SPARK IOQM Practice Paper

Number Theory & Progressions (2 Marks)

Questions
1. Find the number of trailing zeros in 2026!.

2. What is the remainder when 72026 is divided by 15?

3. The sum of three numbers in Arithmetic Progression is 24, and their product is 440. Find
the numbers.

4. Let a, b, c be in Harmonic Progression. If a = 4 and c = 6, find the value of b.

5. Determine the total number of factors of 720 that are perfect squares.

6. Find the least positive integer x such that x ≡ 2 (mod 5) and x ≡ 3 (mod 7).

7. In a Geometric Progression, the 3rd term is 12 and the 6th term is 96. Find the first term.

8. If the sum of the first n terms of an AP is 3n2 + 5n, find its 10th term.

9. Find the greatest common divisor (GCD) of 2100 − 1 and 2120 − 1.

10. How many prime numbers p are there such that p + 2 and p + 4 are also prime?

11. Convert the recurring decimal 0.142857 to a fraction in lowest terms.

12. If n is a positive integer, find the HCF of n! + 1 and (n + 1)!.

13. The product of three terms in GP is 216. If the sum of their products taken in pairs is
156, find the terms.

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Number Theory & Progressions (2 Marks) SPARK IOQM 2026

14. Solve the linear congruence 4x ≡ 2 (mod 6).

15. Find the highest power of 3 that divides 100!.

16. Determine if 215 − 1 is a prime number.

17. A sequence is defined by an = 2an−1 + 3 for n ≥ 2, with a1 = 1. Find a4 .

18. Find the LCM of 120, 150, and 200.

19. If a, b, c are in AP, b, c, d are in GP, and c, d, e are in HP, prove that a, c, e are in GP.
(Write the core condition).

20. Find the remainder when 1! + 2! + 3! + · · · + 100! is divided by 15.

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Number Theory & Progressions (2 Marks) SPARK IOQM 2026

Solutions
1. Trailing zeros = ⌊2026/5⌋ + ⌊2026/25⌋ + · · · = 405 + 81 + 16 + 3 + 0 = 505.

2. Euler’s totient ϕ(15) = 8. 78 ≡ 1 (mod 15). 2026 = 8 × 253 + 2. So 72026 ≡ 72 ≡ 49 ≡ 4

(mod 15).

3. Let numbers be a − d, a, a + d. Sum = 3a = 24 =⇒ a = 8. Product = 8(64 − d2 ) =

440 =⇒ 64 − d2 = 55 =⇒ d2 = 9 =⇒ d = ±3. Numbers are 5, 8, 11.

2ac 2(4)(6) 48
4. b = a+c = 4+6 = 10 = 4.8.

5. 720 = 24 × 32 × 51 . A perfect square factor must have even powers. Choices for power of
2: (0,2,4) - 3 options. For 3: (0,2) - 2 options. For 5: (0) - 1 option. Total = 3 × 2 × 1 = 6.

6. x = 5k + 2. Substitute into second: 5k + 2 ≡ 3 (mod 7) =⇒ 5k ≡ 1 (mod 7) =⇒ 5k ≡

15 (mod 7) =⇒ k ≡ 3 (mod 7). Smallest k = 3 =⇒ x = 5(3) + 2 = 17.

7. ar2 = 12, ar5 = 96 =⇒ r3 = 8 =⇒ r = 2. a(4) = 12 =⇒ a = 3.

8. Sn = 3n2 + 5n. T10 = S10 − S9 = (300 + 50) − (3(81) + 45) = 350 − 288 = 62.

9. gcd(2a − 1, 2b − 1) = 2gcd(a,b) − 1. gcd(100, 120) = 20. Result is 220 − 1.

10. Only one set: p = 3, giving 3, 5, 7. For p > 3, one of p, p + 2, p + 4 is a multiple of 3.

11. Let x = 0.142857142857 . . . 1000000x = 142857.142857 · · · =⇒ 999999x = 142857 =⇒

x = 1/7.

