CHAPTER 4: ELECTROSTATICS AND

MAGNETISM
ELECTROSTATICS
Electrostatics deals with the charges at rest or
describes the characteristics of stationary charges.
ELECTRIC CHARGE
➢ Excess of electrons= negative charge
➢ Deficient of electrons= positive charge
PROPERTIES OF CHARGES
➢ Unlike charges attract & like charges repeal
➢ Charges are quantized
➢ The magnitude of charges on the body is independent
of the speed of the body
➢ Electrostatics deals with two types of charges: Point
charges (magnitude is unity) and Test charges (their
sizes are smaller than the distance between them)
CHARGE DISTRIBUTION
Discrete charge distribution: If the charges are countable,
it is called discrete charge distribution where the
assumption is applied that there are no forces between
the charges in the system
Continuous charge distribution: If the charges are
uncountable, it is called continuous charge distribution in
which the system of charges is categorized as,
➢ Linear charge density: Charges are distributed along
1-Dimension (C/m). The net charge is divided into
smaller elements as ‘dq’ for rod of length ‘dl’
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝐿𝐶𝐷 =
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑑𝑞
𝐿𝐶𝐷 =
𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝑞 = 𝜆𝑑𝑙
𝜆 = 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑞 = ∫ 𝑑𝑙
➢ Surface charge density: Charges are distributed along
a 2-Dimensional surface (C/m2)
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝑆𝐶𝐷 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑑𝑞
𝐿𝐶𝐷 =
𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑞 = 𝜎𝑑𝐴
𝜎 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑞 = ∬ 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦
 ➢ Volume charge density: Charges are spread
throughout the volume with the dimension of C/m3
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝑉𝐶𝐷 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑑𝑞
𝐿𝐶𝐷 =
𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑞 = 𝜌𝑑𝑉
𝜌 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑞 = ∫ 𝑑𝑉

𝑞 = ∭ 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑧

COULOMB’S LAW
Describes the force of attraction and repulsion between
two similar and dissimilar charges
➢ Directly proportional to product btwn two charges
➢ Inversely proportional to the square of distance btwn
two charges
𝐾𝑞₁𝑞₂
𝐹=
𝑟2
1
𝐾=
4𝜋𝜖₀
𝜀₀ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠

Coulomb law in vector form,

𝐾𝑞₁𝑞₂
𝐹₁₂ = 𝑟₁₂
𝑟²
𝐾𝑞₁𝑞₂
𝐹₂₁ = 𝑟₂₁
𝑟²
Total force is the algebraic sum of both the forces.
FORCE BETWEEN N-CHARGES (DISCRETE CHARGES)
For the forces between point charges or system of charges
placed at a distance of r₁, r₂, …, rₙ the corresponding forces
are,
 𝐾𝑞₁𝑞₂
𝐹₁ = 𝑟₁
𝑟₁²
𝐾𝑞₁𝑞₂
𝐹₂ = 𝑟₂
𝑟₂²
𝐾𝑞ₙ𝑞₀
𝐹= 𝑟ₙ
𝑟ₙ²
The total forces are the sum of all the forces
𝐹 = 𝐹₁ + 𝐹₂ + ⋯ + 𝐹ₙ
𝐾𝑞₁𝑞₂ 1 𝐾𝑞₁𝑞₂ 2 𝐾𝑞ₙ𝑞₀
𝐹= 𝑟 + 𝑟 + 𝑟ₙ
𝑟₁² 𝑟₂² 𝑟ₙ²
𝑛
𝑞ₙ
𝐹 = 𝐾𝑞₀ ∑
𝑟²ₙ
𝑛=1

ELECTRIC FIELD/ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY

Electric field is an imaginary force field produced by
electric charges by their attraction & repulsion, or it is the
space around a charge within which its effect can be felt.
𝐹 = 𝑞₀𝐸
𝐹 𝑁
𝐸= ( )
𝑞₀ 𝐶
➢ The electric field is used to calculate force on any
charged body
 ➢ The direction of both quantities is along the same
direction (F||E)

