Observation and Interviewing

Module I

Topic: OBSERVATION

Subtopics:

1. Observational Research

2. Role of Observer in Qualitative Research

3. Participant Observation

4. Non Participant Observation

5. Naturalistic Observation

6. Simulation in Research

7. Observer Effect

8. Observer bias

9. Coding Observational Data

Focus Questions:

A. What do I Need to Learn?

In this portion of the module, the general and specific objectives are itemized below to
mesmerize the above cited topics.

1. What is observational research?

1.1. Explain what is meant by the term observational research.

1.2. Exemplify the specific characteristics of observational research.

2. Roles of Observer in Qualitative Research

2.1. Identify the roles of observer in qualitative study.

2.2. Describe briefly four different roles an observer can take in a qualitative study.

3. Participant Observation

3.1. Explain what is meant by the term participant observation.

 3.2. Observe and illustrate the functions of observer in participant observation.

4. Non Participant Observation

4.1. Explain what is meant by the term non participant observation.

4.2. Observe and illustrate the functions of observer in non-participant observation.

5. Naturalistic Observation

5.1. Explain what is meant by the term naturalistic observation.

5.2. Pronounce the advantages and disadvantages of naturalistic observation.

6. Simulation

6.1. Explain the term simulation.

6.2. Describe what a simulation is and how it might be used by the researcher.

7. Observer Effect

7.1. Describe what is meant by the term observer effect.

7.2. Illustrate how observer effect affects in different field of study.

8. Observer Bias

8.1. Describe what is meant by the term observer bias.

8.2. Illustrate how observer bias affects in research study.

B. What Do I Need To Know?

Introduction:

In this module the researcher will be expected to be equipped knowledge about

observational research, four different roles an observer can take in a qualitative study, participant
observation, non-participant observation, naturalistic observation, simulation, observer effect and
observer bias.

Discussion:

Certain kinds of research questions can be answered by observing how people act or how
things look. For example, researchers could interview teachers about how their students behave
during class discussions of sensitive issues, but a more accurate indication of their activities
would probably be obtained by actually observing such discussions while they take place. A
research which is particularly using this process can be categorized as observational research.

Observational research

Observational research is type of correlational (i.e., non-experimental) research in which

a researcher observes ongoing behavior. There are a variety of types of observational research,
each of which has both strengths and weaknesses. These types are organized below by the extent
to which an experimenter intrudes upon or controls the environment. Qualitative observational
research is naturalistic because it studies a group in its natural setting. As Patton explains,
"Naturalistic inquiry is thus contrasted to experimental research where the investigator attempts
to completely control the condition of the study.

Observational researcher must attempt to maintain a non-judgmental bias throughout the

study. The researcher's goal is to observe and describe group patterns, similarities, and
differences as they occur. Preconceptions or expectations of an individual or group’s behavior
interfere with the researcher's ability to tell the group or culture's story in a fair and accurate
manner. In addition, preconceived expectations preclude the researcher from observing subtle
nuances of character and speech that may be important to understand group behaviors or
interactions. While absolute objectivity is impossible, it is paramount that researchers enter the
field or study group with an open a mind, an awareness of their own biases, and a commitment to
detach from those biases as much as possible while observing and representing the group.

Characteristics of Qualitative Observational Research

Qualitative observational research can be characterized by at least ten overlapping themes

that researchers should be aware of when collecting and analyzing data. In Qualitative
Evaluation Methods, Patton (1980) discusses these characteristics to help researchers design
studies. These characteristics are explained below using examples relating to Black English
Vernacular (BEV) and the African American rhetorical tradition. All of the examples below are
based on Balester's 1993 text, Cultural divide: A study of African-American college-level writers.

1. Naturalistic Inquiry

Qualitative observational research is naturalistic because it studies a group in its natural

setting. Patton explains, "Naturalistic inquiry is thus contrasted to experimental research where
the investigator attempts to completely control the condition of the study. It is also known
as nonparticipant observation, has no intervention by a researcher. It is simply studying
behaviors that occur naturally in natural contexts, unlike the artificial environment of a
controlled laboratory setting. Importantly, in naturalistic observation, there is no attempt to
manipulate variables.

2. Inductive analysis
 This characteristic is prevalent in qualitative research because it allows the observer to
become immersed in a group. The researcher starts with answers, but forms questions throughout
the research process. Hypotheses and theories can continuously change depending on what the
observer wants to know. For instance, an observer might realize that the purpose of many of
BEV speech acts is to build up the reputation of the speaker. Thus, the observer's job is to find
out why. This could lead to further research into the rhetorical strategies and purposes of BEV.

3. Holistic perspective

Patton states, "[A] holistic approach assumes that the whole is greater than the sum of its
parts". In other words, almost every action or communication must be taken as a part of the
whole phenomenon of a certain community or culture. However, this characteristic of qualitative
observational research can be bothersome because it can lead researchers into taking every little
action into consideration when writing a narrative.

4. Personal contact and insight

The researcher is responsible for becoming a part of a group to get a more in-depth study.
However, the researcher also has to be aware of biases (both good and bad).

5. Dynamic systems

Qualitative observational research is not concerned with having straightforward, right or

wrong answers. In addition, change in a study is common because the researcher is not
concerned with finding only one answer.

6. Unique case orientation

Researchers must remember that every study is special and deserves in-depth attention.
This is especially necessary for doing cultural comparisons.

