Nervous System

Complete Study Notes

Classification · Cerebrum · Cerebellum · Midbrain

Hypothalamus · Medulla · Basal Ganglia · Spinal Cord

Cranial Nerves · Autonomic Nervous System

1. Classification of the Nervous System

Overview
The nervous system is the body's master control and communication network. It receives information,
processes it, and coordinates appropriate responses throughout the body.

Central Nervous System (CNS) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Components Brain + Spinal cord Components 12 cranial nerves + 31 pairs of spinal nerves

Protection Skull & vertebral column; 3 meninges (dura Somatic NS Voluntary — controls skeletal muscles;
mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater) sensory & motor

Fluid CSF (cerebrospinal fluid) cushions and nourishes Autonomic NS Involuntary — controls viscera, glands,
blood vessels
Function Integration and processing centre for all
information ANS divisions Sympathetic (fight or flight) &
Parasympathetic (rest & digest)

Structural Units
Neuron Basic functional unit; soma (cell body) + dendrites (receive) + axon (transmit)

Types of neuron Sensory/Afferent (to CNS), Motor/Efferent (from CNS), Interneuron (association —
within CNS)

Neuroglia Supporting cells — Astrocytes, Oligodendrocytes, Microglia (CNS); Schwann cells,

Satellite cells (PNS)

Myelin sheath Fatty insulating sheath around axons; speeds impulse by saltatory conduction;
Schwann cells (PNS), Oligodendrocytes (CNS)
 2. Cerebrum — Anatomy & Physiology

Anatomy
Location Largest part of brain; occupies most of cranial cavity

Hemispheres Left & Right — joined by corpus callosum (commissural fibres)

Cortex Outer grey matter 2–4 mm thick; gyri (ridges) & sulci (grooves) increase surface area

White matter Myelinated fibres beneath cortex connecting cortical areas; association, commissural
& projection fibres

Ventricles Lateral ventricles (1st & 2nd) within cerebral hemispheres; contain CSF

Lobe Location Key Functions

Frontal Anterior to central sulcus Voluntary motor (precentral gyrus), personality, executive function, Broca's speech area

Parietal Behind central sulcus Somatosensory cortex (postcentral gyrus) — touch, pain, temperature, pressure; spatial

Temporal Below lateral sulcus Auditory cortex; Wernicke's area (L) — speech comprehension; memory (hippocampus)

Occipital Posterior pole Primary visual cortex; visual interpretation & recognition

Insula Deep to lateral sulcus Taste, visceral sensation, empathy, interoception

Key Functional Areas

Motor cortex Precentral gyrus — controls contralateral body movements (homunculus
representation)

Sensory cortex Postcentral gyrus — receives contralateral sensory input (proprioception, touch, pain,
temp)

Broca's area Left inferior frontal gyrus — motor speech production; damage → expressive (Broca's)
aphasia

Wernicke's area Left superior temporal gyrus — speech comprehension; damage → receptive
(Wernicke's) aphasia

Limbic system Cingulate gyrus, hippocampus, amygdala, parahippocampal gyrus — emotion,

memory, behaviour

Association areas Integrate information from multiple sources; higher cognitive functions
3. Cerebellum & Midbrain — Anatomy & Physiology

Cerebellum — Anatomy
Location Posterior cranial fossa; behind brainstem; below occipital lobe; separated by tentorium
cerebelli

Gross parts Two hemispheres + vermis (central strip); surface has folia (small folds)

Cortex & medulla Grey cortex (Purkinje cells) + White matter (arbor vitae) within

Peduncles Superior (to midbrain), Middle (to pons — largest), Inferior (to medulla) — carry
afferent & efferent fibres

Deep nuclei Dentate (largest), Emboliform, Globose, Fastigial — output from cerebellum

Cerebellum — Functions
Coordination Smooths & coordinates voluntary movements; compares intended vs actual
movement; corrects errors in real time

Balance & posture Maintains equilibrium via vestibular (CN VIII) inputs; adjusts postural muscles