12. Let d divide n! + 1 and (n + 1)!. Then d divides (n + 1)(n! + 1) = (n + 1)! + n + 1. Thus
d divides (n + 1)! + n + 1 − (n + 1)! = n + 1. But d also divides n! + 1. Any divisor of
n + 1 that is ≤ n would share factors with n!, leaving a remainder of 1. Thus d must be
1. HCF = 1.

13. Let terms be a/r, a, ar. Product = a3 = 216 =⇒ a = 6. Sum of pairs = (a2 /r + a2 +
a2 r) = 36(1/r + 1 + r) = 156. Solving gives r = 3 or 1/3. Terms are 2, 6, 18.

14. 4x ≡ 2 (mod 6) =⇒ 2x ≡ 1 (mod 3) =⇒ 2x ≡ 4 (mod 3) =⇒ x ≡ 2 (mod 3).

Solutions modulo 6 are x = 2 and x = 5.

15. Legendre’s Formula: ⌊100/3⌋ + ⌊100/9⌋ + ⌊100/27⌋ + ⌊100/81⌋ = 33 + 11 + 3 + 1 = 48.

16. 215 − 1 = (25 )3 − 1 = (32 − 1)(322 + 32 + 1) = 31 × 1057. Not prime.

17. a1 = 1, a2 = 2(1) + 3 = 5, a3 = 2(5) + 3 = 13, a4 = 2(13) + 3 = 29.

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Number Theory & Progressions (2 Marks) SPARK IOQM 2026

18. 120 = 23 × 3 × 5, 150 = 2 × 3 × 52 , 200 = 23 × 52 . LCM = 23 × 3 × 52 = 8 × 3 × 25 = 600.

19. b = (a  + c)/2,
 c2 = bd, d = 2ce/(c + e). Substitute b and d into c2 = bd: c2 =
a+c 2ce
=⇒ c2 (c + e) = ce(a + c) =⇒ c2 + ce = ae + ce =⇒ c2 = ae.


2 c+e
Thus a, c, e are in GP.

20. For n ≥ 5, n! is a multiple of 15 (contains 3 × 5). So we only need 1! + 2! + 3! + 4! =

1 + 2 + 6 + 24 = 33. 33 ≡ 3 (mod 15). Remainder is 3.

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Number Theory & Progressions (3 Marks) SPARK IOQM 2026

SPARK IOQM Practice Paper

Number Theory & Progressions (3 Marks)

Questions
1. Find the smallest positive integer x that leaves remainders 1, 2, 3, 4 when divided by
2, 3, 4, 5 respectively.

2. Prove that n4 + 4 is composite for all integers n > 1. (Sophie Germain Identity).

xn−1
3. A sequence is defined by x1 = 1/2 and xn = 2nxn−1 +1 for n > 1. Find a closed-form
expression for xn .

4. Find all primes p such that 2p + p2 is also prime.

1 1 1
5. Evaluate the infinite sum: 1·3 + 3·5 + 5·7 + ...

6. What is the highest power of 2 dividing 31024 − 1?

21n+4
7. Show that for any integer n, the fraction 14n+3 is irreducible.

8. Find the number of divisors of 1010 that are not divisors of 109 .

9. Determine the last three digits of 79999 .

10. Let Sn denote the sum of the first n terms of an AP. If S2n = 3Sn , prove that S3n /Sn = 6.

11. Solve the system: x ≡ 1 (mod 3), x ≡ 2 (mod 5), x ≡ 3 (mod 7).

12. If a, b, c are in GP and x, y are the arithmetic means between a, b and b, c respectively,
prove that xa + yc = 2.

13. Prove that there are infinitely many primes of the form 4k + 3.

14. Find the sum of all integers between 1 and 1000 that are divisible by 7 but not by 11.

15. Let p > 3 be a prime. Prove that p2 ≡ 1 (mod 24).

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Number Theory & Progressions (3 Marks) SPARK IOQM 2026

16. Find the remainder when the sum 15 + 25 + 35 + · · · + 1005 is divided by 4.

17. Let an be a GP. Prove that the sequence bn = log(an ) is an AP.

18. Determine all integer solutions to x2 − y 2 = 2026.

19. Find the sum to n terms of the series 1 + 11 + 111 + 1111 + . . .

20. If p and q are distinct odd primes, prove that pq−1 + q p−1 ≡ 1 (mod pq).

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Number Theory & Progressions (3 Marks) SPARK IOQM 2026

Solutions
1. Notice x ≡ −1 (mod k) for k = 2, 3, 4, 5. Thus x + 1 is a multiple of lcm(2, 3, 4, 5) = 60.
Smallest positive x = 60 − 1 = 59.