7. Context sensitivity

Researchers must realize the different variables, such as values and beliefs that influence
cultural behaviors. For example, knowing that the rhetorical strategies of BEV--signifying,
running it down, putting down, putting on, etc.--are context specific, a researcher might examine
what values and beliefs influence this context specificity.

8. Empathic neutrality
 Ideally, researchers should be non-judgmental when compiling findings. Because
complete neutrality is impossible, this characteristic is a controversial aspect of qualitative
research.

9. Design flexibility

Researchers can continue to do research on other topics or questions that emerge from the
initial research.

10. Qualitative data

This is a detailed description of why a culture is the way it is. Triangulation, or the use of
many data gathering methods, such as field notes, interviews, writing samples, and other data
helps determine the cultural phenomenon of a group.

Summary

In sum, the qualitative observational researcher must attempt to maintain a non-

judgmental bias throughout the study. The researcher's goal is to observe and describe group
patterns, similarities, and differences as they occur. Preconceptions or expectations of an
individual or group’s behavior interfere with the researcher's ability to tell the group or culture's
story in a fair and accurate manner. In addition, preconceived expectations preclude the
researcher from observing subtle nuances of character and speech that may be important to
understand group behaviors or interactions. While absolute objectivity is impossible, it is
paramount that researchers enter the field or study group with an open a mind, an awareness of
their own biases, and a commitment to detach from those biases as much as possible while
observing and representing the group.

Roles of observer in qualitative research

In observation the observer participation can vary according to their role in the
observation. There are four different roles that a researcher can take, ranging on a continuum
from complete participant to complete observer.

 The complete participant - takes an insider role, is fully part of the setting and often
observes covertly.

 The participant as observer - the researcher gains access to a setting by virtue of having a
natural and non-research reason for being part of the setting. As observers, they are part
of the group being studied. This approach may be common in health care settings where
members of the health care team are interested in observing operations in order to
understand and improve care processes.
  The observer as participant - In this role, the researcher or observer has only minimal
involvement in the social setting being studied. There is some connection to the setting
but the observer is not naturally and normally part of the social setting.

 The complete observer - the researcher does not take part in the social setting at all. An
example of complete observation might be watching children play from behind a two-
way mirror.

Participant Observation

Participant observation, for many years, has been a hallmark of both anthropological and
sociological studies. In recent years, the field of education has seen an increase in the number of
qualitative studies that include participant observation as a way to collect information.
Qualitative methods of data collection, such as interviewing, observation, and document
analysis, have been included under the umbrella term of "ethnographic methods" in recent years.

The purpose of this paper is to discuss observation, particularly participant observation, as a

tool for collecting data in qualitative research studies. Aspects of observation discussed herein
include various definitions of participant observation, some history of its use, the purposes for
which such observation is used, the stances or roles of the observer, and additional information
about when, what, and how to observe. Further information is provided to address keeping field
notes and their use in writing up the final story.

Participant observation is a period of intensive social interaction between the researcher and
the subjects, in the latter's environment. It becomes the full-time occupation of the researcher.
Participant observers are trained in techniques of observation, which distinguishes them from
regular participants.

For the participant observer, everything is noted as if it was happening for the first time, and
everything is subject to inquiry. Nothing is taken for granted. It is an attempt to see the world
from the other person's point of view. It assumes that what people say and do is a product of how
they see and interpret the world.

Participant observation is founded on the theory of symbolic interactionism. This assumes that
people are constantly in a process of interpretation and definition as they move through various
situations that are more or less familiar to them. This is how situations obtain their meaning.
People develop shared perspectives through social interaction. Objective frameworks, rules,
goals, norms, values, reward, organizational structures may set conditions and fix consequences
for actions, but they do not determine what people will do. People act in terms of the meaning of
these structures for them.

Methods of observation vary with the position of the researcher, but can vary from covert to
overt. On the one hand, the researcher may begin as an overt observer only and slowly becomes
an observer-participant. However, this creates problems of reactivity to the influence or
intervention of the researcher. On the other hand, the researcher may begin as a covert
participant only, and move toward being a participant-observer. However, this creates a problem
of ethics.

Observation consists of taking field notes on the participants, the setting, the purpose, the
social behavior, and the frequency and duration of phenomena. Observations may be made of
non-verbal behavior, verbal behavior, and physical phenomena. Other sources of data may
include archival records, private records, anecdotes, erosion or accretion, etc. Problems include
sampling, reliability and validity, as well as observer influence and memory distortion.

Advantages of Participant Observation Research

The advantages probably seem obvious to you. Certainly, participant observation

research allows one to gain information one wouldn't have otherwise had access to. Secondly,
behaviors remain relatively natural, thereby giving the measurements high external validity.

Disadvantages of Participant Observation Research

There are a variety of disadvantages. First, the people being observed have no
opportunity to provide informed consent to be a participant in the research. This is a serious
ethical consideration that should not be taken lightly. Second, the researcher loses objectivity.
How can a researcher be a participant in the observation and remain completely neutral? It's
impossible. The third potential disadvantage of participant observation research is that your
participation in the study in likely to influence what you're measuring. That is, you'll probably
influence the data because you're interacting with your observations. This can sometimes be
remedied by using observers who are blind to the purpose of the study.

Non- Participant Observation

In a non-participant observation study, the researchers do not participate in the activity

being observed but rather “sit on the sidelines” and watch: they are not directly involved in the
situation they are observing. When a researcher chooses as the role of observer- as- participant,
she identifies herself straight off as a researcher but makes no pretense of actually being a
member of the group she is observing.