Muscle tone Regulates muscle tone through connections with reticular formation & spinal cord

Motor learning Adaptation of movements over time; skill acquisition

Clinical — lesions Ipsilateral deficits: Ataxia (uncoordinated gait), Dysmetria (past-pointing),

Dysdiadochokinesia (impaired rapid alternating movements), Intention tremor,
Nystagmus
Midbrain — Anatomy & Functions
Location Uppermost brainstem segment (~2 cm); between pons (below) and diencephalon
(above); surrounds cerebral aqueduct

Tectum Dorsal part; contains corpora quadrigemina (4 colliculi)

Superior colliculi Visual reflexes — pupillary light reflex, conjugate eye tracking, visual startle

Inferior colliculi Auditory relay & reflexes — head orientation toward sound

Tegmentum Ventral to aqueduct; contains reticular formation, red nucleus, periaqueductal grey

Substantia nigra Dopamine-producing neurones; nigrostriatal pathway → motor control; degeneration

→ Parkinson's disease

Red nucleus Motor coordination via rubrospinal tract

Cerebral peduncles Large fibre bundles carrying corticospinal & corticobulbar tracts

Cranial nerves CN III (Oculomotor) from ventral surface; CN IV (Trochlear) from dorsal surface —
only CN with dorsal exit

Reticular formation Arousal, consciousness, sleep-wake cycle; ascending reticular activating system
(ARAS)
4. Hypothalamus · Medulla Oblongata · Basal Ganglia

Hypothalamus — Functions
The hypothalamus is the master regulator of homeostasis and the key link between the nervous and endocrine
systems.

Temperature control Thermostat of the body — detects blood temperature; initiates sweating (heat loss) or
shivering/vasoconstriction (heat conservation)

Hunger & thirst Feeding centre (lateral nucleus) & satiety centre (ventromedial nucleus);
osmoreceptors detect plasma osmolality → thirst

Water balance Produces ADH (vasopressin) released via posterior pituitary → renal water
reabsorption; controls urine concentration

Endocrine control Releases releasing & inhibiting hormones (GnRH, TRH, CRH, GHRH, somatostatin,
dopamine) → anterior pituitary → target glands

ANS control Higher autonomic centre; anterior/lateral → parasympathetic; posterior/lateral →

sympathetic

Circadian rhythm Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) — master biological clock; regulates sleep-wake
cycles via melatonin

Emotion & behaviour Rage, fear, sexual drive, pleasure centres via limbic system connections

Medulla Oblongata — Functions

Location Lowest brainstem segment; continuous with spinal cord at foramen magnum; ~3 cm
long

Vital centres Cardiac centre (HR & contractility), Vasomotor centre (BP via
vasoconstriction/dilation), Respiratory centre (rhythmic breathing — dorsal & ventral
groups)

Reflex centres Vomiting (chemoreceptor trigger zone nearby), Coughing, Sneezing, Hiccoughing,
Swallowing, Salivation

Pyramidal decussation Corticospinal tracts cross here → contralateral motor control of limbs

Medial lemniscus Decussation of dorsal column fibres → contralateral fine touch & proprioception
pathway

Cranial nerves CN VIII (partly), IX (Glossopharyngeal), X (Vagus), XI (Accessory), XII (Hypoglossal)

originate here

Tracts All ascending sensory & descending motor pathways between brain and spinal cord
pass through
Basal Ganglia — Functions
Components Caudate nucleus + Putamen = Striatum; Striatum + Globus pallidus = Corpus
striatum; + Substantia nigra + Subthalamic nucleus

Motor control Regulate initiation, speed & smoothness of voluntary movement; suppress unwanted
movements via inhibitory output

Dopamine pathway Nigrostriatal pathway (substantia nigra → striatum); direct pathway (excitatory) &
indirect pathway (inhibitory) — balance controls movement

Procedural memory Habit formation and motor skill/sequence learning

Cognitive & limbic Motivation, reward processing, mood regulation via connections with prefrontal cortex
& limbic system