2. n4 + 4 = n4 + 4n2 + 4 − 4n2 = (n2 + 2)2 − (2n)2 = (n2 − 2n + 2)(n2 + 2n + 2). For n > 1,
both factors are strictly greater than 1, so it is composite.

3. Take reciprocals: 1/xn = 1/xn−1 + 2n. Let yn = 1/xn . Then yn − yn−1 = 2n. Summing
from 2 to n: yn − y1 = 2(2 + 3 + · · · + n) = 2( n(n+1)
2 − 1) = n2 + n − 2. Since y1 = 2,
2 1
yn = n + n. Thus xn = n(n+1) .

4. If p = 3, 23 + 32 = 8 + 9 = 17 (prime). If p ̸= 3, p ≡ 1, 2 (mod 3). Then p2 ≡ 1

(mod 3). Also, since p is odd, p = 2k + 1. 2p = 22k+1 = 2 · 4k ≡ 2(1)k ≡ 2 (mod 3). So
2p + p2 ≡ 2 + 1 = 3 ≡ 0 (mod 3). Since it’s > 3, it’s composite. So p = 3 is the only
solution.
 
1 1 1 1
5. The general term is (2n−1)(2n+1) = 2 2n−1 − 2n+1 . This is a telescoping series. Sum
= 12 (1 − 0) = 12 .

10
6. Using Lifting the Exponent Lemma (LTE). v2 (31024 − 1). 1024 = 210 . v2 (32 − 1) =
v2 (3 − 1) + v2 (3 + 1) + 10 − 1 = 1 + 2 + 9 = 12. Highest power is 212 .

7. Let d = gcd(21n+4, 14n+3). Then d divides 3(14n+3)−2(21n+4) = 42n+9−42n−8 = 1.

So d = 1.

8. 1010 = 210 × 510 . Total divisors = 11 × 11 = 121. 109 = 29 × 59 . Total divisors

= 10 × 10 = 100. Number of divisors of 1010 not in 109 is 121 − 100 = 21.

9. We need 79999 (mod 1000). ϕ(1000) = 400. 9999 = 400(24)+399. 7399 ≡ 7400 ·7−1 ≡ 1·7−1
(mod 1000). Find 7−1 (mod 1000). 7x ≡ 1 (mod 1000). 7 × 143 = 1001 ≡ 1. Thus
x = 143. Last three digits are 143.

10. Sn = n2 (2a + (n − 1)d). S2n = 2n n

2 (2a + (2n − 1)d) = 3 2 (2a + (n − 1)d) =⇒ 4a +
4nd − 2d = 6a + 3nd − 3d =⇒ nd + d = 2a =⇒ 2a = (n + 1)d. Now evaluate
3n
(2a+(3n−1)d)
S3n
Sn = 2
n
(2a+(n−1)d) = 3 (n+1)d+(3n−1)d 4nd
(n+1)d+(n−1)d = 3 2nd = 6.
2

11. x ≡ 1 (mod 3), x ≡ 2 (mod 5) =⇒ x = 3k + 1. 3k + 1 ≡ 2 (mod 5) =⇒ 3k ≡

1 ≡ 6 =⇒ k ≡ 2 (mod 5). So x = 3(5m + 2) + 1 = 15m + 7. Now 15m + 7 ≡ 3
(mod 7) =⇒ m ≡ −4 ≡ 3 (mod 7). Thus x = 15(7t + 3) + 7 = 105t + 52. Smallest
positive is 52.

a(1+r)
12. a, b, c in GP =⇒ b = ar, c = ar2 . x is AM of a, b =⇒ x = a+b 2 = 2 . y is AM of
ar(1+r) 2
b+c
b, c =⇒ y = 2 = 2 . Evaluate x + y = a(1+r) + ar(1+r) = 1+r + 1+r = 2(1+r)
a c 2a 2ar 2 2r
1+r = 2.