Naturalistic Observation

Naturalistic observation is a research method commonly used by psychologists and other

social scientists. This technique involves observing subjects in their natural environment. This
type of research is often utilized in situations where conducting lab research is unrealistic, cost
prohibitive or would unduly affect the subject's behavior.

It allows researchers to study things that cannot be manipulated in a lab due to ethical
concerns. For example, while it would be unethical to study the effects of imprisonment by
actually confining subjects, researchers can gather information by using naturalistic observation
in real prison settings. It can help support the external validity of research. It is one thing to say
that the findings of a lab study will generalize to a larger population, but quite another to
actually observe those findings actually occurring in a natural setting.
One of the disadvantages of naturalistic observation includes the fact that it can be
difficult to determine the exact cause of a behavior and the experimenter cannot control for
outside variables. People may behave differently when they know they are being watched.
People may try to behave in a certain way in order to conform to what they think the researchers
expect to see. Different observers may draw different conclusions from the same witnessed
behavior.

Researchers may utilize a number of different techniques to collect data from naturalistic
observation. This might involve writing down the number of times a certain behavior occurred in
a specific period of time, or making an actual video-recording of the subjects of interest. Tally
counts: The observer writes down when and how many times certain behaviors occurred.
Observer narratives: The observer may take notes during the session and then go back later to
try to collect data and discern behavior patterns from these notes. Audio or video
recordings: Depending upon the type of behavior being observed, the researchers might also
decide to make actual audio or video-taped recordings of each observation session.

Simulations

Simulation is something which simulates a system or environment in order to predict actual [Link] virtual
environments are becoming an important research tool for educators. These simulations can be used in
a variety of areas from the study of emotions and psychological disorders to more effective training. The current
study uses animated narrative vignette simulation technology to observe a classroom situation depicting a low
level aggressive peer-to-peer victim dyad. Participants were asked to respond to this situation as if they were the
teacher, and these responses were then coded and analyzed. Consistent with other literature, the pre-service
teachers expressed very little empathic concern, problem-solving or management of the situation with the victim.

OBSERVER EFFECTS

In science, the term observer effect means that the act of observing will influence the
phenomenon being observed. For example, for us to "see" an electron, a photon must first
interact with it, and this interaction will change the path of that electron. It is also theoretically
possible for other, less direct means of measurement to affect the electron; even if the electron is
simply put into a position where observing it is possible, without actual observation taking place,
it will still (theoretically) alter its position.
In physics, a more mundane observer effect can be the result of instruments that by
necessity alter the state of what they measure in some manner. For instance,
in electronics, ammeters and voltmeters usually need to be connected to the circuit, and so by
their very presence affect the current or the voltage they are measuring. Likewise, a
standard thermometer must absorb some thermal energy to record a temperature, and therefore
changes the temperature of the body which it is measuring.
 The observer effect is the difference that is made to an activity or a person by it being
observed. People may well not behave in their usual manner whilst aware of being watched, or
when being interviewed while carrying out an activity. Many forms of research involve similar
problems and allowing for these in interpretation is a key professional skill for researchers.

OBSERVER BIAS

It refers to the possibility that certain characteristics or ideas of observers may bias what
they “see”. But this is something with which all researchers must deal. It is probably true that no
matter how hard observers try to be impartial; their observation will possess some degree of bias.
No one can be totally objective, as we all are influence when to some degree by our past
experiences, which in turn affect how we see the world and the people within it. Nevertheless, all
researchers should do their best to become aware of, and try to control their biases. The related
social-science term observer bias is error introduced into measurement
when observers overemphasize behavior they expect to find and fail to notice behavior they do
not expect. This is why medical trials are normally double-blind rather than single-blind.
Observer bias can also be introduced because researchers see a behavior and interpret it
according to what it means to them, whereas it may mean something else to the person showing
the behavior.

Types of Sampling:

Time Sampling
Time sampling is a sampling method that involves the acquisition of representative
samples by observing subjects at different time intervals. These time intervals can be chosen
randomly or systematically. If a researcher chooses to use systematic time sampling, the
information obtained would only generalize to the one time period in which the observation took
place. In contrast, the goal of random time sampling would be to be able to generalize across all
times of observation. Depending on the type of study being conducted, either type of time
sampling can be appropriate.
An advantage to using time sampling is that you gain the ability to control the contexts to
which you’ll eventually be able to generalize. However, time sampling is not useful if the event
pertaining to your research question occurs infrequently or unpredictably, because you will often
miss the event in the short time period of observation. In this scenario, event sampling is more
useful. In this style of sampling, the researcher lets the event determine when the observations
will take place. For example: if the research question involves observing behavior during a
specific holiday, one would use event sampling instead of time sampling.
Situation Sampling
Situation sampling involves the study of good people of behavior in many different
locations, and under different circumstances and conditions. By sampling different situations,
researchers reduce the chance that the results they obtain will be particular to a certain set of
circumstances or conditions. For this reason, situation sampling significantly increases
the external validity of observational findings. Furthermore, situation sampling significantly
increases the generalizability of findings. Compared to when researchers only observe particular
types of individuals, researchers using situation sampling can increase the diversity of subjects
within their observed sample. Researchers may determine which subjects to observe by either
selecting subjects systematically (every 10th student in a cafeteria, for example) or randomly,
with the goal of obtaining a representative sample of all subjects.[2]
For a good example of situation sampling, see this study by LaFrance and Mayo
concerning the differences in the use of gaze direction as a regulatory mechanism in
conversation. In this study, pairs of individuals were observed in college cafeterias, restaurants,
airport and hospital waiting rooms, and business-district fast-food outlets. By using situation
sampling, the investigators were able to observe a wide range of people who differed in age, sex,
race, and socioeconomic class, thus increasing the external validity of their research findings.
C. What do I need to Remember?
 Observational research is type of correlational (i.e., non-experimental) research in which
a researcher observes ongoing behavior.
 In observational research, researcher must attempt to maintain a non-judgmental bias
throughout the study.
 The roles an observer can take in a qualitative study are ranging from participant
observation, non-participant observation, naturalistic observation and simulation.
 Participant observation is a period of intensive social interaction between the researcher
and the subjects.
 In a non-participant observation study, the researchers do not participate in the
activity being observed but rather “sit on the sidelines” and watch.

