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Chapter 1 CAD Introduction

The document provides an overview of Computer-Aided Design (CAD) and Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM), detailing their definitions, advantages, limitations, and applications in the design and manufacturing processes. It outlines the typical product cycle and the integration of CAD/CAM tools, emphasizing the stages of design, from concept to customer feedback. Additionally, it discusses the criteria for evaluating and selecting CAD/CAM systems, including hardware and software considerations.

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Chapter 1 CAD Introduction

The document provides an overview of Computer-Aided Design (CAD) and Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM), detailing their definitions, advantages, limitations, and applications in the design and manufacturing processes. It outlines the typical product cycle and the integration of CAD/CAM tools, emphasizing the stages of design, from concept to customer feedback. Additionally, it discusses the criteria for evaluating and selecting CAD/CAM systems, including hardware and software considerations.

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aaa INTRODUCTION Ex : { Atypical produet cycle, CAD tools forthe design process of prot eye, CAD / CAM system evaluation err, Input | output devices: Graphics Displays: Retesh dpa, DST, Raster copay, pel value and lookup table, estimation of | ‘graphical memory, LCD, LED fundamentals. Concept of Coordinate Systeme : Working Coordinate System, Model Coordinate System, Screen Coordinate System. Line and Curve generation algorithm : DDA, Bresenham's algorithms. Graphics exchange standards and Database management systems. TOPICS 1.1 Introduction to CAD/CAM Concepts 4116 Storage Devices (Memory Units) 12 Typical Conventional Product Cycle 1.17 Specifications of Cad Workstation 1.3. Product Gyele With CAD/CAM Tools 118 Commercially Avallable Cad Software And Their 114 Application of Computers in Design (Stages of vane Design Process) 1.19 Coordinate Systems 1.5. Advantages of CAD/CAM (Reasons For 1.20 Generation of Graphic Element: Line Implementing CAD/CAM) 1.21 Line Generating Algorithms 1.6 Limitations of CAD/CAM 1.22 Graphles Standard 1.7 Applications of CAD 1.23 CAD / CAM Data Exchange (CAD / CAM Database) 1.8 CAD/CAM System Evaluation Criteria (Criteria For | 1,24 Data Exchange Translators (Data Transfer) aletion of CAD/CAN Byaeath) 1.25 Data Exchange Formats 1.9 Hardware In CAD 1.26 Initial Graphies Exchange Specification (IGES) 1.10 Graphics Display Devices Format: 1.11. Types of Graphics Display Devices 1.27 Product Data Exchange Using Step (PDES) 1,12 Organization of Raster Scan Display System 1.28 Introduction to Database 1.13. Input Devices 1.29 Database Management System (DBMS) 11.14 Output Devices 1.30 Comparison of Database Management System 1,15 Central Processing Unit (CPU) With File System WF _Computer Aided Design (GTU) 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO CAD/CAM. CONCEPTS > (May 12, Dec, 12) University Qi @. What do you mean by Computer Aided Design (CAD) ? SURE ‘+ The rapid developments in the fleld of computers in the past four decades can be undoubtedly considered as the single contributing factor responsible for the boost in the technological developments. The computer has entered each and every field. It has become the most important tool in all the technological areas including design and manufacturing, most significant * The entry of computers in the fields of design and manufacturing has led to the emergence of new areas known as Computer-Alded Design (CAD) and Computer Alded Manufacturing (CAM). ‘+ Computer-Aided Design (CAD) : Computer-Aided Design (CAD) can be defined as the use of computer systems to assist in the creation, modification, synthesis, analysis, and/or optimization of a design. * Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM): Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) can be defined as the use of computer systems to plan, ‘manage, and control the manufacturing operations through the direct or indirect computer interface with the manufacturing machine. ‘* Traditionally, the design and manufacturing have been treated as two distinct and separate activities, However, the CAD/CAM has led to the greater integration of design and manufacturing 1,2 TYPICAL CONVENTIONAL PRODUCT CYCLE > (May 19) Draw a block diagram of the manufacturing process. of typical product cycle, 1 7. MANUFACTURING + Typleal Conventional Product Cycle Fig. 1.2. ‘The various steps in the typical conventional product cycle (Fig, 1.2.1) are as follows Product Concept : The product cycle begins with the product concept. This concept is cultivated, refined, analysed, and improved, Design of Product : The next step is the design of the product, which include synthesis, analysis, and optimization, Drafting and Documentation : The design is followed by its documentation by means of component drawings, assembly drawing, material specifications, etc. Here, the design department hands over the bottom to the manufacturing department. Process Planning : The next step is the process planning. Based on the drawings, the process plan is formulated, which specifies the sequence of ‘manufacturing operations. The detail specifications of tools required, tool layout and material requirementare prepared. Production Planning : This Is followed by the production planning of the product. Production : Production planning {s followed by the actual manufacturing or production of the product. Quality Control : The produced parts are inspected and are made to pass through certain standard quality tests. Marketing : The product is then packaged and shipped to the customers. Customer Feedback : The feedbacks from the customers are continuously accepted and incorporated in the design. The product cycle is a continuous closed loop curve. alae Computer Aided Design (GTU) 4,3 PRODUCT CYCLE WITH CAD/CAM TOOLS > (May 11, Dec, 12) ©. Draw a diagram showing product cycle wih the implementation of CAD. ©. Compare computer aided dosign and conventional ‘design witha neat block diagram ‘The various steps in the product cycle with CAD/CAM (Fig. 1.3.1) areas follows 1, Product Concept : The product cycle begins with the product concept. The product concept is ‘cultivated, refined, analysed and improved. 