➢ The electric field is independent of magnitude of test

charge
ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY OF POINT CHARGES
If a positive test charge q₀ is placed at a distance r form the
point charge q, then the magnitude of force acting on q₀ is
given as,
𝐾𝑞₀𝑞
𝐹=
𝑟²
The magnitude of electric field is calculated as
𝐹 𝐾𝑞
𝐸= =
𝑞₀ 𝑟²
For N-charges q₁, q₂, …, qₙ at a distance of r₁, r₂, …, rₙ
𝐾𝑞₁
𝐸₁ = 𝑟₁
𝑟₁²
𝐾𝑞₂
𝐸₂ = 𝑟₂
𝑟₂²
𝐾𝑞ₙ
𝐸ₙ = 𝑟ₙ
𝑟ₙ²
Total electric field is calculated by algebraic sum of all
individual electric fields
𝐸 = 𝐸₁ + 𝐸₂ + ⋯ + 𝐸ₙ
𝑛
𝑞ₙ
𝐸=𝐾 ∑ 𝑟ₙ
𝑟²ₙ
𝑛=1
If electric field lines are pointed outwards: q is positive
(Converging field)
If electric field lines are pointed inwards: q is negative
(Diverging field)
ELECTRIC FLUX
Number of electric field lines passing through a unit area
is called electric flux.
Mathematically, it is the dot product of electric field and
vector area ‘da’
𝜙 = 𝐸. 𝑑𝑎
𝜙 = 𝐸 𝑑𝑎 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛳

Total electric flux is the algebraic sum of all flux as,

𝜙₁ = 𝐸. 𝑑𝑎₁
𝜙₂ = 𝐸. 𝑑𝑎₂
𝜙ₙ = 𝐸. 𝑑𝑎ₙ
Total Flux: 𝜙 = 𝜙₁ + 𝜙₂ + ⋯ + 𝜙ₙ
𝜙 = 𝐸. 𝑑𝑎₁ + 𝐸. 𝑑𝑎₂ + ⋯ + 𝐸. 𝑑𝑎ₙ
𝜙 = 𝐸[𝑑𝑎₁ + 𝑑𝑎₂ + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑎ₙ]

𝜙 = 𝐸 ∫ 𝑑𝑎
ELECTRIC FLUX FOR SYMMETRICAL GEOMETRY
If a charge is placed at the center of the sphere and the
area is divided into infinitesimal area such that
da₁+da₂+…+daₙ
Electric flux passing per unit area is given as
𝜙 = 𝐸. 𝑑𝑎
Electric field generated corresponding to electric flux is
𝐾𝑞
𝐸=
𝑟²
Total electric flux is the algebraic sum of all flux
𝜙 = 𝜙₁ + 𝜙₂ + ⋯ + 𝜙ₙ
𝜙 = 𝐸[𝑑𝑎₁ + 𝑑𝑎₂ + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑎ₙ]
1 𝑞
𝜙= (4𝜋𝑟 2 )
4𝜋𝜖₀ 𝑟²
𝑞
𝜙=
𝜖₀
ELECTRIC FLUX FOR NON-SYMMETRICAL GEOMETRY
𝜙₁ = 𝐸. 𝑑𝑎₁
𝜙₂ = 𝐸. 𝑑𝑎₂
𝜙ₙ = 𝐸. 𝑑𝑎ₙ
Total Flux: 𝜙 = 𝜙₁ + 𝜙₂ + ⋯ + 𝜙ₙ
 𝜙 = 𝐸[𝑑𝑎₁ + 𝑑𝑎₂ + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑎ₙ]

𝜙 = ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑎

GAUSS’S LAW
INTEGRAL FORM OF LAW
“The flux at the electric field through any closed surface
is equal to 1/ε₀ times the charge enclosed by the
Gaussian surface”

Consider N-point charges enclosed by the Gaussian

surface, to determine electric flux due to enclosed charges
initially single charge contribution is considered than
superposition principle is applied to calculate complete
flux distribution.