13. Assume finitely many primes of form 4k+3, say p1 , p2 , . . . , pn . Consider N = 4p1 p2 . . . pn −

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Number Theory & Progressions (3 Marks) SPARK IOQM 2026

1. N ≡ 3 (mod 4). Every prime factor of N cannot be of the form 4k + 1 (product of such
is 4k + 1). So at least one prime factor q ≡ 3 (mod 4). But q cannot be any pi , otherwise
q divides 1. Contradiction.

14. Divisible by 7: 1000/7 =⇒ 142 numbers. Sum S1 = 7(142×143)/2 = 71071. Divisible by

77: 1000/77 =⇒ 12 numbers. Sum S2 = 77(12 × 13)/2 = 6006. Result = 71071 − 6006 =
65065.

15. Since p > 3, p is not divisible by 2 or 3. Thus p ≡ ±1 (mod 6). Also p is odd, p = 2k + 1.
p2 − 1 = (p − 1)(p + 1) = (2k)(2k + 2) = 4k(k + 1). Since one of k, k + 1 is even, p2 − 1
is divisible by 8. Also p is not divisible by 3, so p ≡ ±1 (mod 3) =⇒ p2 ≡ 1 (mod 3).
Since gcd(8, 3) = 1, 24 divides p2 − 1.

16. Modulo 4, 15 ≡ 1, 25 ≡ 0, 35 ≡ 3, 45 ≡ 0. The sum of a block of 4 consecutive fifth powers

modulo 4 is 1 + 0 + 3 + 0 ≡ 4 ≡ 0. Since 100 is a multiple of 4, there are 25 such blocks.
Total sum ≡ 25 × 0 ≡ 0 (mod 4). Remainder is 0.

17. an = a1 rn−1 . bn = log(a1 rn−1 ) = log(a1 ) + (n − 1) log(r). This is an AP with first term
log(a1 ) and common difference log(r).

18. x2 − y 2 = (x − y)(x + y) = 2026. 2026 = 2 × 1013. Notice that x − y and x + y must have
the same parity. Their product must be a multiple of 4 if they are even, or odd if they
are odd. Since 2026 is divisible by 2 but not 4, there are no integer solutions.

19. S = 1 + 11 + ·· · = 19 (9 + 99 + . . . ) = 1
9 ((10 − 1) + (102 − 1) + · · · + (10n − 1)) =
1 10(10n −1) n+1 −9n−10
9 9 − n = 10 81 .

20. By Fermat’s Little Theorem, pq−1 ≡ 1 (mod q) and q p−1 ≡ 0 (mod q). So pq−1 +q p−1 ≡ 1
(mod q). Similarly, pq−1 + q p−1 ≡ 0 + 1 = 1 (mod p). Since gcd(p, q) = 1, the sum is ≡ 1
(mod pq).

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Number Theory & Progressions (5 Marks) SPARK IOQM 2026

SPARK IOQM Practice Paper

Number Theory & Progressions (5 Marks)

Questions
1. Prove that the sum of the squares of 3, 4, 5, or 6 consecutive integers is never a perfect
square.

2. Let S be a subset of {1, 2, . . . , 2n} containing n + 1 elements. Prove that there exist two
elements in S such that one divides the other.

3. Find all functions f : Z → Z satisfying f (x + f (y)) = f (x) − y for all integers x, y.

4. If a1 , a2 , . . . , an are positive reals in Harmonic Progression, prove that a1 a2 + a2 a3 + · · · +

an−1 an = (n − 1)a1 an .

5. Find all pairs of positive integers (m, n) such that 3m − 1 = 2n .

6. Show that for any positive integer n, the number n! + 1 is not divisible by any prime
p ≤ n.

1 1
7. Let x, y, z be positive integers such that x + y = z1 . Prove that gcd(x, y, z) × (x + y) is a
perfect square.

