Synchronous Machines

These machines run stably only at synchronous speed under steady state conditions. The
synchronous machines are derived from DC machines to avoid commutation problems. The
armature (power) winding is mounted on a static element, the stator (or armature), whereas the
field (exciting) winding is mounted on the rotating element, the rotor. This arrangement
facilitates the safe collection of thousands of amperes of armature current from the fixed
armature terminals, ease of insulation, and cooling of the armature winding. Moreover, the
armature winding can be more easily braced to prevent deformation under short-circuit
conditions or during normal running conditions when high centrifugal forces occur. However,
two small slip-rings are required to feed the exciting winding.

Synchronous Generators
Construction: The stator of synchronous machines is identical to that of induction machines;
it occupies a balanced three-phase winding usually connected in star. However, rotor design
makes fundamental differences in the construction and analysis of these machines. There are
two basic rotor designs, i.e., cylindrical rotor (non-salient pole) and the salient pole rotor, which
are primarily decided by the operating speed of the machine. A brief comparison between the
two is as follows:

D R A W Y O U RS E L F

Fig. (a) Cylindrical rotor (b) Salient-pole rotor

The common feature of these rotors is that they are fed by a DC winding from a suitable DC
source. The rotor winding is made of a definite number of copper turns. When DC current
flows, it magnetizes the rotor core, producing a magnetic field. Therefore, rotor winding is also
known as exciting winding. The current through the rotor winding can be varied by adjusting
the DC source resistance, a technique known as excitation control in synchronous machines.
Excitation control plays a vital role in the operation of synchronous machines, as it directly
affects the magnitude of the induced emfs in the stator windings. However, there are many
constructional and operational differences between these two rotor constructions that lead to
different theories, analyses, and operational practices for synchronous machines; accordingly,

1
 synchronous machines are broadly divided into cylindrical-rotor and salient-pole machines. A
brief comparison between these two machines may be tabulated as follows.
The stator of synchronous machines is identical to that of induction machines; it occupies a
balanced three-phase winding usually connected in star. The rotor design makes fundamental
differences in the design and analysis of these machines. There are two basic rotor designs, i.e.,
cylindrical rotor (non-salient pole) and the salient pole rotor, which are primarily decided by the
operating speed of the machine. A brief comparison between the two is as follows:

Particular Cylindrical rotor Salient pole rotor

Operating High: 3000/3600 Low: 300-500 rpm
speed rpm
No. of poles 2 Several, in two
digits
Diameter Less than a meter Several meters
Axial length Several meters Less than a meter
Shaft Horizontal Vertical
mounting
Air gap Uniform Non-uniform
Shape of the Almost sinusoidal Flat topped
mmf wave
Rotor Distributed Concentrated as that
winding of the field winding
of dc machines
Reluctance Negligible Significant
power
Stiffness Less stiffer More stiffer
Maximum Less than salient More than
power pole machines cylindrical rotor
machines
Maximum 30°-40° 50°-60°
torque angle
Cooling More effective Less effective
hydrogen plus forced/ natural air
water cooling cooling
Switching 7-8 hours Instant turn-on/off
time
Load Peak load/base Base load
allocation load
Damper grid Not required Essentially required

2
 Theory of Cylindrical Rotor Machines
Neglecting flux pulsation due to variations in the air-gap caused by rotor teeth and slots, a
simplified theory of synchronous machines is developed for cylindrical-rotor machines,
assuming the magnetic flux to be constant along the polar and inter-polar axes. Since the rotor
acts as a rotating bar magnet at synchronous speed, it produces a rotating magnetic field that
rotates at synchronous speed relative to the stator. The three stationary stator phases, displaced
in space by 120° electrically, are cut by this synchronously rotating magnetic field, thereby
inducing a balanced set of three-phase emfs in the stator phases. If the alternator is connected
to a three-phase balanced load, these induced emfs will circulate balanced currents through the
stator phases. Eventually, the stator also produces a rotating magnetic field that also rotates at
synchronous speed with respect to the stator and in the same direction as that of the rotating
magnetic field of the rotor, as per Lenz’s law. Therefore, both stator and rotor produce their
own rotating magnetic fields, which rotate at synchronous speed in the same direction. These
two rotating magnetic fields can thus interact to produce the machine's main, or mutual,
magnetic field. The interaction of these two rotating magnetic fields is called armature reaction,
the basic reaction that powers all electrical machines.