𝜙₁ = ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑎 ₁

1 𝑞₁
𝐸= 𝑟
4𝜋𝜖₀ 𝑟 2
 1 𝑞₁
𝜙₁ = ∫ 𝑑𝑎₁ 𝑟
4𝜋𝜖₀ 𝑟²
𝑞₁ 𝑑𝑎₁
𝜙₁ = 4𝜋𝜀₀ ∫ 𝑟 (Solid angle= Vector area/r²)
𝑟²
𝑞₁
𝜙₁ = (4𝜋)
4𝜋𝜀₀
𝑞₁
𝜙₁ =
𝜀₀
Total flux: 𝜙 = 𝜙₁ + 𝜙₂ + ⋯ + 𝜙ₙ
1
𝜙= [𝑞₁ + 𝑞₂ + ⋯ + 𝑞ₙ]
𝜀₀
1
𝜙= 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝜀₀
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑎 =
𝜀₀
DIFFERENTIAL FORM OF LAW
Consider N point charges as q₁, q₂, …, qₙ enclosed by a
Gaussian surface the total electric flux is,
1
𝜙= 𝑞
𝜀₀

𝑞 = 𝜎 ∫ 𝑑𝑎
 𝜎 ∫ 𝑑𝑎
𝜙= (1)
𝜀₀

𝜙 = ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑎 (2)
Comparing equation 1 and 2,
𝜎 ∫ 𝑑𝑎
∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑎 = (3)
𝜀₀
Applying Gauss’s divergence theorem,

∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑎 = ∫(𝐷𝑖𝑣 )𝐸. 𝑑𝑣

𝜌 ∫ 𝑑𝑣
Equation 3 ∫ ∇. 𝐸 𝑑𝑣 = 𝜀₀

𝜌 ∫ 𝑑𝑣
∇. 𝐸 ∫ 𝑑𝑣 =
𝜀₀
𝜌
∇. 𝐸 (𝑉 ) = (𝑉)
𝜀₀
𝜌
∇. 𝐸 =
𝜀₀
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
Here, ∇= 𝑖+ 𝑗+ 𝑘 is del operator.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝐸 = 𝐸𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐸𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐸𝑧 𝑘
𝜕𝐸𝑥 𝜕𝐸𝑦 𝜕𝐸𝑧 𝜌
+ + =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜀₀
Conclusive remarks,
Differential form is applicable for local charge distribution,
while the integral form is most useful when the object has
symmetrical geometry and the closed system is
considered.
COULOMB’S LAW FROM GAUSS’S LAW
Coulomb’s law can be obtained from gauss’s law. Let’s
apply gauss’s law to any isolated point charge ‘q’, spherical
Gaussian surface is considered with radius ‘r’ and charge
‘q’. The magnitude of electric force at any point of
Gaussian surface is constant and its direction is parallel to
the flux ‘da’ of Gaussian surface.
𝐸. 𝑑𝑎 = 𝐸 𝑑𝑎 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝐸. 𝑑𝑎 = 𝐸 𝑑𝑎 𝐶𝑜𝑠 0°
By Gauss’s law,
𝑞
𝜙=
𝜀₀
Total electric flux is represented as,

𝜙 = ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑎
𝑞
= ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑎
𝜀₀
 𝑞 = 𝜀₀𝐸 ∫ 𝑑𝑎

𝑞 = 𝜀₀𝐸 (4𝜋𝑟 2 )
𝑞
𝐸=
4𝜋𝑟²𝜀₀
Force in an electric field is given as,
𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸
𝑞
𝐹=𝑞[ ]
4𝜋𝑟 2 𝜀 0
1 𝑞
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀₀ 𝑟²
Conclusive remarks,
Gauss’s law is more fundamental than coulomb’s law, because it
can also be applied under relativistic conditions when charges
are not stationary (ELECTRODYNAMICS) but coulomb’s law is
only applicable for stationary charges.
APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS’S LAW
1. INFINITE LINE OF CHARGE: Consider a section of an
infinite line of charge of constant positive linear
charge density (𝜆). The electric field is to be calculated
at a distance ‘r’. For infinite line of charge the
symmetry is circular cylinder of radius ‘r’ and height
‘h’ closed at each ends by cap whose direction is
normal to the axis
Electric field is constant over the cylinder and
perpendicular to the surface. The charge enclosed by the
Gaussian surface is,

