Pak Studies PAGE 4 Geography Notes

WEATHER
 Weather refers, generally, to day-to-day temperature and precipitation
activity.

CLIMATE
 Climate is the term for the average atmospheric conditions over longer
periods of time (30 years etc)

CLIMATIC ZONES
 Climatic zones do not experience exactly the same conditions throughout
the zone.
 There are great variations in rainfall, temperature, humidity, e.t.c. within a
zone.

Highland Climate

 The Highland zone includes areas like Gilgit, Murree, and Muzaffarabad.
 In this zone, winters are very cold to cool, and summers are mild to warm.
 The region gets rainfall from different sources such as relief rainfall, the
monsoon, thunderstorms, and western depressions.
 The Highland zone also includes areas like Quetta, Kalat, and Waziristan.
 In this zone, winters are cold to cool, and summers are mild to warm.
 The region gets rainfall from different sources such as relief rainfall, the
monsoon, thunderstorms, and western depressions.

Lowland Climate

 The Lowland zone includes areas like Islamabad, Sialkot, Multan and
Sukkur.
 In this zone, winters are cool to mild, and summers are hot.
 The region gets rainfall from different sources such as the monsoon,
convectional rainfall, and western depressions.

Coastal Climate

 The Coastal zone includes areas like Jiwani, Pasni, Ormara and Gwadar.
 In this zone, winters are mild, and summers are warm to hot.
 The region gets rainfall from different sources such as the monsoon,
cyclones, and western depressions.
OL/IGCSE Pak Studies PAGE 5 Geography Notes

Arid Climate

 The Arid zone includes areas like Thar, Thal, and Kharan.
 In this zone, winters are cool to mild, and summers are hot to very hot.
 The region gets rainfall from different sources such as the monsoon, and
western depressions.
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TEMPERATURE KEY
 Very Hot – 40 and above
 Hot – 31 to 39
 Warm – 21 to 30
 Mild – 10 to 20
 Cool – 3 to 9
 Cold – -5 to -2
 Very Cold – below -5
OL/IGCSE Pak Studies PAGE 8 Geography Notes

FACTORS AFFECTING TEMPERATURE

Angle of Sun
 Temperature is mostly influenced by the sun.
 Regions closer to the Equator are usually warmer, while regions near the
poles are cooler.
 This happens because solar radiation loses energy as it travels a longer
distance to the poles.
 Additionally, at the poles, the sunlight hits at an angle and spreads over a
larger area, reducing its intensity.
 Pakistan is in a subtropical area, so it gets strong solar radiation
concentrated in a small area, making it generally warmer.
 For example, Faisalabad is typically cooler than Hyderabad because it is
farther from the Equator.

Influence of large water bodies

 Water heats up more slowly than land because it has a high specific heat
capacity, meaning it needs to absorb more heat to increase in
temperature.
 As a result, land gets hotter quickly compared to the sea.
 When the land heats up, the air above it also warms up, becomes less
dense, and rises, creating a low-pressure area.
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 In contrast, the sea absorbs less heat, so the air above it stays cooler and
denser, maintaining high pressure.
 Winds move from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas, so in this case,
they blow from the sea towards the land.
 This cool, moist wind is known as a sea breeze.

 At night, when there is no solar radiation, the land loses heat quickly,
causing the air above it to cool down and become denser.
 Meanwhile, the sea retains its heat longer, so the air above it remains
warmer and less dense.
 This difference causes the wind to blow from the land to the sea, creating
what is known as a land breeze.
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 During the summers, the land gets much hotter than the Arabian Sea. This
difference sets up convection currents, where cool air from the sea flows
inland. This sea breeze helps cool down the land, making the summers less
hot than they would be without the sea's influence.
 In the winters, the sea stays warmer, so cold air from the coastal areas
moves towards the sea. To replace this air, warm, dry air from interior Sindh
and Punjab flows to the coast, making the winters less cold than they
would be without the sea's influence.
 If an area does not get this moderating effect from the sea, it has a
continental climate. This type of climate has very hot summers and very
cold winters. Usually, though not always, most of the rainfall in these areas
happens in the winter.

Altitudes
 Altitude has a big impact on the temperatures experienced by an area.
 Solar radiation, which is short-wavelength radiation, doesn't heat the
atmosphere directly as it passes through it because it is poorly absorbed
by air particles like gases and water vapor.
 Instead, the atmosphere is heated from the bottom by long-wave
radiation that the Earth's surface reflects. This long-wave radiation is better
absorbed by gas molecules and water vapor than short-wave radiation.
 As altitude increases, the temperature decreases. This is because short-
wavelength radiation must pass through many air particles to transfer heat
to higher altitudes.
 Additionally, as altitude rises, the air gets thinner with fewer gas molecules
and water vapor to absorb the long-wave radiation.
 Consequently, less heat energy reaches higher parts of the atmosphere.
 On average, dry air loses about 9.8 °C per kilometer rise in height, while
moist air loses around 10 °C per kilometer rise in height.