 Naturalistic observation is a research method commonly used by psychologists and other

social scientists. This technique involves observing subjects in their natural environment.
It allows researchers to study things that cannot be manipulated in a lab due to ethical
concerns.
 Simulations permit the researcher to observe what is happening in certain kinds of situations, including
those that occur fairly infrequently in schools or other educational settings.
 Observer effect means that the act of observing will influence the phenomenon being
observed. It refers to the effect of the presence of the observer on the behavior of the
subjects or observer bias in the data reported.
 Observer bias refers to the possibility that certain characteristics or ideas of observers
may bias what they “see” or it is the possibility of the certain characteristics or ideas of
observers may affect what they observe.
 Time sampling is a sampling method that involves the acquisition of representative
samples by observing subjects at different time intervals.
 Situation sampling involves the study of good people of behavior in many different
locations, and under different circumstances and conditions. It is the researchers in need
to choose a purposive sample.
D. What Does Research Say about This?
 In provision for the conduct of observational research, sample rationales were taken from
dissertation entitled Factors Affecting the Viability of Electronic Marketplaces: an Empirical Investigation
into International Steel Trading: by Jessica Iacono, Ann Brown and Clive Holtham.
Portion of their research work is the rationale for the study and their rationale in choosing
observational research as primary method based on the title and scenery in conducting the
mentioned study.
Rationale for Study
The value of the study (apart from the contribution to the EMH debate) resides in the
lessons learnt with regard to the contribution of industry practitioners to management research
through participant observation. Since the topic is about the factors affecting the viability of
electronic market place the researcher needs to observe personally the situation in the market
place. Second, this paper has discussed the issues and concerns arising from participant
observation and illustrated how these were dealt with in the case example, and has set forth
guidelines as to how to manage this technique. Clearly, the challenge of being a PhD student
while in full-time employment in the industry should not be underestimated. Industry executives
are on call 24/7 and travel extensively. Still, the investigator has an advantage over full time
‘pure’ researchers, in that accessibility to the sites need not constitute an insurmountable
problem, and there is so much to be gained from the research, professionally also, in terms of
self-development and learning.
Rationale for Observational Research
Within those mentioned necessities of the above study the writer considered the used of
observational research as primary way to collect necessary data for analyzing the problem. For
example from the above study, because the researcher's goal is to observe and describe group
patterns, similarities, and differences as they occur. Preconceptions or expectations of an
individual or group’s behavior interfere with the researcher's ability to tell the group or culture's
story in a fair and accurate manner. In addition, preconceived expectations preclude the
researcher from observing subtle nuances of character and speech that may be important to
understand group behaviors or interactions. While absolute objectivity is impossible, it is
paramount that researchers enter the field or study group with an open a mind, an awareness of
their own biases, and a commitment to detach from those biases as much as possible while
observing and representing the group.
Ultimately the quality of the research ought to be assessed based on the appropriateness
of the research method to the scope of the investigation, and the researcher should select the
mode of enquiry to fit the topic, the state of knowledge and his/her own skills and style.
Participant observation allows practicing managers to capitalize on their unique circumstances to
produce academic research which is interesting, contemporary, accessible and relevant to
industry practitioners and scholars alike. To simplify the necessity of observational research we
may consider the following known characteristic of it such as:
a. attempt to maintain a non-judgmental bias throughout the study
b. researcher's goal is to observe and describe group patterns, similarities, and differences
as they occur
c. preconceptions or expectations of an individual or group’s behavior interfere with the
researcher's ability to tell the group or culture's story in a fair and accurate manner
d. preconceived expectations preclude the researcher from observing subtle nuances of
character and speech that may be important to understand group behaviors or interactions
 e. commitment to detach from biases as much as possible while observing and
representing the group
f. observational research consist ten overlapping themes: naturalistic inquiry, inductive
analysis, holistic perspective, dynamic systems, unique case orientation, context
sensitivity, empathic neutrality, design flexibility and it a qualitative data
g. in observational research the researcher role ranging on a continuum from complete
participant to complete observer

What Insights or Learnings have I Gained in this Topic?

As we embarked ourselves in exploring the topic, the concept that observation is a pivot
point in the collection and analyzing data in a certain research was manifested. Second, the
observer should resist from being bias though that the effect of the researcher will not be evaded.
In addition using this as instrument for certain research the advantages and disadvantages of it
should be taken into consideration. Certainly, participant observation research allows one to gain
information one wouldn't have otherwise had access to. Secondly, behaviors remain relatively
natural, thereby giving the measurements high external validity. While it’s disadvantage is: the
people being observed have no opportunity to provide informed consent to be a participant in the
research. This is a serious ethical consideration that should not be taken lightly. Second, the
researcher loses objectivity. How can a researcher be a participant in the observation and remain
completely neutral? It's impossible. You'll form opinions and change your behavior accordingly.