𝜀₀ ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑞

𝜀₀ ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜆ℎ

𝜀₀ 𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜆ℎ

❖ Area= Length×Breath=h× 2𝜋𝑟

𝜀₀𝐸 (2𝜋𝑟ℎ) = 𝜆ℎ
𝜆ℎ
𝐸=
𝜀₀(2𝜋𝑟ℎ)
𝜆
𝐸=
2𝜋𝜀₀𝑟
2. INFINITE SHEET OF CHARGE Consider a thin non-
conducting sheet on which
 3. charges are uniformly distributed over the surface
such that the positive surface charge density is (σ).
Electric field is to be calculated for sheet. Gauusian
surface is a closed cylinder of cross section area ‘A’, for
symmetry it is assumed that the caps are at
equidistant from the sheet

From gauss’s law,

𝜀₀ ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑎 + 𝜀₀ ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑎 = 𝑞

𝜀₀[∮ 𝐸𝑑𝑎𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 + ∮ 𝐸𝑑𝑎 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃] = 𝑞

Since E‫׀׀‬dA for both ends of the cylindrical symmetry,

Cos𝜃 = 0° = 1

𝜀₀[𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑎 + 𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑎] = 𝑞

𝜀₀[𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝐴] = 𝑞
 2𝐸𝐴𝜀₀ = 𝜎𝐴
𝜎
𝐸=
2𝜀₀
LIMITATIONS OF GAUSS’S LAW
➢ Gauss’s law is only applicable when the charge
distribution over the closed surface is symmetric.
➢ Gauss’s law is always true but not always useful.
Question 1: Find electric field intensity for a wire of length
22cm and radius 3.6mm. If the charge given on the wire is
-3.8× 10−17 𝐶.
Solution:
𝜆
E=
2𝜋𝑟𝜀₀

Question 2: Humid air becomes ionize by an electric field

of 3.0× 106 𝑁/𝐶. What is the electric force of an electron
while the charge corresponding to it is 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶.
Solution:

F=qE
Question 3: Two similar He filled balloon tied to a 50grams
weight float in
equilibrium total force on each balloon is zero. Each
balloon has a charge ‘q’, find the value of charge.

Question 4: Two small spheres of mass ‘m’ are suspended

from a common point of thread of length ‘l’ each sphere
carries charge ‘q’ making some angle ‘ϴ’ with the vertical
axis. Show that charge q is given as,

𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝑞 = 2𝑙 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛳 √
𝐾
Solution:
Using trigonometric functions
𝑟
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝 ( )
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = = 2
𝐻𝑦𝑝 𝑙
𝑟 = 2𝑙 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
Forces along horizontal axis, ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
2𝑇 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 2𝐹𝑒 = 0
𝐹𝑒 = 𝑇 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐾𝑞2
= 𝑇 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑟²
 𝐾𝑞²
𝑇= 2 (1)
𝑟 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
Forces along vertical axis, ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
2𝑇𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 2𝑊 = 0
𝑊 = 𝑇 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑚𝑔 = 𝑇 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑚𝑔
𝑇= (2)
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃
Comparing equation 1 and 2,
𝐾𝑞² 𝑚𝑔
=
𝑟 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃
Solving for q,
𝑚𝑔 𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝜃 𝑟²
𝑞2 =
𝐾