Valley
 Most of the sun’s rays are blocked from reaching the lower parts of valleys
due to the presence of mountains, which surround the valley.
 This lowers the average temperatures of these valleys, as less solar
radiation reaches the surface of the valley to be reflected and then
absorbed.

Cloud Cover
 Temperatures drop when clouds appear because they block the Sun’s
rays, reflecting them back into space.
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 However, cloud formation happens only when the air has enough
moisture and has cooled enough.
 As a result, cloudy days are much cooler than sunny days during the same
time of year.
 On the other hand, cloudy nights are warmer than cloudless nights
because clouds trap heat near the Earth's surface.
 Without clouds, this heat escapes easily into space, but with clouds, the
heat is reflected back to the surface.
 This explains why desert days can be very hot, around 50°C, while nights
can be cool or cold, around 5°C.
OL/IGCSE Pak Studies PAGE 12 Geography Notes

MONSOON RAINFALL
 Monsoons are seasonal winds that blow from the sea to the land from July
to August (summers), and then reverse direction to blow from the land to
the sea in the winter.
 In summer, the high angle of the sun heats up the Punjab and Sindh plains,
creating a low-pressure area as the hot air rises.
 There are two monsoon systems: one from the Bay of Bengal and the other
from the Arabian Sea.
 During summer, low air pressure develops over Pakistan, while high air
pressure remains over the sea (Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea).
 This difference causes moist winds from the Bay of Bengal and Arabian
Sea to blow towards the land to balance the pressure.
 The wind from the Bay of Bengal, called the primary monsoon, reaches
Pakistan after crossing India and brings significant rain.
 The secondary monsoon winds from the Arabian Sea cause less rain.
 These monsoon winds bring rain from July to September, with the amount
of rain decreasing from the northern to the southern areas.
 The Bay of Bengal monsoon affects northern Punjab, Khyber-
Pakhtunkhwa, Gilgit-Baltistan, and Azad Kashmir.
 The Arabian Sea monsoon also travels inland but doesn't bring much rain
to Sindh due to a temperature inversion layer.

Explain two impacts of a heavy monsoon. You should develop

your answer.
 Heavy monsoon rains can lead to widespread flooding, causing
devastation to homes, infrastructure, and agriculture.
 Heavy rain causes poor visibility and accidents, disrupting daily life.
 Flooded roads make it hard to travel to work or school, and towns and
cities can be cut off.
 Flight cancellations due to bad weather negatively impact trade, tourism,
and businesses.
 Floods destroy crops, leading to food shortages and possible famine.
 Water levels in reservoirs or dams rise, providing more water for irrigation,
domestic, and industrial use, preventing water shortages and supporting
hydroelectric power.
 Floods lead to closures, causing income loss and job disruptions.
 People can be injured or killed during floods, putting pressure on
healthcare services.
 Stagnant water causes diseases, further impacting public health.
 Waterlogging affects the economy, particularly in an agriculturally based
country like Pakistan.
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 On the positive side, heavy monsoon rains replenish groundwater,

reducing water shortages in the long term.

WESTERN DEPRESSION
 These are wind systems that originate from the Mediterranean Sea and
travel eastwards towards Afghanistan and Pakistan.
 Since they make a long journey they lose most of their water when they
reach Pakistan.
 During the winters (Late November to March) they bring rainfall because
during winters the Arabian Sea retains its warmth and thus cold air from
coastal areas flows towards sea.
 The flow of air from coastal areas creates a low pressure, thus dry colder
air from interior Sindh and Punjab flows towards the coast.
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 To replace the low pressure formed in Punjab and Sindh plains, these
western depressions move from high pressure area (Mediterranean Sea)
towards the low pressure area (Indus Plains)

RELIEF RAINFALL
 Relief rainfall occurs when moist air goes up a mountain or steep slope.
 As the air rises, it cools down, causing condensation and precipitation on
the windward side of the mountain.
 This happens because of the height of the land, especially in places with
tall mountains or steep hills.
OL/IGCSE Pak Studies PAGE 15 Geography Notes

CONVECTIONAL RAINFALL
 Convection rainfall occurs when the sun heats up the land.
 The air near the land absorbs heat by conduction, and thus gets less
dense and rises.
 The moisture in air condenses to form clouds, and when this air is cooled to
a certain minimum level rainfall occurs

THUNDERSTORM
 Thunderstorms occur in the same fashion as convectional rainfall with the
main difference being that the air here rises very quickly forming
Cumulonimbus clouds, which are very tall and big.
 This is followed by strong winds, lightning and heavy rainfall.
 Hailstones may also be formed, when the water vapours are cooled
multiple times (to form water first and then ice).

CYCLONE
 Cyclones are formed when the average temperature of large water body
exceeds 27° C, thus forming an area of very low pressure.
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 This area then draws further air from high pressure areas quickly.
 A cone is formed when two oppositely travelling cold and warm winds
meet.
 Intense lightning followed by very strong winds and heavy rainfall occurs.
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FLOODS
 Flood is a temporary covering of land by water which is not usually under
water.