You’re Task To:

Being a teacher, school manager, public employee and as a novice student of graduate
school, what understandings and level of awareness do you squeeze from the notion of
observational research? Being equipped with those insights, would you want to engage on it in
undertaking a qualitative research. Why and why not? Justify your reason.
F. What Do I need To Do?
In this moment that you’re already fortified with the concept of observational research,
what do you plan in your future research work? Have a sharing of ideas from your group and
note their suggestions or comment to your plan.
Activity 1
Answer the following questions with your partner then discuss to the class what have you
agreed from each other while the rest of the group list important details from the discussion.
Those insights could be your catalyst to paint the research you’ve planned.
1. What do you consider as waterloo and strong point of observational research?
2. What do you think are topics or problems that could be or could not be studied using
observational research?
3. Observational research could be judged as being influenced by the observer. This could be led
to an observer bias. How will you reconcile it as an observer who was intended to use this in a
certain research?
4. Giving the opportunity to engage in a certain research would you be engrossed to use
observational research? Why or why not?
5. Observing people without their knowledge and or recording their comments without their
permission is unethical. Would you agree with this statement? Explain your reasoning.
6. Which do you think is more likely to produce valid information- participant or non- participant
observation? Why?
7. Is observer effect inevitable? Why or why not?
Activity 2
Write three research proposals title were observational research is appropriate to use.
Write also your rationale to use it.
ACTIVITY 3
Outdoor activity:
Make an observation to a class of master students. Note their behavior inside the class.
Activity 4
In a separate notebook write a journal of your experiences and learnings from the outdoor
activity. Reflect from what you had observed. This will be your reference in deciding to use or
not to use observation when doing a research.
G. Where Can I Get Additional Information about This?
Here are some references for better understanding observational research.
Books
Thousand Oaks H.R. Bernard (2000) Social Research Methods Qualitative and Quantitative
Approaches
Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 17: 477-492. D.R Rapini, N. Datan and K.A McCluskey-
Fawcett (1988). An observational study and affective and assertive family interactions during
adolescence.
Dissertations, Research, journals
Andersen Consulting (1999a) ‘North American Steel Industry e-Commerce Market Study’.
Andersen Consulting (1999b) ‘Wired for Change: Beyond ‘Business as Usual’, e-Commerce and
the Steel Industry’.
Benbasat, I., Goldstein, D., Mead, M. (1987) ‘The Case Research Strategy in Studies of
Information Systems’ in MIS Quarterly, Vol. 11, pp. 369-386.
Best, W. and Frazer, D. (1999), ‘Steel Business-to-Business E-Commerce – It’s Not Just Books
And CDs: Enter The Steel ‘Vortex’’, Morgan Stanley Dean Witter, Sept. 24th.
Bryman Alan, (2004) ‘Social Research Methods’ 2nd ed. OUP.
Cavaye A (1996) ‘Case Study research: a multi-faceted research approach for IS’ Information
Systems Journal 6, pp. 227-242.
Dalby, L. (2000) Geisha Vintage.
Darke, P., Shanks, G., & Broadbent, M. 1998, "Successfully completing case study research:
combining rigour, relevance and pragmatism", Information Systems Journal, vol. 8, no. 4, pp.
273-289.
Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R., Lowe, A. (1991) Management Research Sage.
Eisenhardt K (1989) ‘Building Theories from Case Study Research’ Academy of Management
Review vol14 no 4 pp. 532-550.
Evered, R. and Reis Louis, M. (2001) ‘Alternative Perspectives in the Organizational Sciences:
‘Inquiry from the Inside’ And ‘Inquiry from the Outside’’ in Academy of Management Review,
Vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 385-395.
Forrester Research (1998), [Link].
Harris, M. (2001) ‘The Place of Self and Reflexivity in Third Sector Scholarship: An
Exploration’ in Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, Vol. 30, No. 4, pp. 747-760.
Lampel, J. (2004) ‘A Note on Research Design’ Working Paper, City University, Cass Business
School.
Lee, A. (1989) ‘A Scientific Methodology for MIS Case Studies’ in MIS Quarterly, Vol. 13, No.
1, pp. 33-50.
 Module 2

Topic: Interviewing

Sub Topics:

1. What is interview in Qualitative Research?

2. Types of Interviews

3. Key-Actor Interviews

4. Types of Interview Questions

5. Interviewing Behavior

6. Focus Group Interviews

7. Recording Interview Data

8. Ethics in Interviewing: The Necessity for Informed Consent

9. Data Collection and Analysis in Qualitative Research

10. Validity and Reliability in Qualitative Research

Focus Questions:

A. What do I Need to Learn?

In this portion of the module, the general and specific objectives are itemized below to
enthrall the above cited topics.

1. What is interview in qualitative research?

1.1. Explain what is meant by the term interview in qualitative research?

1.2. Give the importance of interview as method in collecting data in qualitative research.

2. Types of Interviews

2.1 Identify four types of interview in qualitative research.

2.2 Describe briefly four types of interviews qualitative researchers use.

3. Key-Actor interviews

3.1 Explain what a “key actor” is.

4. Types of Interview Questions

4.1 Name and discuss the six basic types of interview questions.

5. Interviewing Behavior

5.1 Discuss the important quality or characteristic should an interviewer possess during
interview.

6. Focus Group Interviews

6.1 Explain what a focus group interview is.

6.2 Discuss how “focus group interview” done in qualitative research.

7. Recording Interview Data

7.1 Identify ways of recording interview data.

8. Ethics in Interviewing: The Necessity for Informed Consent

8.1 Explain what is meant to the term informed consent.

8.2 Describe briefly why an informed consent form is needed in interview research.

9. Data Collection and Analysis in Qualitative Research

9.1 Discuss how data collected and analyzed in qualitative research.

10. Validity and Reliability in Qualitative Research

10.1 Give at least four procedures qualitative researchers use to check on or enhance
validity and reliability in qualitative studies.