𝑚𝑔 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝑞 = 2𝑙 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛳 √
𝐾
Question 5: A uniformly charge spherical shape with
radius=4.8m at a surface charge density of σ=8.64𝜇 C/m².
a. Total charge of the shell (σ=q/A)
b. What is the total electric flux if E=8.85 × 10−12
leaving the surface of the shell (ϕ=q/E)
 c. Calculate the electric field intensity at the distance of
2 meters from the center of the shell
Question 6: A water droplet 10-2 cm in diameter carries a
negative charge. The magnitude of electric field intensity
at the surface of the droplet is 60,000 V/m. How strong
the vertical field would be required to keep the droplet
from falling?
Solution:
Diameter = 10-2 m = 10-4 cm
Radius = 5× 10−5 𝑚
E₁=60,000 V/m
𝐾𝑞 𝐸₁𝑟²
E₁= 𝑟² or, q= 𝐾

q= 1.6× 10−14 𝐶
For water droplet to fall vertically, both the forces acting
on it should be equal,
𝐹𝑒 = 𝐹𝑤
𝑞𝐸₂ = 𝑚𝑔
𝑚𝑔
𝐸₂ = (1)
𝑞
If the density volume of the droplet is,
 4
𝑉= 𝜋𝑟 3 = 5.3 × 10−13 𝑚²
3
Mass of the water droplet,
𝑚 = 𝜌 × 𝑉 = 5.3 × 10−13 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑔
𝐸₂ =
𝑞
𝐸₂ = 320.7 𝑉/𝑚
𝐸 = 𝐸₁ + 𝐸₂ = 60320.7 𝑉/𝑚

QUESTION N0 7: A plastic rod, whose length L is 220cm

and whose radius R is 3.6mm, carries a negative charge q
of magnitude 3.8 × 10−7 𝐶, spread uniformly over its
surface. What is the electric field near the mid-point of the
rod, at a point on its surface?
Solution:
The linear charge density for the rod is,
𝑞
𝜆=
𝐿
−3.8 × 10−7
𝜆=
2.2
𝜆 = −1.73 × 10−7 𝐶/𝑚
Electric field intensity for a rod is,
 𝜆
𝐸=
2𝜋𝜀₀𝑟
−1.73 × 10−7
𝐸=
(2)(𝜋)(8.85 × 10−12 )(0.0036)
𝐸 = −8.6 × 105 𝑁/𝐶
The minus sign indicates that the rod is negatively charged,
and the direction of electric field is radically inwards
towards the axis of the rod.
QUESTION NO 08: Figure shows portion of two large
sheets of charge with uniform surface density of σ˖ =
+6.8 × 10−6 𝐶/𝑚² and σ˗ =−4.3 × 10−6 𝐶/𝑚². Find the
electric field intensity,
a. To the left of the sheets
b. Between sheets
c. To the right of the sheets

Solution:
 a. Electric field intensity to the left of the sheets
𝜎˖
𝐸˖ =
2𝜀₀
𝐸˖ = 3.84 × 105 𝑁/𝐶
b. Electric field intensity to the right of the sheets
|𝜎˗|
𝐸˗ =
2𝜀₀
𝐸˗ = 2.43 × 105 𝑁/𝐶
c. Electric field intensity between the sheets
Between two sheets, the two fields add to give,
𝐸 = 𝐸˖ + 𝐸˗
𝐸 = 6.27 × 105 𝑁/𝐶

MAGNETISM
Magnetism deals with the force field generated by the
magnetic objects when they attract or repel each other. In
magneto statics, charges are moving with constant
velocity (a=0)
MAGNETIC FIELD
Space around the permanent magnet or a current carrying
conductor is represented by the magnetic field (MF). MF
is
represented by the magnetic field lines

➢ Magnetic lines are always directed from north to

south pole and are continuous in nature.
➢ MF lines are represented by arrow (inwards direction)
and cross (outwards direction)