Armature Reaction, Synchronous Impedance and

Equivalent Circuit

Fig. Load characteristics of an alternator

The load characteristics of an alternator are shown in Fig. It has been observed that the fall or
rise in the terminal voltage of an alternator with varying loading is much more than what is
expected from the voltage drop that occurs in the stator winding phase, owing to the presence
of resistance r and leakage reactance x. The additional voltage drop observed in the armature
phase is caused by armature reaction.
3
If Et denotes no-load generated emf, which is also the no-load terminal voltage V of the
alternator. It happened because, at no-load, there is no armature current, thus no ohmic drop in
r and x, and no armature reaction that can alter the induced emf of the stator phase and, hence,
the terminal voltage. Let the alternator be loaded with some inductive load such that a current
I flow through the stator phases. The stator current causes voltage drops Ir and jIx in each
armature phase. However, the terminal voltage is found to be less, i.e.
V < (Et – Ir – jIx)
The reverse happens if the load is made capacitive, i.e.
V > (Et – Ir – jIx)
It happened because of the armature reaction, i.e. the interaction between stator and rotor mmfs.
The mmf produced by the active component of the armature current distorts the rotor mmf
(cross-magnetizing effect). However, the mmf produced by the reactive component of the
armature current causes a magnetizing effect when the load PF is leading and a demagnetizing
effect when the load PF is lagging. Thus, the magnitude of armature reaction depends on the
loading, whereas its nature is governed by the load PF. It is noteworthy that the impact of
armature reaction in synchronous machines is more severe than in DC machines.

Fig. Equivalent circuit of cylindrical rotor machine

At no-load, there is no armature current, so there is no armature reaction, and the induced emf
is Et. When the machine is loaded, the actual induced emf is E owing to armature reaction. The
difference between the armature emfs Et and E is solely governed by the armature reaction, and
not by the leakage reactance x or resistance r of the armature winding. The difference between
the phasors Et and E is modelled by the voltage drop jI xa, as if some fictitious reactance xa is
present in each armature phase to represent armature reaction. As discussed, the circuit model
for one phase of an alternator can be represented as shown in Fig. It is noteworthy that r and x
are real, but the same is not true for xa. The KVL equation for each stator phase can be written
as
Et = V + Ir + jIx + jIxa
4
= V + Ir + jI(x +xa)
= V + Ir + jI(xS)
= V + I(r +jxS)
= V + IzS
Where, xS = x+xa, and zS = r+jxS
The reactance xs is called synchronous reactance, and the impedance zS is the synchronous
impedance of the machine. Although the reactance xa is fictitious, it is of great significance.
For instance, in the case of large turbo generators, r, x, and xa are of the order of 0.01 pu, 0.1
pu, and 1.63 p.u., respectively. The equivalent circuit of an alternator is shown in Fig. The
figure clearly shows the difference between the induced emf Et and E. The emf Et is the no-
load generated emf of the stator phase that is assumed to be developed in the stator phase for
any loading, and is given by
Et = 4.44f NØm kw
Where f is the frequency of stator induced emf, NØm is the stator mmf, and kw is the winding
factor of the stator winding.
The emf E is the actual emf induced in the stator phase while the alternator is loaded. The emf
E is obtained from the emf Et by accounting for armature reaction. The emf E supplies the
actual voltage drops Ir and jIx, as well as the machine's terminal voltage V. Therefore, the
following equations hold good
Et = V +Ir +jIx +jIxa
Et –E = Ir +jIx+V, where E = jIxa