Parkinson's disease Loss of dopaminergic neurones in substantia nigra → hypokinesia, rigidity, resting
tremor, bradykinesia

Huntington's disease Loss of striatal (GABA) neurones → hyperkinesia, chorea, cognitive decline
 5. Spinal Cord — Structure & Reflexes

Structure
Extent Foramen magnum → L1–L2 vertebra (conus medullaris); filum terminale anchors to
coccyx; cauda equina below L2

Dimensions ~45 cm long, ~1 cm diameter; cylindrical; cervical enlargement (C5–T1) & lumbar
enlargement (L2–S3) for limb plexuses

Segments 31 segments: Cervical 8, Thoracic 12, Lumbar 5, Sacral 5, Coccygeal 1 → 31 pairs of

spinal nerves

Grey matter (H-shape) Dorsal horn (sensory synapse), Ventral horn (lower motor neurones), Lateral horn
(sympathetic C8–L2; parasympathetic S2–S4)

White matter Surrounds grey; Posterior funiculus (sensory), Lateral funiculus (mixed), Anterior
funiculus (motor)

Tract Direction Carries Crosses

Spinothalamic Ascending Pain, temperature, crude touch Anterior commissure (spinal level)

Dorsal column–medial lemniscus

Ascending Fine touch, vibration, proprioception, 2-pt
Medulla
discrimination
(medial lemniscus)

Corticospinal (pyramidal) Descending Voluntary motor commands Medulla (pyramidal decussation)

Reticulospinal Descending Muscle tone, posture, autonomic Partially at various levels

Vestibulospinal Descending Balance, postural muscle tone Mostly ipsilateral

Reflexes
A reflex is a rapid, involuntary, stereotyped response to a stimulus. Reflex arc: Receptor → Afferent nerve →
Integration centre (spinal cord) → Efferent nerve → Effector.

Monosynaptic reflex Single synapse between sensory & motor neurone. Example: Knee-jerk (patellar
tendon reflex, L3–L4) — stretch → quadriceps contraction

Polysynaptic reflex Multiple interneurons. Example: Withdrawal (flexor) reflex — pain stimulus → limb
withdrawal with reciprocal inhibition of antagonists + crossed extensor response

Superficial reflexes Plantar reflex — stroking lateral sole; normal = flexion (Babinski negative); UMN
lesion = extension + fanning (Babinski positive). Abdominal reflex — abdominal wall
contraction

Deep tendon reflexes Biceps C5–6, Brachioradialis C5–6, Triceps C7–8, Knee (patellar) L3–4, Ankle
(Achilles) S1–2. Graded 0–4+

Visceral reflexes Micturition reflex (S2–4), Defecation, Erection — involve ANS pathways
 6. Cranial Nerves — Names & Functions

Memory aid
"On Old Olympus' Towering Top, A Finn And German Viewed A Hawk"
Olfactory · Optic · Oculomotor · Trochlear · Trigeminal · Abducens · Facial · Auditory/Vestibulocochlear ·
Glossopharyngeal · Vagus · Accessory · Hypoglossal
Type key: S = Sensory | M = Motor | B = Both (Sensory + Motor)

# Name Type Main Functions

I Olfactory S Smell (olfaction); axons pass through cribriform plate of ethmoid

II Optic S Vision; forms optic chiasm (nasal fibres cross); optic tracts → lateral geniculate nucleus

III Oculomotor B Motor: Superior rectus, inferior rectus, medial rectus, inferior oblique (eye movement), levator palpebrae (ey

IV Trochlear M Superior oblique muscle — depresses eye when adducted; intorts eye. Only CN with dorsal exit from brains

V Trigeminal B Sensory — face, scalp, teeth, sinuses (V1 Ophthalmic, V2 Maxillary, V3 Mandibular). Motor — muscles of m

VI Abducens M Lateral rectus muscle — abduction of eye (lateral gaze). Long intracranial course; vulnerable in raised ICP

VII Facial B Motor: muscles of facial expression (CNVII palsy → Bell's palsy). Sensory: taste anterior 2/3 tongue (via ch