10.2 Explain the procedures to check on or enhance the reliability and validity of
qualitative research.

B. What do I need to know?

Introduction

This segment will bring you insights and realization of the significance of interview in
developing conjectures, decide for the types of interview you will spread out while venturing and
collecting data in qualitative research.
Discussions

Connotation of Interview

One of the most convenient ways of collecting data is through the use of interview.
An interview is a conversation between two or more people where questions are asked by the
interviewer to elicit facts or statements from the interviewee. Interviews are a standard part
of journalism and media reporting, but are also employed in many other situations,
including qualitative research. Interviewing is a primary way of collecting data in qualitative
research to direct the participant in responding to a specific research question.

Types of Interviews:

Structured Interview

The questions asked during a structured interview control the data elicited by the respondent
quite tightly. The interview is structured because the researcher follows a specific set of
questions in a predetermined order with a limited number of response categories. This would be
appropriate to use when interviews require that the participant give a response to each ordered
question, which are often shorter in nature. The questions in a structured interview are like those
in a job interview, where the employer asks the same set of questions for consistency. It is also
like a theatrical script to be followed in a standardized and straightforward manner. Because the
questions are routinely asked, a larger number of participants typically are in these studies. The
interviewer records the responses according to a coding scheme that has been established
according to the research question.

According to Denzin and Lincoln, there are five guidelines to keep in mind when structured
interview done:

1. Stay consistent with the study introduction, sequence of questions and question wording.
2. Do not let another person answer for the participant or offer his/her opinion about the
question.
3. Do not suggest an answer or agree or disagree with an answer. You do not want to give
the respondent any idea of your personal views on the topic.
4. Do not interpret the meaning of a question. If the participant does not understand the
question, you should just repeat the question and ask him/her to give the best response or
choose to skip the question.
5. Do not improvise, such as adding answer categories or making word changes.

Semi -structured Interview

In a semi-structured interview, the researcher sets the outline for the topics covered, but
the interviewee's responses determine the way, in which the interview is directed. This is the
most commonly used type of interview used in qualitative. The semi-structured interview guide
provides a clear set of instructions for interviewers and can provide reliable, comparable
qualitative data.
Semi-structured interviews are often preceded by observation, informal and unstructured
interviewing in order to allow researchers to develop a keen understanding the topic of interest
necessary for developing relevant and meaningful semi-structured questions. The inclusion of
open-ended questions and training of interviewers to follow relevant topics that may stray from
the interview guide does; however, still provide the opportunity for identifying new ways of
seeing and understanding the topic at hand.

Informal Interview

Informal interviews are less formal than structured or semi-structured interviews. They
tend to resemble casual conversation, pursuing the interest of both the researcher and the
respondent in turn. They are the most common type of interviews in qualitative research. They
do not involve any specific type of sequence of questions or any particular form of questioning.
The primary intent of an informal interview is to find out what people think and how the views
of one individual compare with those of another. In the first glance it is easy to conduct, but in
reality informal interviews are the most difficult of all. Here researchers are often need to make
some sensitive decisions as the interview progresses.

Retrospective Interviews

Retrospective interviews can be structured, semi structured or informal. A researcher who

conducts a retrospective interview tries to get respondent to recall and then reconstruct from
memory something that has happened at the past. It is the least likely in the four interview types
to provide accurate reliable data for the researcher.

Key- Actor Interviews (key informants) –are people in any group who are more informed
about the culture and history of the group and who are more articulate than others. They can
often provide detailed information about a group’s past and about contemporary happenings and
relationship, as well as the everyday nuances-the ordinary details-that others might miss.

Types of Interview Questions

Patton Six Basic types of questions that can be asked to people during interview:

 Background (or demographic) questions- are routine sorts of questions about the
background characteristics of respondents. They include questions about
education, previous occupations, age, income and the like.
 Knowledge questions- pertain to the factual information (as contrasted with
opinions, beliefs, and attitudes) respondents possess. Knowledge questions about
a school, for example, might concern the kinds of courses available to students,
graduation requirements, the sorts of extracurricular activities provided, school
 rules, enrollment policies, and the like. From a qualitative perspective, what the
researcher wants to find out is what the respondents consider to be factual
information (as opposed to beliefs or attitudes).
 Experience (or behavior) questions- focus on what a respondent is currently doing
or has done in the past. Their intent is to elicit descriptions of experience,
behaviors, or activities that could have been observed but (for reasons such as the
researcher not being present) were not.
 Opinion (or values) questions-are aimed at finding out what people think about
some topic or issue. Answers to such questions call attention to the respondent’s
goals, beliefs, attitudes, or values.
 Feelings questions-concern how respondents feel about things. They are directed
toward people’s emotional responses to their experiences. Examples might
include such questions as, “How do you feel about the way students behave in this
school?” or, “To what extend are you anxious about going to gym class?”
 Sensory questions- focus on what a respondent has seen, heard, tasted, smelled, or
touched. Examples might include questions such as, “When you enter your
classroom, what do you see?” or, “How would you describe what your class
sounds like?”