➢ Moving charged particles generate MF, where the

circular current carrying conductor has a MF pointing
directly upwards
FORCE ON A CURRENT
CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD
Consider a conductor of length ‘dl’, carrying current ‘I’
placed in a uniform magnetic field.
Here, interaction of two different MF is,
1. Applied magnetic field
2. Magnetic field of a current carrying conductor
The force exerted by the magnetic field on the current
carrying conductor depends on,
1. Current passing through the conductor (I)
2. Length of the conductor (dl)
3. Magnetic field across the conductor (B)
4. Angle between current and magnetic field (Sin𝜃)
Thus, the force combining all factors becomes,
𝐹 = 𝐼𝑑𝑙𝐵𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐹 = 𝐼(𝑑𝑙 × 𝐵)
BIOT & SAVARAT LAW
Biot & Savart law gives an empirical formula to calculate
the magnetic field or magnetic flux density at any point
due to current flowing in along any geometry. It is
analogous to Coulombs law.
Biot & Savart law gives the magnetic field ‘B’ due to
symmetrical and non-symmetrical cases. In Biot sarvart
law we divide the length of conductor in small element.
Here ‘dB’ (Small segment of current carrying conductor
having magnetic field ‘dB’) is proportional to,
1. Current ‘I’
2. Small segment of conductor’s length ‘dl’
3. Angle between dl and I ‘Sin𝜃′
4. Inversely proportional to square of distance ‘r²’
Combining all factors equation becomes,
(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡) 𝐼𝑑𝑙𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝐵 =
𝑟²
𝜇₀ 𝐼𝑑𝑙𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟²
dB is perpendicular to ‘dl’ and ‘I’. 𝜇₀ is the Permeability
constant/Magnetic constant use to calculate MF
AMPERE’S LAW
INTEGRAL FORM (Applicable for closed surface)
The line integral of the product of tangential magnetic
field ‘B’ and the path element ‘dl’ is equal to 𝜇₀ times the
current enclosed by the circle

∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇₀ × 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑

Consider a conductor of length ‘dl’ carrying current ‘I’

surrounded by uniform magnetic field ‘B’. If another
conductor of same length and magnetic field is placed,
then the force exerted by the magnetic field B₁ on the
current carrying loop I₂ is,
𝐹 = 𝐼₂(𝑑𝑙 × 𝐵₁)
𝐹 = 𝐼₂𝑑𝑙𝐵₁𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
For 𝜃 = 90° 𝐹 = 𝐼₂𝑑𝑙𝐵₁ (1)
The force between two current carrying conductor is also
given by,
𝜇₀ 𝑑𝑙 𝐼₁𝐼₂
𝐹= (2)
2𝜋 𝑟
Comparing equation 1 and 2,
𝜇₀ 𝑑𝑙 𝐼₁𝐼₂
𝐼₂𝑑𝑙𝐵₁ =
2𝜋 𝑟
Solving the equation for B,
𝜇₀𝐼₁
𝐵₁ =
2𝜋𝑟
𝐵. 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇₀𝐼₁
𝐵. ( 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ) = 𝜇₀𝐼
𝐵. (𝑑𝑙₁ + 𝑑𝑙₂ + 𝑑𝑙₃) = 𝜇₀𝐼
𝐵. (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑙) = 𝜇₀𝐼

𝐵 ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇₀𝐼
 ∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇₀𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑

The loop integral of magnetic field around the close curve

is proportional to the steady current enclosed by the close
loop
DIFFERENTIAL FORM
The integral form of ampere’s law can be written as,

∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇₀𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 (1)

Current density is a vector quantity defined as the amount

of electric curren
t (charge) flowing per cross sectional area
𝐼
𝑗=
𝑑𝑎

𝐼 = 𝑗 ∫ 𝑑𝑎

Total current flowing per unit area can be evaluated by

integrating the whole area
Substituting the value of I in equation 1

∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇₀ ∫ 𝑗. 𝑑𝑎 (2)
Transforming line integral into surface integral by using
strokes theorem

∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = ∫ 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐵. 𝑑𝑎