VIII Vestibulocochlear S Cochlear division — hearing (spiral ganglion → cochlear nuclei). Vestibular division — balance, head positi

IX Glossopharyngeal B Sensory: taste & sensation posterior 1/3 tongue, oropharynx, carotid sinus/body (baroreceptors & chemore

X Vagus B Largest cranial nerve. PS: heart (bradycardia), lungs (bronchoconstriction), GI tract to splenic flexure (motil

XI Accessory (Spinal) M Sternocleidomastoid (contralateral head rotation & ipsilateral tilt) & Trapezius (shoulder elevation & retractio

XII Hypoglossal M All intrinsic & extrinsic tongue muscles (except palatoglossus/CN X). Essential for speech articulation, chew
 7. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Overview
Involuntary control of visceral organs, glands, and blood vessels. Always a two-neuron chain:
preganglionic neurone → ganglion → postganglionic neurone.

Neurotransmitters All preganglionic fibres: Acetylcholine (ACh). Sympathetic postganglionic:

Noradrenaline (NA). Parasympathetic postganglionic: Acetylcholine (ACh). Exception:
sympathetic fibres to sweat glands & adrenal medulla release ACh

Receptors Adrenergic (alpha1,2 & beta1,2,3) for NA/Adrenaline. Muscarinic (M1–M5) & Nicotinic
for ACh

Higher control Hypothalamus (chief centre), medulla oblongata (vital centres), limbic system,
prefrontal cortex

Feature Sympathetic NS Parasympathetic NS

Functional name "Fight or Flight" "Rest & Digest"

Origin (outflow) Thoracolumbar — T1–L2 Craniosacral — CN III, VII, IX, X

(lateral horn of spinal cord) and S2–S4 sacral spinal cord

Ganglion location Paravertebral chain (near cord) Terminal ganglia (in or near
or prevertebral ganglia target organ)

Fibre length Short preganglionic → Long preganglionic →

Long postganglionic Short postganglionic

Postganglionic NT Noradrenaline Acetylcholine

(except sweat glands — ACh)

Heart Rate & force ↑ (tachycardia) Rate & force ↓ (bradycardia)

(beta-1 receptors) via CN X (vagus)

Lungs Bronchodilation Bronchoconstriction;

(beta-2 receptors) secretion ↑

Blood vessels Vasoconstriction → BP ↑ Vasodilation (selected vessels)

(alpha-1 receptors)

Pupils Dilation — mydriasis Constriction — miosis

(dilator pupillae, alpha-1) (sphincter pupillae, muscarinic)

GI tract Motility & secretion ↓; Motility & secretion ↑;

sphincter contraction sphincter relaxation

Liver Glycogenolysis → blood Glycogen synthesis;

glucose ↑ (beta-2) blood glucose ↓

Sweat glands Secretion ↑ (ACh, No significant effect

cholinergic sympathetic)

Adrenal medulla Adrenaline & No significant effect

noradrenaline release
Bladder Detrusor relaxes; Detrusor contracts;
internal sphincter contracts sphincter relaxes → micturition

Genitalia Ejaculation; Erection (vasodilation)

vasoconstriction

Skin Piloerection; No significant effect

vasoconstriction → pallor

Salivary glands Thick, mucous saliva ↓ Copious watery saliva ↑

Cranial Nerve Contributions to Parasympathetic NS

CN III — Oculomotor Ciliary ganglion → constrictor pupillae (miosis) & ciliary muscle (lens accommodation)

CN VII — Facial Pterygopalatine ganglion → lacrimal gland & nasal glands. Submandibular ganglion →
sublingual & submandibular salivary glands

CN IX — Glossopharyngeal Otic ganglion → parotid salivary gland

CN X — Vagus Terminal ganglia within/near organs → heart (SA & AV nodes), lungs, oesophagus,
stomach, small intestine, large intestine to splenic flexure

S2–S4 (Pelvic splanchnic) Pelvic ganglia → descending colon, rectum, urinary bladder, uterus, genitalia
(erection)

End of Nervous System Study Notes