Interviewing Behavior

Set of expectations exists for all interviews:

 Respect the culture of the group being studied.

 Respect the individual being interviewed.
 Be natural.
 Develop an appropriate rapport with the participant.
 Ask the same question in different ways during the interview.
 Ask the interviewee to repeat an answer or statement when there is some doubt
about the completeness of a remark.
 Vary who controls the flow of communication.
 Avoid leading questions

Focus Group Interviews

Scenario during focus group interview:

 Interviewer asks a small group of people (usually four to eight people) to think
about a series of questions.
 Participants are seated together in a group and get to hear one another’s responses
to the questions.
 Often participants offer additional comments beyond what they originally had to
say once they hear the other responses.
  Consensus is neither necessary nor desired.
 The object is to get at what people really think about an issue or issues
 The researcher should stress that focus interview is not a discussion

Recording Interview Data

 Tape recorder is an indispensable equipment of an interview

 Note taking
 Note taking helps the interviewer to formulate new questions
 Note taking will facilitate later analysis including locating important quotations
 Failure to take note indicating to the respondents that nothing important is being
said

Ethics in Interviewing: The Necessity for Informed Consent

It is a researchers’ belief that it is ethically desirable in this instance for interviewers to

require participants to sign an inform consent form. This protects both interviewer and the
interviewee.

Data Collection and Analysis in Qualitative Research

Data collection and analysis in quantitative and qualitative research vary from each
other.

 Structured instrument was seldom to use in qualitative research

 Open ended data collection with structuring taking place later trough content
analysis
 Other descriptive are commonly use reporting of frequencies

VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Validity refers to the appropriateness, meaningfulness and usefulness of the inferences

researchers make based on the data they collect, while reliability refers to the consistency of
these inferences over time, location and circumstances.

In qualitative research it is a necessity to the researcher to check their perception to ensure that
they are not misinformed. Here are some procedures for checking or enhancing validity and
reliability.

 Using a variety of instruments to collect data

 Checking one informant’s descriptions of something (a way of doing things or a
reason for doing something) against another informant’s descriptions of the same
thing.
 Learning to understand and where appropriate speak the vocabulary of the group
being studied.
  Writing down the questions asked. ( in addition to the answer received)
 Recording personal thoughts while conducting observations and interviews.
 Asking one or more participants in the study to review the accuracy of the
research report.
 Obtaining an individual outside of the study to review and evaluate the report.
 Documenting the sources of remarks whenever possible and appropriate.
 Documenting the basis for inferences.
 Describing the context in which questions are asked and situations are observed.
 Using audiotapes and videotapes when possible and appropriate.
 Drawing conclusions based on ones understanding of the situation being observed
and then acting on these conclusions.
 Interviewing individuals more than once.
 Observing the setting or situation of interest over a period of time.

C. What do I need to remember?

Interviewing- a major technique commonly used by qualitative researchers to check and verify
the authenticity gained from observation.

Types of Interviews:

 Structured Interviews- verbal questionnaires comprise of series of questions

designed to elicit specific answers from respondents.
 Semi -structured Interviews-the researcher sets the outline for the topics covered,
but the interviewee's responses determine the way, in which the interview is
directed.
 Informal Interviews- are less formal than structured or semi-structured interviews.
They tend to resemble casual conversation, pursuing the interest of both the
researcher and the respondent in turn. The primary intent of an informal interview
is to find out what people think and how the views of one individual compare
with those of another.
 Retrospective Interviews- can be structured, semi structured or informal. A
researcher who conducts a retrospective interview tries to get respondent to recall
and then reconstruct from memory something that has happened at the past.

Key- Actor Interviews

Key- Actor are people in any group who are more informed about the culture and history of the
group and who are more articulate than others.

Types of Interview Questions

 Patton Six Basic types of questions that can be asked to people during interview:

 Background (or demographic) questions

 Knowledge questions
 Experience (or behavior) questions
 Opinion (or values) questions
 Feelings questions
 Sensory questions

Interviewing Behavior

Set of expectations exists for all interviews:

 Respect the culture of the group being studied.

 Respect the individual being interviewed.
 Be natural.
 Develop an appropriate rapport with the participant.
 Ask the same question in different ways during the interview.
 Ask the interviewee to repeat an answer or statement when there is some doubt
about the completeness of a remark.
 Vary who controls the flow of communication.
 Avoid leading questions

Focus Group Interviews

It is an interview with a small, fairly homogeneous group of people who respond to a

series of questions asked by the interviewer.

Recording Interview Data

It is the use of data recorder in the purpose of taking notes in audio, video or in written
form.

Ethics in Interviewing: The Necessity for Informed Consent

It is a researchers’ belief that it is ethically desirable in this instance for interviewers to

require participants to sign an inform consent form. This protects both interviewer and the
interviewee.

VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Validity refers to the appropriateness, meaningfulness and usefulness of the inferences

researchers make based on the data they collect, while reliability refers to the consistency of
these inferences over time, location and circumstances.
D. What does the research say about this?