8. Solve in positive integers: x! + y! = z!.

9. Let p be a prime of the form 4k + 1. Show that there exists an integer x such that x2 + 1
is divisible by p.

10. A sequence an√ is defined

√
by a1 = 3, a2 = 11, and an = 4an−1 − an−2 for n ≥ 3. Prove
(2+ 3)n +(2− 3)n
that an = 2 and hence show an is always an integer.

11. Prove that the equation x2 + y 2 = 3z 2 has no solutions in non-zero integers.

Q100 k.
12. Find the highest power of 10 that divides the product P = k=1 k

13. If p is a prime > 3, prove that the numerator of 1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + · · · + 1/(p − 1) is divisible
by p2 . (Wolstenholme’s Theorem).

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Number Theory & Progressions (5 Marks) SPARK IOQM 2026

14. Determine all values of n for which 2n + 1 is divisible by n2 .

15. Let a, b, c be integers such that a3 +b3 +c3 = 0. Prove that at least one of them is divisible
by 3.

P∞ k2
16. Find the sum of the series: k=1 2k .

n
17. Prove that for any natural number n, the number 22 + 1 ends in 7.

18. Solve the Diophantine equation x3 − y 3 = xy + 61.

19. Prove that the sum of the reciprocals of all prime numbers diverges.

20. If a, b, c are the sides of a right-angled triangle, and form an Arithmetic Progression, prove
that the sides are in the ratio 3 : 4 : 5.

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Number Theory & Progressions (5 Marks) SPARK IOQM 2026

Solutions
1. Check modulo 3 and 4. Sum of 3 squares: (x − 1)2 + x2 + (x + 1)2 = 3x2 + 2 ≡ 2 (mod 3).
Not a square. Sum of 4 squares: (x − 1)2 + x2 + (x + 1)2 + (x + 2)2 = 4x2 + 4x + 6 ≡ 2
(mod 4). Not a square. Sum of 5 squares modulo 4 or 9 can be similarly checked.

2. Every number in S can be written as 2k · m where m is odd. There are exactly n odd
numbers in {1, . . . , 2n}. Since S has n + 1 elements, by Pigeonhole Principle, two numbers
must have the same odd part, say a = 2i · m and b = 2j · m. If i < j, a divides b.

3. Let x = −f (y). Then f (0) = f (−f (y)) − y =⇒ f (−f (y)) = f (0) + y. This implies
f is surjective. Let f (a) = 0. f (x + 0) = f (x) − a =⇒ a = 0, so f (0) = 0. Now
f (f (y)) = −y. Substitute x = 0: f (f (y)) = −y. Now replace y with f (y): f (x +
f (f (y))) = f (x) − f (y) =⇒ f (x − y) = f (x) − f (y). This implies f (x) = cx. Since
f (f (y)) = −y, c2 = −1. No real solutions exist for c, so no such function from Z → Z
exists.

4. Since ai in HP, 1/ai in AP. Let 1/ai = A + (i − 1)D. Then 1/ai+1 − 1/ai = D =⇒
ai −ai+1 ai −ai+1
ai ai+1 = D =⇒ ai ai+1 = D . Summing from i = 1 to n − 1: Sum = a1 −a n
D . But
a1 −an
1/an = 1/a1 + (n − 1)D =⇒ D = (n−1)a 1 an
. Substituting this back, Sum = (n − 1)a1 an .

5. If n = 1, 3m − 1 = 2 =⇒ 3m = 3 =⇒ m = 1. If n = 2, 3m − 1 = 4 =⇒ 3m = 5 (no). If
n ≥ 3, 2n ≡ 0 (mod 8). 3m − 1 ≡ 0 (mod 8). 3m ≡ 1 (mod 8) =⇒ m is even, m = 2k.
32k − 1 = (3k − 1)(3k + 1) = 2n . Both factors must be powers of 2. Let 3k − 1 = 2a ,
3k + 1 = 2b . Difference is 2b − 2a = 2 =⇒ 2a (2b−a − 1) = 2 =⇒ a = 1, b = 2. So
3k − 1 = 2 =⇒ 3k = 3 =⇒ k = 1. So m = 2, n = 3. Pairs: (1, 1), (2, 3).

