Integrated Mathematics Notes: Polynomial
Division & Statistics
POLYNOMIALS & ALGEBRA
1. Division with Polynomials**
Brief History
• Ancient mathematicians used ratios and proportions to divide algebraic terms.
• 1500s: François Viète introduced symbolic algebra.
• 1600s–1700s: Newton and others refined algebraic manipulation.
• 1800s: Modern long division for polynomials was formalized.
• 1809: Paolo Ruffini introduced synthetic division (Ruffini’s Rule).
• Polynomial division by inspection evolved from ancient equation-solving techniques.
Real-World Applications
• Engineering: Stress/load modelling.
• Economics: Cost, revenue, and profit functions.
• Physics: Motion and trajectory equations.
• Computer Graphics: Curves and animation algorithms.
• Biology/Medicine: Disease spread, population growth.
2. Polynomial Long Division
Steps
1. Arrange terms in descending powers of x.
2. Divide first term of dividend by first term of divisor.
3. Multiply divisor by result and subtract.
4. Repeat until remainder's degree < divisor.
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3. Synthetic Division
Steps
1. Identify coefficients and k from divisor (x − k).
2. Bring down first coefficient.
3. Multiply by k , add to next coefficient.
4. Repeat until done.
4. Polynomial Division by Inspection
Steps
1. Identify divisor and dividend.
2. Look at first term of dividend.
3. Multiply divisor by that term.
4. Subtract from dividend.
5. Repeat until no terms remain.
5. Remainder Theorem
• If a polynomial f (x) is divided by (x − a), remainder = f (a).
• Developed/popularized by Étienne Bézout (18th century).
6. Factor Theorem
• Special case of Remainder Theorem.
• If f (a) = 0, then (x − a) is a factor of f (x).
• Strengthened by Frobenius & Lebesgue.
Using Factor Theorem to Find Factors
1. Substitute a into f (x).
2. If result is 0 → it's a factor.
3. If not → not a factor.
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7. Long Division to Find Factors
Steps
1. Divide polynomial by suspected factor.
2. If remainder = 0 → factor.
3. If remainder ≠ 0 → not a factor.
8. Completely Factorising Polynomials
1. Check for GCF.
2. Write in standard form.
3. List possible rational roots.
4. Test roots using substitution.
5. When root is found, divide by (x − a).
6. Repeat until polynomial reduces to linear or quadratic.
7. Factor quadratic normally or using quadratic formula.
9. Solving Unknowns using Remainder/Factor
Theorem
Key Ideas
• Remainder: f (a) gives remainder.
• Factor: f (a) = 0 gives roots.
Steps to Solve
1. Substitute possible values into f (x).
2. Values that give 0 → roots.
3. Use roots to factor polynomial.
4. Solve factors.
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STATISTICS
10. Introduction to Statistics**
History Overview
• Origin: Latin status (state).
• Ancient civilizations used early statistics for census and resources.
• 17th century: Graunt, Petty → demographic statistics.
• Pascal & Fermat → probability foundation.
• 19th–20th century: Pearson, Fisher → modern statistical techniques.
11. Types of Data
Categorical (Qualitative)
• Describes qualities, categories.
• Arithmetic operations meaningless.
• Analysis → frequencies, mode.
Numerical (Quantitative)
• Counts or measurements.
• Arithmetic operations meaningful.
• Analysis → mean, median, SD, range.
Discrete Data
• Result of counting.
• Finite values with gaps.
• Bar charts, frequency tables.
Continuous Data
• Result of measuring.
• Any value in a range.
• Histograms.
Primary Data
• Collected first-hand.
• Specific, reliable, but costly.
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Secondary Data
• Previously collected.
• Cheap, accessible, less specific.
12. Population vs Sample
• Population: Entire group of interest.
• Sample: Subset used to infer about population.
Census vs Survey
• Census: Entire population.
• Sample Survey: Select part of population.
Statistic vs Parameter
• Statistic: Numerical measure of sample.
• Parameter: True measure of population.
13. Real-World Applications
• Product testing: Sample estimates population defect rate.
• Political polling: Small samples predict whole population.
14. Scales of Measurement (NOIR)
• Developed by Stanley Smith Stevens (1946).
1. Nominal
• Categories only.
• No order.
• Example: Gender, ZIP code.
2. Ordinal
• Categories with order.
• Intervals not consistent.
• Example: 1st, 2nd, 3rd.
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3. Interval
• Ordered, equal intervals.
• No true zero.
• Example: Celsius temperature.
4. Ratio
• Ordered, equal intervals, true zero.
• Ratios meaningful.
• Example: Height, weight, income.
15. Sampling Techniques
Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sampling (SRS)
• Every sample has equal chance.
Systematic Sampling
• Every k -th item.
P opulation
•k = Sample
Stratified Sampling
• Group population into strata.
• Take proportional samples from each.
Cluster Sampling
• Divide into clusters.
• Randomly select clusters and survey all members.
Non-Probability Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Purposive Sampling
Quota Sampling
Snowball Sampling
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16. Research Methods
Quantitative Research
• Numerical, measurable.
• Answers “how many,” “how much.”
Qualitative Research
• Descriptive, exploratory.
• Answers “why,” “how.”
Mixed Methods
• Combines both for complete understanding.
END OF NOTES