Phasor Diagram and Operation

Fig. Phasor diagram of a cylindrical rotor machine

The phasor diagram consists of three important phase angles: Ø, δ, and θ, which denote the
pf angle, power angle, and machine angle, respectively. The angle Ø depends upon the active
and reactive loading on the alternator. Increased active loading on an alternator demands more
5
mechanical (steam) input, whereas increased reactive loading is matched by increased rotor
field current (field excitation). Therefore, the alternator's power factor is determined by both
the mechanical input and the field excitation required to meet the desired active and reactive
power demand. If the desired power demands are not met, the frequency and terminal voltage
tend to vary. However, this is true only for the isolated operation of an alternator, i.e., the
alternator is feeding its load demand. The isolated operation of an alternator is extremely
difficult, as one must match mechanical demand with varying active power demand; otherwise,
the generated voltage frequency varies. Similarly, the varying reactive demand should be
matched each time by varying the field excitation; otherwise, the terminal voltage will change.
Any deviation from the standard voltage and frequency leads to difficult drive operation,
especially in induction motors, where both torque and speed are strict functions of supply
voltage and frequency. The isolated operation of an alternator usually involves voltage-
frequency issues; it is used occasionally and is never preferred in practice. That is why AC
power systems are interconnected at large-scale.
The angle δ is the angular difference between synchronizing rotating stator and rotor mmfs,
and is the function of mechanical power input, i.e. active power demand on the alternator. At
no-load, δ is vanishingly small, but increases with increased active power demand. It happened
because increased active power demand requires more mechanical input, and that accelerates
the rotor. The rotor advances, so δ increases. In fact, the rotor oscillates about synchronous
speed during the transient period and then resumes synchronous rotation in the steady state;
however, with a new, higher value of δ. More active loading eventually leads to greater
advancement of the rotor mmf relative to the stator mmf, more δ. There is a limit to this
advancement, beyond which the magnetic coupling between the stator and rotor magnetic fields
will break, and the alternator then loses synchronism and stops. If the machine is acting as a
motor, every increase in mechanical loading first reduces speed so the rotor slips backward
behind the stator mmf, and the angle δ increases. The angle δ is called the torque angle if the
machine is working as a motor. The higher the mechanical loading, the greater the torque angle,
and vice versa; however, the speed remains at synchronous speed. If the loading is more than
a certain specified limit, the synchronism lost.
The machine angle θ cannot be varied during synchronous machine operation. However,
it plays a vital role in the stable operation of synchronous machines. The highly reactive nature
of the stator phase (xs >>> r) results in strong magnetic coupling between the stator mmf and
the rotor mmf. The details will be explained later.

Voltage Regulation
(a) EMF method
(b) MMF method
(c) Potier triangle method

Generator input-output power and Power Angle Curve

From the phasor diagram

6
Input and output powers are given by

P1= Et I cos(Ø+δ)

Po = VI cosØ

But, Et I cos(Ø+δ) = V cosØ + Ir cos0⁰ + IxS cos90⁰

P1 = VI cos Ø + I2r = P0 + armature copper loss

Next, from the equivalent circuit

I = (Et – V)/zs
I∠-Ø = (Et∠δ – V∠0⁰) / zs∠θ)
Therefore,
I cosØ = Et/zs cos (θ–δ)–V/zs cos θ

I sinØ = V/zs sin (θ–δ)–V/zs sin θ

P1= Et I cos(Ø+δ) = Et cosδ {Et /zs cos (θ–δ)–V/zs cos θ} + Et sinδ {V/zs sin(θ–δ)–V/zs sin θ}

After simplifying

P1= Et2/zs cosθ–EtV/zs cos(θ+δ) per phase

P0= EtV/zs cos(θ–δ)–V2/zs cosθ per phase

For large rating turbo generators, since xs >>> r, so θ ≈90⁰, so

P1 = P0 = (EtV/zs)sin δ per phase

Thus, the power developed by a large alternator for the given values of Et, V, and zs
P0∝sin δ, or for a small power angle
P0∝δ
Thus, for a given terminal voltage, the power output of large-rated synchronous machines
can be varied by adjusting the rotor field excitation or the angular difference between the
synchronizing rotating stator and rotor mmfs. Moreover, the greater the rotor field excitation,
the greater is the power output per unit power angle δ. Thus, greater excitation leads to more
stable operation (i.e., a higher dP0/dδ, or the slope of the power-angle curve). However, greater
excitation requires a greater reactive power demand on the generator. In fact, when reactive
power demand increases, the machine's terminal voltage decreases. The excitation is then
increased to meet the increased reactive power demand while simultaneously maintaining a
constant voltage supply. Similarly, greater power input increases the machine speed beyond
synchronous speed, advancing the rotor. But the stator field still rotates at synchronous speed.
The relative speed between the stator and rotor mmfs causes eddy current damping in the solid
rotor body, thus restraining the rotor’s speed. The rotor therefore swings about the synchronous
speed like a pendulum, with the speed varying over the range (ωs–Δωs) to (ωs+Δωs), finally

7
achieving the synchronous speed ωs; however, the machine now delivers an increased active
power demand at a higher power angle δ.