6. Let p ≤ n. Then p is a factor of n!. Therefore, n! ≡ 0 (mod p). Thus n! + 1 ≡ 1 (mod p).
This means no prime ≤ n divides n! + 1.

x+y 1
7. xy = z =⇒ z(x+y) = xy. Let d = gcd(x, y). x = da, y = db, gcd(a, b) = 1. z(da+db) =
d2 ab =⇒ z(a + b) = dab. Since gcd(a, b) = 1, gcd(a + b, a) = 1 and gcd(a + b, b) = 1. So
a+b must divide d. Let d = k(a+b). Then z(a+b) = k(a+b)ab =⇒ z = kab. The gcd of
x, y, z is gcd(da, db, kab) = gcd(k(a+b)a, k(a+b)b, kab) = k ·gcd((a+b)a, (a+b)b, ab) = k.
Now evaluate gcd(x, y, z)(x+y) = k(da+db) = kd(a+b) = k(k(a+b))(a+b) = k 2 (a+b)2 =
(k(a + b))2 , which is a perfect square.

8. If x = y, 2x! = z!. This implies z!/x! = 2 =⇒ z(z − 1) . . . (x + 1) = 2 =⇒ z = 2, x = 1.

So 1! + 1! = 2!. If x < y, x!(1 + (x + 1) . . . y) = z!. 1 + (x + 1) . . . y = (y + 1) . . . z. If
y = x + 1, 1 + x + 1 = (x + 2) . . . z =⇒ x + 2 = (x + 2) . . . z =⇒ z = x + 2. Then
x!+(x+1)! = (x+2)! =⇒ 1+x+1 = (x+1)(x+2) =⇒ x+2 = x2 +3x+2 =⇒ x2 +2x = 0
(no positive solution). Thus (1, 1, 2) is the only positive integer solution.

9. By Wilson’s Theorem, (p − 1)! ≡ −1 (mod p). We can write (p − 1)! = 1 · 2 . . . p−1

2 ·
p−1
p+1
2 . . . (p−1). Note that p−k ≡ −k (mod p). So (p−1)! ≡ 1·2 . . . p−1
2 ·(−1)
2 (1·2 . . . p−1
2 )
p−1
(mod p). Let x = ( p−1
2 )!. Then (p−1)! ≡ (−1)
2 x2 (mod p). Since p = 4k+1, p−1
2 = 2k,
p−1
which is even. So (−1) 2 = 1. Thus x2 ≡ −1 (mod p), or x2 + 1 is divisible by p.

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Number Theory & Progressions (5 Marks) SPARK IOQM 2026

√ √
10. The characteristic equation is r2 − 4r + 1 = 0. Roots are r = 4± 216−4 = 2 ± 3. General
√ √
solution is an =√ A(2+ √3)n +B(2− 3)n . Using a1 = 3, a2 = 11, we find A = 1/2, B = 1/2.
n n
Thus an = (2+ 3) +(2− 3)
. Expanding by Binomial Theorem, the irrational parts cancel
2 √
out and the even powers of 3 yield integers.

11. Check modulo 3. Squares modulo 3 are 0 or 1. For x2 + y 2 ≡ 0 (mod 3), we must have
x2 ≡ 0 and y 2 ≡ 0. Thus x = 3x1 , y = 3y1 . Then 9x21 + 9y12 = 3z 2 =⇒ 3x21 + 3y12 = z 2 .
This means z 2 ≡ 0 (mod 3) =⇒ z = 3z1 . Then 3x21 + 3y12 = 9z12 =⇒ x21 + y12 = 3z12 . By
infinite descent, the only solution is x = y = z = 0.

12. We need the power of 2 and 5 in P . The power of 5 will be smaller. The power of 5 is the
sumPof multiples
P4of 5 from 120×21
to 100, each weighted by itself, plus multiples of 25. Power
20
= k=1 5k + j=1 25j = 5 2 + 25 4×5 2 = 5(210) + 25(10) = 1050 + 250 = 1300. So
highest power of 10 is 1300.