Causes
 They can be caused by variety of factors like Heavy monsoon rainfall
accompanied with melting of snow and ice in glaciers, dam or barrage
failure, unusually high tides in coastal areas and by a tsunami
 However their effects can get worse by factors like deforestation, failure to
heighten or strengthen embankments, poor medical and communication
facilities in aftermath of disaster and inadequate warning systems to allow
people time for escape.

Effects
 Casualties: Floods can cause people and livestock to drown, leading to
deaths. They can also result in epidemics and waterborne diseases.
 Suspension of Trade: Floods can close airports, disrupt roads, and cut off
railway lines, affecting businessmen and disrupting the supply of raw
materials and products.
 Water supplies: Floods can contaminate water supplies, posing a risk to
people's health.
 Spread of Water-borne Diseases: Floods can lead to the spread of
waterborne diseases, endangering those affected.
 Crop Loss: Floods can wash away crops, causing food shortages.
 Impact on Agro-based Industries: Floods can create shortages in supplies
to industries relying on agriculture, such as cotton factories, leading to
layoffs and decreased profits.
 Soil Enrichment: Floods deposit silt, adding nutrients to flooded soil.
 Tree Damage: Floods can cause trees to die as their submerged roots
cannot absorb oxygen.
 Decline in Tourism: Floods can lead to a decline in tourism and increase
rebuilding costs.
 Benefits: Floods can replenish underground water supplies, fill dam
reservoirs, and fertilize inundated soil with fresh silt.

Solution
 Dams could be built to contain and regulate the flow of water and
prevent flash floods
 Advanced warning systems should be installed in flood prone areas to
warn people to get out before it’s too late
 Medical and transport facilities be regularly updated and checked
 Embankments and levees should be heightened and strengthened
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 Also afforestation and re-afforestation projects should be carried out in

Northern Mountains to reduce run-off and thus reducing chances of flash
floods
 Mangrove plantations should be protected and allowed to grow, which
protect from damaging rise in tide level during a tsunami
OL/IGCSE Pak Studies PAGE 21 Geography Notes

DROUGHTS
 A drought is a period extending over several months or years when a
region suffers a deficiency in its water supply.

Types of Droughts
 Meteorological drought is brought about when there is a prolonged
period with less than average precipitation.
 Agricultural droughts are droughts that affect crop production.
 Hydrological drought is brought about when the water reserves available
in sources such as aquifers, lakes and reservoirs fall below the statistical
average.
 Permanent drought exists when crop cultivation is not possible without
irrigation.
 Seasonal drought happens during specific times of the year when there's
not enough rain, affecting crops and water supplies.
 Invisible drought is when water levels drop slowly over time, like in
underground reservoirs, causing long-term water shortages.
 Unpredictable drought occurs suddenly and unexpectedly, catching
people off guard and causing immediate water shortages.

Causes

 This occurs when a region receives below than average precipitation over
a period of time.
 Unreliability of rainfall
 Deforestation
 Unlined Canals
 Mismanagement of water
 Unfair distribution of water
 Global Warming

Effects
 Crop yields can be dramatically reduced and livestock production could
fall (milk, eat etc). This can raise prices of goods and affect price of
exported goods making them uncompetitive in international markets thus
harming national interests
 Dust storms can occur, when drought hits an area suffering from
desertification and erosion. This can lead to siltation in reservoirs of dam,
hampering electricity generation and weakening dam’s foundation
 Habitat damage, affecting both terrestrial and aquatic wildlife
 Malnutrition, dehydration and related diseases could affect millions
 Mass migration causing the increase in internal refugees or international
refugees
OL/IGCSE Pak Studies PAGE 22 Geography Notes

 Reduced electricity production could occur as reduced water flow

through hydroelectric dams leads to low industrial production and less
exports resulting in less foreign exchange
 Shortages of water for industries like (juice etc), which affects employment
and GDP
 Social unrest may follow leading to instability, which can discourage
foreign investment thus local sectors may suffer from outdated machinery
techniques etc resulting in low production
 War could occur over natural resources, including lakes and fertile areas
etc
 Wildfires can become common and can cause health hazard to people

Solutions
 Building Reservoirs: We can make big lakes by building dams to collect
water when it rains a lot. This water can be used later when it's dry.
 Irrigation Systems: Implementing efficient irrigation systems helps farmers
grow crops even during dry spells, reducing the impact of drought on
food production.
 Afforestation: Planting more trees through afforestation helps increase
rainfall, as trees attract clouds and improve soil moisture retention,
decreasing the effects of drought.
 Water Reclamation: We can clean dirty water and use it again, so we
don't waste any water during dry periods.
 Drought-Resistant Crops (HYV Seeds): Grow plants that can survive with
less water, so farmers can still grow food even if it's not raining much.
 Water Conservation: Promoting water conservation practices like
rainwater harvesting, reducing water wastage, and implementing water-
saving technologies helps conserve water resources during droughts.