Fig. Power Angle Curve of a cylindrical rotor machine

Also, for a large rating alternator

Po= P1 =Pm sinδ

Where, Pm=EtV/xs
=VISC
Here, ISC is the short-circuit current of the alternator, which is given by Et/xs, since the terminal
voltage is zero during a short circuit. Conversely, the maximum power equals the machine's
short-circuit MVA rating.
Where Pm is the maximum power developed, and ISC is the rated short circuit current of the
machine. The power angle curve is shown in Fig. The curve shows that the alternator operates
stably only for 0⁰≤δ≤90⁰. If the machine is operated with δ=90°, the power developed is
maximum; however, the alternator is most prone to pull-out-of-step (unstable). Therefore, for
stable power system operation, the power angle δ is kept around 30⁰. Consequently, the
practical limit of maximum power generation is usually maintained close to Pm/2.
Synchronizing power
The synchronizing power not only facilitates the parallel operation of an alternator with infinite bus
bars/another alternator, but also helps synchronization. Assuming a small angular deviation σ in the
power angle δ, the input power will change from P1 to P1’, and their difference creates the
synchronizing power, which is given by
Ps = P1’-P1
= (Et2/zs cosθ – EtV/zs cos(θ+δ+σ)) – (Et2/zs cosθ – EtV2/zs cos(θ+δ))
= EtV2/zs cos(θ+δ)) – EtV/zs cos(θ+δ+σ))
8
 = EtV/zs sin(θ+δ)sinσ
= EtV/zs cosδ sinσ = EtV/zs cos δ σ ≈ VISC cos δ σ; for smaller values of σ
The synchronizing power is quite different from that of the power generated, as it follows a
cosine function of the power angle δ. Therefore,
(a) The generated and synchronizing power have a somewhat inverse relationship: high
power generation implies less synchronizing power and vice versa.
(b) the synchronizing power follows a sine function of the disturbance angle σ; the
machine can develop more synchronizing power under severe disturbances and vice
versa.
(c) The machine develops sufficient synchronizing power, as during synchronization, δ
is zero
(d) Practically, the power angle of large turbo generators is limited to around 30⁰ in order
to develop significant synchronizing power, however, the power generation is limited
to Pm/2.
Infinite bus-bars
An infinite bus-bar is the bus-bar with constant voltage and constant frequency. Considering a
bus-bar having an infinite number of alternators connected in parallel. The equivalent
synchronous impedance of his system is zero, and the total inertia is infinite. Therefore, any
alteration in active power demand cannot change the speed of generators, i.e., frequency of the
bus-bars, owing to infinite inertia. And, any change in the excitation cannot change their
terminal voltage, as it is fixed by the network; however, the power factor is affected. The active
power generated, therefore, is solely determined by the mechanical power input.
Infinite bus-bars are said to be constant voltage, constant frequency (CVCF) bus-bars, and it is
merely a concept. Constant voltage and constant frequency are highly desired in power system
operations. Since the majority of loads are constant-power type, the line current, and thereby
the voltage regulation, are both affected by variations in the supply voltage. On the other hand,
variations in frequency directly affect the speed of both asynchronous and synchronous drives,
potentially adversely affecting the production process in industries. Therefore, more and more
alternators are integrated into power systems to achieve the novel concept of infinite bus bars.
This leads to the interconnected operation of the power system. In fact, the concept of infinite
bus-bars can never be achieved in practice. Consequently, variations in supply voltage and
frequency are evident in everyday life. The supply authority therefore restricts the permissible
range of supply voltage and supply frequency, typically ±5% and ±0.5%, respectively.

Parallel Operation

An alternator may be connected in parallel with another running alternator or to an infinite bus
bar.

9
Necessary conditions

1. The voltage of the incoming alternator should be the same as that of the other
alternator/infinite busbars, otherwise heavy circulating currents flow in the
armature sufficient to trip the machine.

2. The frequency of the incoming alternator should be the same as that of the other
alternator/infinite busbars. Large mismatch of frequency creates beats, i.e. cyclic
variation in circulating currents, which may trip the machine.

3. The phase sequence of the incoming alternator should be the same as that of the other
alternator/infinite busbars. A different phase sequence between the incoming
machine and the infinite busbars results in a dead short circuit in the armature
winding.

4. There should be no relative phase difference in the respective phases of the incoming
machine and the infinite busbar. Larger phase differences may cause circulating heavy
armature currents strong enough to trip the machine.

In fact, the armature emf and busbar emf should be in phase while looking from the main circuit
(the circuit composed of load and incoming machine armature phase), and should be in phase
opposition, while looking from the local circuit (the circuit composed of armature phase and
busbar voltage phasor).

However, if the first three conditions are fulfilled, there is a remote possibility of matching the
fourth condition. Therefore, while synchronizing an alternator to an infinite busbar, strictly
matching only the first and second conditions, and then deliberately running the machine at a
speed slightly different than the synchronous speed. This is equivalent to a mild violation of
the third condition (mild frequency mismatch). The voltage beats in the local circuit cause the
lamps to flicker at the beat frequency (f1-f2). Since f1≈f2, the synchronizing switch can be easily
closed in the middle of the lamp's dark period, when the fourth condition is met. The alternator
still synchronizes even if the fourth condition doesn’t match exactly. It happened due to the
synchronizing torque developed.