13. (Wolstenholme’s Theorem

 P standard proof via algebraic manipulation over Zp ). Sum =
P(p−1)/2  1 1 p P 1
i=1 i + p−i = i(p−i) . Factoring p, we need to show i2
≡ 0 (mod p). Since
1/i2 ≡ j 2 = (p−1)p(2p−1)
P P
1/i runs through all non-zero residues, 6 . For p > 3, this is 0
(mod p). Hence the original numerator is 0 (mod p ). 2

14. n = 1 works. If n > 1, let p be the smallest prime dividing n. Then p | (2n + 1) =⇒ 2n ≡
−1 (mod p) =⇒ 22n ≡ 1 (mod p). Let k be the order of 2 modulo p. Then k | 2n and
k | (p − 1). Since p is the smallest prime dividing n, gcd(n, p − 1) = 1. Thus k divides 2.
k = 1, 2. If k = 1, 21 ≡ 1 (mod p) (no). If k = 2, 22 ≡ 1 (mod p) =⇒ p = 3. So n must
be a multiple of 3. Let n = 3k m. Applying LTE recursively leads to n = 3 being the only
other solution. So n = 1, 3.

15. By Fermat’s Little Theorem, x3 ≡ x (mod 3). So a3 + b3 + c3 ≡ a + b + c (mod 3). Also,

modulo 9, cubes are 0, 1, -1. For a3 + b3 + c3 = 0, if none is divisible by 3, their cubes are
±1 (mod 9). Three ±1s cannot sum to 0 (mod 9). Thus at least one must be 0 (mod 9),
which means the number is divisible by 3.

P k2 P k2 P k2 −(k−1)2 P 2k−1 P 2k−1

16. Let S = 2k . S/2 = 2k+1 . S − S/2 = 2k = 2k . Let S 1 = 2k
.
P 2k−3 2/4
. S1 − S1 /2 = 21 + k=2 22k = 12 + 1−1/2 = 1.5. So S1 /2 = 1.5 =⇒ S1 = 3.
P
S1 /2 = 2k
Then S/2 = 3 =⇒ S = 6.

n
17. For n = 1, 22 + 1 = 5 (ends in 5). For n ≥ 2, 2n = 4k. 22 = 24k = 16k . Any power of 16
ends in 6. Thus 16k + 1 ends in 7.

18. x3 − y 3 = (x − y)(x2 + xy + y 2 ). Let x − y = d. Then d(d2 + 3xy) = xy + 61 =⇒

d3 + 3dxy − xy = 61 =⇒ xy(3d − 1) = 61 − d3 . Since x > y, d ≥ 1. If d = 1,
2xy = 60 =⇒ xy = 30. With x − y = 1, x(x − 1) = 30 =⇒ x = 6, y = 5. If d = 2,
5xy = 61 − 8 = 53 (no int sol). If d = 3, 8xy = 61 − 27 = 34 (no int sol). If d = 4,
61 − 64 < 0 (no positive sol). So (x, y) = (6, 5).

. We know p (1 − p1 )−1 =
P1 P1
− log(1 − p1 ) =
Q P
19. Euler’s proof: p n . Taking log:
P1
log( n ). The harmonic series diverges, so log diverges. Using Taylor series for log(1−x),

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Number Theory & Progressions (5 Marks) SPARK IOQM 2026

P1 P 1
p + k≥2 kpk diverges. The second sum converges (bounded by sum of geometric series).
P1
Thus the first sum p must diverge.

20. Let sides be a−d, a, a+d (with d > 0). Since it’s right-angled, (a+d)2 = (a−d)2 +a2 =⇒
a2 + 2ad + d2 = a2 − 2ad + d2 + a2 =⇒ a2 = 4ad. Since a > 0, a = 4d. The sides are
4d − d, 4d, 4d + d, which are 3d, 4d, 5d. Ratio is 3 : 4 : 5.

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