To reconcile the significance of interview in qualitative research, sample dissertation

entitled A Phenomenological Pilot Study of Energy Healers Expertise and Recommendations for
Energetic Disaster and Trauma Relief Training (Robert R. Maldonado, Akamai University).
Portion of this research work is the rationale for the study and the rationale in choosing
interview research as primary method based on the title and background of the mentioned study.
Rationale for Study
The rationale of this phenomenological study is to explore and understand through the
obtaining of information from key participants in their respective energy systems, what they can
contribute to energetic disaster and trauma relief training. The overall aim of this study is to draw
on the clinical expertise, field experience and the vision of key “experts” to help define the field
of disaster relief training, identify needs and gaps, and make recommendations for further
development in the implementation of energetic disaster preparedness and response efforts.
Rationale for Interview in Research
Relative to the consideration below the researcher employed the used of interview in the
research study.
The researcher must anticipate any ethical issues that may arise during the qualitative
research process (Creswell, 2009). Research involves collecting data from people, about people
(Punch, 2005). Researchers need to protect their research participants by developing trust with
them, promoting the integrity of the research, guarding against misconduct and any impropriety
that might reflect on their organizations or institutions, and cope with new challenging problems
(Creswell, 2009). First and foremost, the researcher has an obligation to respect the rights, needs,
values, and desires of the participants. Phenomenological research solicits sensitive and deep
answers to questions extracting meaning from statements and opinions. Additionally, the
reputation and position of the participants are visible, especially since the findings of the study
could be shared with other people and organizations.

The following safeguards will be used to protect the participant’s rights:

1) Participants will be advised IN WRITING of the voluntary nature of their participation and
that they could withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. They will also be advised
that at any time during the process they could decline to answer any question.

2) The research objectives will be clearly delineated IN WRITING and articulated to the
participants.

3) A WRITTEN consent form will be obtained from each participant (DHHS Title 45, Sec.
46.111(a)(4).

4) The participants will be informed IN WRITING of all data collection methods and activities.

5) Provisions will be made for monitoring the data collected to ensure the safety of the
participant’s
6) WRITTEN transcriptions and interpretations of the data will be made available to the
participants.

7) The participant’s rights, interests and wishes will be considered first when choices are made
regarding reporting the data and, The final decision regarding participants privacy will rest with
the participant (DHHS Part [Link]. 46.111(a)(7).

8) The risk to the participants is considered minimal SAMPLE STUDY PARTICIPANT

E. What Insights or Learnings have I Gained in this Topic?
Revealed from the hypothetical situation involving a researcher and the interviewee the
learning I gained from this topic is as researcher I should avoid a dichotomous question, I should
always be ready to record the questions and answers raised in an interview.
Your Task
As public servant, school administrator and as doctoral students who are closely to
engage in a research study and having been equipped with the insights dig out from the topics
discussed, strengthen your belief the need to apply or not to apply interview in the research
proposal you are going to undertake. Kindly defend your proposition.

F. What do I need to do?

Instantaneously you are already uncovered your mind with the essentiality of interview in
a research work, with your partner share your plan in your future research.
Activity 1
Discussion
Work for the following questions with partner. Be able to present in front of the class
what had you agreed upon.
1. What do you think are the strength and weaknesses of interview as method in qualitative
research?
2. Are there questions not to be asked in an interview, if there are any, why should it not be
asked?
3. Is there any kind of data that cannot be obtained through interviews? If so, why?
4. Of the six types of questions we described, which do you think interviewees would find the
hardest to answer? the easiest? Why?
5. What would you say is the most important quality or characteristic an interviewer should
possess? Why?
6. Which do you think would be the hardest to master and do well, observing or interviewing?
Why?
7. Interviewers are frequently advised to “be natural”. What do you think that means? Is it
possible? desirable? always a good idea or not? Explain your thinking.
Activity 2
Impart to the class your unforgettable experience in making used of interview in doing a
certain research. What lesson did you get from it?
Activity 3
Outdoor activity:
Make an interview to 4P’s beneficiaries. Prepare questions which will measure the extent
of effectiveness of the government program to sustain the economic permanency of common
Filipino. Justify why interview could be a best tool to measure it.
Activity 4
Write a record of your experiences in doing such interview. Base from these, your task is
to make some precautions of do’s and don’ts in interview.

G. Where can I get additional information about this?

Books, Dissertation, Research, Journal

Ballie, L.(1996). A phenomenological study of the nature of empathy. Journal of advanced

Nursing, 24(6), 1300-1308

Bulbrook. M.( 2010). CAM 590—Qualitative Research for Complementary Medicine Course
Syllabus. Akamai University

Code of Federal Regulations Title 45 Public Welfare, Department of Health and Human Services
Part 46—Protection of Human Subjects (2009)

Colaizzi, P. F.( 1978). Existential phenomenological alternatives for psychology. New York:
Oxford University Press 0. Determining validity in qualitative inquiry

Creswell, J.W., & Miller, D.(2000). Determining validity in qualitative inquiry. Theory into
Practice, 39(3), 124-130

Creswell, J (2009). Research Design: Qualitative, quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches.
Los Angeles, CA: Sage

Deal, B (2010). A pilot study of nurse’s experience of giving spiritual care .The Qualitative
Report. Vol. 15, Number 15. Retrieved on Dec 5, 1010 from [Link]

Feinstein, D. (2008). Energy Psychology in Disaster Relief. Traumatology. 14(1)., 124-137

Holliday, A.R. (2007). Doing and writing qualitative research (2nd ed.) London: Sage

Marshall, C., & Rossman, G.B.( 2006). Designing qualitative research (4th ed.) Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage
Merriam, S.B.(1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass

Moustakas, C (1994). Phenomenological Research Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Patton, M (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage

Punch, K. F.( 2005). Introduction to social research: quantitative and qualitative approaches
(2nd ed.) London: Sage

Prepared by:
RONALDO J. MALABAY
GENNIE B. MALABAY