Parallel operation of two synchronous generators

10
 Fig. Parallel Operation of two alternators

When two synchronous generators are connected in parallel, they have an inherent tendency to
remain in step, on account of the changes produced in their armature currents by a divergence
of phase.

Let us consider two machines, M1 and M2, operating in parallel and handling the same load. Here we
can realize two different circuits, namely the

-the main circuit that comprises one machine and the load.

-local circuit that comprises the armature windings of M1 and M2

The EMFs of the two machines are in phase with the local circuit, whereas they are in phase opposition
to it. (The local circuit consists of a closed path that contains two alternators.

First, assuming there is no load on this system.

For some reason, if M1 accelerates, its emf E1 will advance in phase with that of the emf E2 of M2 by
say 2α.

This phase difference between the phasors E1 and E2 is lost in the local circuit.

Consequently, the resultant emf ES = E1+E2 appears in the local circuit.

The synchronous impedance of an alternator is

- much smaller in magnitude than that of the load impedance, and

- highly reactive as synchronous reactance is much larger than the armature resistance
Large current IS circulate in the local circuit, and that essentially lags behind ES by an angle θ which is
close to 90°, this makes

-the phasors E2 and IS get almost out of phase, therefore M2 acts as a motor, and

-The phasors E1 and IS get almost in phase, therefore M1 works as a generator and thus feeds power to
M2.
11
However, M1 was running faster than M2. The faster machine M1 retards owing to magnetic drag
produced by the generating action, while the slower machine M2 accelerates due to motoring action as
it receives electrical power from M1.

The synchronizing power PS, which is close to ESIS, tends to retards the faster machine, and
simultaneously accelerates the slower machine, thus pulling both the machines back into step.

Therefore, within the practical limit of power generation (EtV/xS sin δ), it is not simple to destroy the
synchronism of two alternators once they have been synchronized.

Synchronous generators naturally possess highly reactive synchronous impedances that provide
adequate synchronizing power for the possible stable operation of the power system.

When both machines are equally loaded, the synchronizing power is developed in the same way as on
load, however, the effect is to reduce the load of the slower machine, and simultaneously increase the
load of the faster machine by the circulating synchronizing current IS in the local circuit.

Theory of Salient-Pole Machines

The variance in the air-gap length is not negligible in the salient pole machines, as is in the
cylindrical rotor machines. In fact, it is minimum along the polar axis (direct axis) and then
becomes maximum along the inter-polar axis (quadrature axis). Due to this variance of air-gap,
the reluctance offered by the magnetic circuit is different along the direct and quadrature axes
in salient-pole machines. As a consequence, the resultant air-gap mmf differs significantly
across these two axes; the armature reaction thus should be treated separately with respect to
these axes. Hence, the simplified theory of cylindrical-rotor machines cannot be applied to
salient-pole machines.

Two-Reaction theory and phasor diagram

For salient-pole machines, a two-reaction theory is developed. This theory considers the effect
of the direct and quadrature reaction components separately and thereby assigns fictitious
armature reactance xad and xaq, respectively. Since the mmf Fad acts along the direct-axis is
more intense than the mmf Faq acts along the quadrature axis, xad is greater than xaq. However,
the leakage reactance about the two axes may be considered equal, say x, owing to its littleness
in comparison to either xad or xaq. Thus, the synchronous reactance about these two axes is
given by
xsd = xad + x
xsq = xaq + x

The phasor diagram of a salient-pole machine is shown in Fig.

12
 Fig. Phasor diagram of salient pole machine
It is essential to distinguish between the direct- and quadrature-axis components Id and Iq, and
the active and reactive components of the armature current I. Both pairs are represented by
complexors in phase quadrature, but the former pair, i.e., Id and Iq, is related to Et , whereas
the latter pair, i.e., Ia and Ir, is referred to the terminal voltage V. From the phasor diagram
Id = I cos(δ+ϕ)
Iq = I sin(δ+ϕ)
Ia = I cosϕ
Ir = I sinϕ
Thus, I = √( Id2+Iq2) = √( Ia2+Ir2), yet in general Id ≠ Ia or Ir, and Iq ≠ Ia or Ir