Equation 2 can be written as,

∫ 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐵. 𝑑𝑎 = 𝜇₀ ∫ 𝑗. 𝑑𝑎

𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐵 ∫ 𝑑𝑎 = 𝜇₀𝑗 ∫ 𝑑𝑎

𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐵 = 𝜇₀𝑗
This gives the differential form of ampere’s law that
shows that
➢ Magnetic field is produced by current density ‘j’
➢ Magnetic field is circular
Above equation can also be written as
∇ × 𝐵 = 𝜇₀𝑗
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
Here, ∇= 𝑖+ 𝑗+ 𝑘 is del operator.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝐵 = 𝐵𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
( 𝑖+ 𝑗+ 𝑘)×( 𝐵𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘) = 𝜇₀𝑗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 COMPARISON BETWEEN ELECTROSTATIC &
MAGNETIC FORCE
ELECTROSTATIC FORCE MAGNETIC FORCE
Electrostatic force can be parallel or Magnetic force is always perpendicular
anti-parallel

Independent of velocity of charge Depends on velocity of charge

Electrostatic force perform work done No work done on charges are

on charge performed

It is conservative force It is not a conservative force

LORENTZ FORCE
If a charge is experiencing both electric and magnetic field,
the total force on it can be expressed as,
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑒 + 𝐹𝑚
𝐹 = 𝑞 (𝑉 × 𝐵 ) + 𝑞𝐸
This force is called Lorentz force
Consider a configuration where electric field, magnetic
field and velocity of charged particles are mutually
perpendicular to each other, such fields are termed as
CROSS FIELD.
CASE 1: If Fe > Fm
𝑞𝐸 > 𝑞𝑉𝐵
𝐸
>𝑉
𝐵
Electric field is dominating over magnetic field and the
direction of charged particle is downwards. In this case the
velocity is decreasing
CASE 2: If Fe < Fm
𝑞𝐸 < 𝑞𝑉𝐵
𝐸
<𝑉
𝐵
Magnetic field is dominating over electric field and the
direction of charged particle is towards upwards direction,
in this case the velocity is increasing
CASE 3: If Fe=Fm
𝑞𝐸 = 𝑞𝑉𝐵
𝐸
=𝑉
𝐵
The charged particle will pass through the region without
any deviation
HALL’S EFFECT
The hall’s effect is the production of a voltage difference
(Hall’s voltage) across electric conductor when a charged
particle experience electric as well as magnetic field

The purpose of hall’s effect is to determine,

1. Sign of charge carrier
2. No. of charge density per unit volume
3. Strength of magnetic field using hall’s voltage
Consider a copper strip of width ‘w’ carries a current ‘I’ in
a uniform magnetic field, then the charge carrier
experiences the force which will displace charges towards
one end of the strip and creates the potential difference
across the strip. This potential is known as hall’s potential
and the phenomena is called Hall’s effect
Hall’s voltage is expressed by equation
𝑖𝐵
𝑉ₕ =
𝑒𝑡𝑛
i = current in a strip
B = magnetic field
n = charge carrier
t = thickness
QUESTION 1: Calculate approximately the hall’s voltage
between opposite edges of a copper strip of 1mm
thickness when a current of 10 amperes and transverse
magnetic field of 2 tesla is applied. Assume the no. of free
electrons per meter cube is 1029 whereas the charge of
electron is 1.6× 10−19 C.
SOLUTION:
Current (i) = 10 Amperes
Magnetic field (B) = 2 Tesla
Charge carrier (n) = 1029
Thickness (t) = 1mm
𝑖𝐵
𝑉ₕ =
𝑒𝑡𝑛
𝑉ₕ = 1.25 × 10−6 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
QUESTION 2: A rectangular strip of width 1.5cm and
thickness 0.1cm carrying a current of 5 amperes in the
presence of magnetic field of 1.2 tesla perpendicular to
the strip. Calculate halls coefficient (RH) and the hall’s
potential if the carrier charge density is 2.18× 1028 N/m2
SOLUTION:
Width (w) = 1.5cm = 0.015m
Thickness (t) = 0.1cm = 0.001m
Current (i) = 5 Amperes
Magnetic field (B) = 1.2 Tesla
Charge density (n) = 2.18× 1028 N/m2
1
➢ Hall’s coefficient (RH) = 𝑛𝑒 = 2.86 × 10−10 m3/C

𝑖𝐵
➢ Hall’s potential (𝑽ₕ) = = 1.72× 10−6 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑒𝑡𝑛