Determination of xsd and xsq

The unsaturated values of xsd and xsq for the three-phase salient-pole machine can be determined
using slip test. In this test
(a) Reduced three-phase supply (about 25%) at rated frequency is applied across the stator
to produce synchronizing rotating air-gap mmf.
(b) The rotor is driven by some external prime mover at a speed slightly different than the
synchronous speed.
(c) The field winding is kept open.
The air-gap mmf gradually changes its position on account of the slip introduced between air-
gap mmf and the rotor speed. The reluctance offered to the rotor poles thus changes cyclically
at slip speed, as the reluctance of the magnetic path is minimum across the polar axis, whereas
is maximum across the interpolar axis. This cyclic variation in the reluctance of the magnetic
circuit causes a corresponding variation in the armature-induced emf. Since the armature
current phasor is given by V-Et/xa, it also varies cyclically, but in an opposite sense. The

13
 maximum and minimum ratio of the induced emf and armature current gives synchronous
reactance; the maximum ratio gives xsd, whereas the minimum ratio gives xsq. Therefore,
xsd = Vmax/Imin
xsq = Vmin/Imax

Power and power-angle curve

neglecting armature resistance, the electromagnetic power delivered by a synchronous
generator is given by
P = V cosϕ per phase
From the phasor diagram
I cosϕ = Iq cosδ+Id sinδ
P = V (Iq cosδ+Id sinδ)
Since, V cosδ = Et – Id xsd
thus Id = (Et – V cosδ)/xsd
And, V sinδ = Iq xsq, therefore
Iq = V sinδ/xsq
P = V cosδ [V cosδ/xsq] + V sinδ [(Et–V cosδ)/xsd]
P = (EtV/xsd) sinδ + V2 [(xsd – xsq)/2xsd xsq] sin2δ

Fig.2 Comparison of the power angle curve of cylindrical rotor and salient pole machines of the same rating
(The graduations marked on the x-axis are only for the reluctance power; otherwise, they should be multiplied by 2)

14
 From the above power relation, it has been observed that the power delivered by the salient-pole
machine contains a double-frequency component in addition to the normal frequency
component (EtV/xsd)sinδ. This double-frequency component is independent of the field
excitation (Et). This power is generated by the salient-pole machines due to the saliency of the
field poles, which provides reluctance as a function of space. This power is called reluctance
power, and it will be generated by these machines even when they are completely unexcited.
The power-angle curve for these machines is therefore different from that of the cylindrical rotor
machines, as shown in Fig. From the power relation and the power-angle curve it may be
observed that

1. The maximum power Pm is more for salient-pole machines than the cylindrical rotor
machines and it occurs for δ < 90˚.
2. The slop dp/dδ (stiffness*) of the power-angle curve is more for salient-pole machines than
the cylindrical rotor machines, which is attributed due to the generation of reluctance power.
Therefore, the saliency of poles enhances the stability of the machines. Hence, the hydro-
electric coordination in an electric power grid enhances system stability.
3. For most of the cases of synchronous generators, xsq = 0.6xsd, the power output of the machine
will be
P = (EgV/xsd) sinδ + (V2/3xsd ) sin2δ
For small values of δ, sinδ = δ and sin2δ =2δ. If the machine excitation is such that
Et = 2V, then
P = (V2/xsd)[2+2/3]δ
A considerable reluctance power, about 33%, is therefore developed due to the poles'
saliency.
4. The synchronizing power is given by
Ps = dP/dδ = (EtV/xsd) cosδ + [V2 (xsd – xsq)/[Link]] cos2δ
For xsq = 0.6xsd
Ps = (EtV/xsd) cosδ + (2/3) [V2/xsd] cos2δ
Again, the reluctance power contributes towards more stability of synchronous machines.

Fig. Comparison of synchronizing powers of cylindrical rotor and salient pole machines

15
Fig. shows a comparison of variation in the synchronizing power with the power angle for
salient-pole and cylindrical rotor machines. It can be observed that the synchronizing power
for the salient-pole machines is more than that of cylindrical rotor machines, so long as δ≤45˚.
Once again, the salient pole machines are found to be superior to the cylindrical rotor machines

*Higher the value of dp/dδ, lesser will be the angular deviation dδ introduced in the machine for the same amount of
disturbance dP. More stiffer synchronous machines are more stable.

Synchronous Motors
Like other machines, synchronous machines are reversible, i.e., they can operate as a generator
or a motor depending on the type of input. If the stator of a synchronous machine is given a
balanced set of three-phase AC supply, and the rotor field is being excited by a DC supply, it
can run as a motor if the rotor is magnetically locked with the synchronizing rotating stator’s
magnetic field. The magnetic locking between the stator's rotating magnetic field, equivalent
to a rotating bar magnet, and the rotor, an actual bar magnet, is possible only when it also
rotates at the synchronous speed in the same direction. Therefore, synchronous motors can only
run at synchronous speed, and any speed variation is possible by varying the stator supply
frequency.
A synchronous motor has superior characteristics among all AC and DC machines because it
can be loaded in steps up to its maximum load without changing speed. Moreover, it can be
run at the desired PF (lag, unity, or leading) simply by varying the rotor field excitation. Some
of the serious limitations are: not inherently a self-start motor and requires a DC supply to
excite the rotor using two slip-rings. Therefore, these motors are costly, require skilled
operators, and require routine maintenance. However, technological advancements in power
electronics have made them self-starting, whereas the recent development of permanent magnet
synchronous motors (PMSMs) has overcome maintenance issues by employing permanent
magnets made of very costly rare-earth materials. However, PMSM has now become the first
choice for electric transportation. Some other recent technological advancements have
increased the efficiency of PMSMs to 95% or more, designed for the aviation industry.
However, PMSMs cannot be operated at the desired power factor, as that requires varying DC
excitation of the rotor field. The synchronous motor, hereinafter, should NOT be considered
as a PMSM.

Induction Starting and Working Principle

Synchronous motors are inherently non-self-starting. Consider the Fig., where the rotor is
excited by an appropriate DC supply via two slip-rings, and the stator is fed through balanced
three-phase line currents. A rotating magnetic is expected from these stator currents, as in the
case of induction motors, which rotates at synchronous speed f/p. Since the rotor field is excited
by DC supply, it becomes an electromagnet with a lot of moment of inertia. Owing to this
moment of inertia, the stationery rotor fails to follow the synchronizing rotating stator magnetic
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field and thus merely oscillates about its initial steady position. Thus, in principle, synchronous
motors are not self-starting motors like other DC or AC motors, and this is one of the serious
limitations.

Fig. Difficulty in self-starting synchronous motors

Induction starting
Consider that the rotor of the synchronous motor has been driven by some means at a speed
very close to its synchronous speed while stator and rotor windings are being excited by
suitable AC and DC supply, respectively. Now, one can expect a very low relative speed
between the stator and rotor magnetic fields. Obviously, at certain instances, the rotor poles
may coincide with the stator poles of the opposite polarity. And if it happens, the rotor poles
may interlock with the stator poles, thus the rotor acquires the synchronous speed. This is how
the synchronous motor can be started. Once the rotor poles interlock with the stator poles, it
becomes very difficult to break this coupling because synchronizing torque is produced, as in
the case of synchronous generators.
Synchronous motors have very low ratings compared to alternators. They employ salient-
pole construction with fewer poles, small diameter, and long axial length to attain quick
acceleration. The pole shoes of the motors are equipped with a damper grid, as in the case of
salient-pole machines. This damper grid plays a pivotal role in the self-start of the motors.
The stator is excited by a reduced balanced three-phase supply through an autotransformer
starter, as shown in Fig. The rotor winding is kept short-circuited while the shaft of the machine
is completely unloaded. The damper grid and the short-circuited rotor winding act as a cage
winding, and thus the synchronous motor starts as an induction motor under no-load. The rotor
speed approaches synchronous speed with the rated stator supply voltage. A feeble excitation
is then provided to the rotor winding by removing its short circuit. As soon as the rotor is
excited, magnetic poles appear on the pole shoes. Since the relative speed between the stator
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magnetic field and the rotor poles is very small, the rotor poles get interlocked with the stator
poles of opposite nature. The rotor excitation can now cab be increased to further strengthen
the magnetic coupling. The motor may now be gradually loaded, and its power factor adjusted
to obtain the desired PF.

Fig. Induction starting of synchronous motor

Operation
At no load, the torque angle δ is negligibly small (owing to very small frictional and windage
losses) which is also the angle between stator supply voltage phasor V reversed, and the
armature induced emf phasor Eb, as shown in Fig. In synchronous motors, the phasor Eb
increases with the rotor field excitation, whereas the angle δ increases with every increase in
the mechanical loading, and vice-versa. The reactive component Ir, of the stator supply, i.e. the
armature current phasor I, and thereby PF of the motor can be varied by varying its rotor field
excitation. However, the active component Ia is solely determined by the mechanical loading.
The phase of Eb is decided by the mechanical load whereas its magnitude is decided by
the field excitation and that also governs PF of the machine. Thus, the tip of the phasor Eb
is adjusted anywhere in the II-quadrant for the given excitation and mechanical loading, as
shown in Fig.

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 Fig. Phasor diagram at no load Fig. Phasor Eb as a function of load and excitation

Consider Er =(Eb+V) as the resultant emf available in the armature phase, and zs is the
synchronous impedance. The armature current phasor I will then lags behind the phasor Er
by an angle θ which is constant for the given machine. The angle between the phasors I and
V decides PF of the machine.
The operation of the machine can be studies under the following two independent conditions
(1) Machine with constant excitation with varying mechanical loading
(2) Machine with constant mechanical loading with varying excitation (V-curves)

Machine with constant excitation with varying mechanical

loading

Fig. Phasor diagrams for synchronous motor with constant excitation and varying mechanical load
With constant excitation, the magnitude Eb, and reactive component of armature current Ir
remains constant. While increasing mechanical loading,
(1) the active component Ia increases to meet additional active power demand, and thus the
input current phasor increases from I1 to I2.

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 (2) the speed of the motor tends to decrease. The synchronizing torque comes into picture
and that settles the speed again back to the synchronous speed, but with some more
angular deviation between stator and rotor mmfs, say from δ2 to δ1.

Consequently, the phasor Eb backward in phase from δ1 to δ2 without any change in magnitude.
Therefore, both magnitude and phase of the phasor Er altered from Er1 to Er2. Since the phase
difference between the phasors Er2 and I2 is fixed to θ, the phasor I2 can be evaluated, as shown
in Fig. However, in this due course of time the PF of the machine varies from cosϕ1 to cosϕ2,
which in fact deteriorates. Similarly, the phasor diagram for further mechanical loading with a
torque angle δ3> δ2 can be demonstrated.
With aforementioned discussion, it is concluded that the PF of the synchronous motor deteriorates with every
mechanical loading if the excitation is kept constant. This is one of the major advantages of the conventional
synchronous motor over the modern PMSMs.

V-Curves
In several industrial applications, synchronous motors serve as constant load drives owing to
their intrinsic property of constant speed operation, viz. large-scale air-conditioning,
refrigeration, pump storage plants, synchronous condenser, etc. For such specialized
applications, the field excitation is adjusted to drive the machine at desired PF. Such PF
adjustment is crucial as it directly affects PF of the plant as well as the distribution system
supplying power to the plant.

For the given mechanical loading, the armature current phasor I can be varied by varying rotor
field excitation If. If controls Ir, but not Ia and so the torque angle δ. It happened because the
reactive component of the armature current Ir varies while varying with If,, however, the
active component Ia does not varies at all, but PF varies. The fact can be observed from the
Fig.
A graph can be obtained between the magnitudes of I and If while varying the latter keeping
the mechanical loading constant. A series of such curves can be obtained for different
mechanical loading. A set of such curves obtained, called V-curves of the synchronous motor,
owing to their shape. A set of such curves can be obtained for different loading conditions,
both while the machine is running as a motor or generator. In the latter case, the mechanical
input/kW demand held fixed. The V-curves are the characteristic curves for the given
synchronous machine. A family of V-curves obtained for a synchronous motor is shown in Fig.

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 Fig. V-curves of a synchronous machine
Explanation
To plot V-curves, the synchronous motor is driven at synchronous speed under the given
mechanical loading. The field excitation is gradually increased, and the corresponding variation
in the armature current are measured and plotted. It has been observed that

b
d

Fig. Phasor diagrams for synchronous motor with constant mechanical load and varying excitation:
(a), (b) under excited (c) normal excited (d) over excited

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1. For weak field excitation, Eb is very small, and thus Er is large enough with small angular
difference with V. As a consequence, the motor draws a large reactive component of
armature current Ir. Eventually the power factor is poor.
2. If the field excitation is increased, the magnitude of Eb increases and consequently the
angular deviation between the phasors Er and V also increases. However, the magnitude of
Er decreases, and that in turn decreases the reactive component Ir, as the active component
Ia held fixed owing to constant mechanical loading. It is noteworthy that Ir decreases with
an increase in the excitation, so PF improves.
3. For certain definite field excitation, it may be possible that Ir vanishes completely. At this
particular value of excitation, the machine is said to be normal excited, where the machine
is operating at unity power factor and as such drawing minimum current from the supply
mains. In case, the field excitation is set less than the normal excitation, the machine is
called under excited.
4. If the field excitation is increased more than the normal excitation, the motor will draw
leading current and is said to be over excited. There exists a maximum limit to overexcite
the machine which is decided by the permissible upper limits of Eb and If.
5. A set of V-curves for varying loading conditions can be again referred. The figure also shows
the variation in power factor with field excitation. This is called an inverted V-curve.
6. Although the V-curves have been explained for synchronous motors but they can also be
explained for the synchronous generators. The shape of the V-curves remains the same,
however, for under and over excited generators, the power factor will be leading and
lagging, respectively. Think why?

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