2. Computer-Aided Design : The computer-aided design of the product Is carried out using the various CAD tools such as: geometric modeling, {finite element analysis and simulation. Computer-Aided Drafting and Documentation : From the geometric model, the detail two dimensional drawings of the product and its components are created automatically. This is known as computer-aided drafting. At this stage, the complete description and information of the product and its components is available in the CAD/CAM database. Fig. 1.3.1 : Product Cycle with CAD/CAM Introduction in the next 4. Computer-Alded Process Planniny step, using the geometric model of the product stored In the database, computer-aided process planning (CAPP) is carried out. The tool design and. tool layout are also carried out using computers, 5. Computer Assisted Production Planning : This is, followed by the computer assisted production planning of the product. Computer-Alded Manufacturing : The computers are used in production to monitor and control the manufacturing operations. Using the geometric model stored in the CAD/CAM database, automatically the tool paths can be generated for CNC machines. The computer controlled robots and the material handling equipment are also used in production, 7. Computer-Aided Quality Control: In quality control, the computers are used for inspection and performance testing of the product and its ‘components. 8 Computer-Aided Marketing : Computers can be used in marketing of the product. 9. Computer-Aided Customer Feedback : The online customer feedback of the product is taken with the help of computers. ‘The CAD/CAM has led to the greater integration of design and manufacturing, 1.4 APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS IN DESIGN (STAGES OF DESIGN PROCESS) D (may 13, May 17, Doc. 18, Dec. 19) Q. Explain applications of computers in design process. @. State the various stages for a design process, in which various CAD tools can bo used to improve productivity. ‘The general design process consists of following six phases or steps : 1. Recognition of Need 2. Definition of Problem 3. Synthesis 4, Analysis and Optimization Presentation 5. Evaluation 6 WF _Computer Aided Design (GTU) In a computer-aided design (CAD), the computer systems are used to assist in these different phases of design process. The use of computer system in these phases ts discussed below (Fig. 14.1] Design Process Fig. 1.4.1: Application of Computers in Design 4. Recognition of Need : * Every design process starts with the recognition or identification of need. Recognition of need is the outcome of either the requirement or the discontent with the existing system. © It is highly creative act and computer system does not play any role in this phase, 2. Definition of Problem : ‘+The difference between the statement of the need and the definition ofthe problem lies in the fact that the problem is more specific. ‘© Definition of problem must include all the inputs parameters, functional requirements and constraints of the system. ‘ Inthis phase also the computer system has no role to play. 3. Symthesia : Once the problem is defined, the next step Is the synthesis. Synthesis is the process of contriving a scheme or a method of accomplishing a given purpose. 4. Introduction I Is the process of selecting the mechanism (or configuration) of the system, materials, sizes, and shapes of the components so as to get the desired output with the given Input. It involves number of fterations, In a computer-aided design, the geometric ‘modeling is used to assist the synthesis. Geometric modeling is defined as the complete representation of an object (or a system) with the ‘graphical and non-graphical information. It generates the mathematical description of the geometry and non-geometry of an object (or a system) in the computer database and the image of ‘an object (or a system) on the graphics screen. ‘The graphical image of an object is generated on the graphics screen of the system by inputting three types of commands to the computer. The first type ‘of commanils generate basic geometric entities such as points, lines and circles. ‘The second type of commands accomplish the transformations of these graphic elements, The third type of commands cause the various graphic elements to be joined into the desired shape of the object. ‘The various methods of geometric modeling are discussed in detail in Chapters 3 and 4. In a synthesis, it is required to modify or alter the object (or system) number of times till the desired one Is obtained. As the geometric model Is stored in the computer database, it can be easily modified or altered any number of times. ‘Analysis and Optimization : Every synthesis must be followed by analysis. ‘Analysis is critically examining an already existing or proposed design in order to judge its suitability for the task. ‘Analysis determines whether the performance with: the requirements. All possible solutions are analysed and optimum one is selected. ‘The different types of analysis are : stress-strain analysis, Kinematic analysis, dynamic analysis, vibration analysis, thermal analysis, fluid flow analysis, etc, Computer Aided be (GT) or the times. it objects (oF ays is very difficult or sometimes it is Impossible to carry out the analysis large number of times tll the optimum solution Is obtained. This difficulty is overcomed by CAD. In a computer aided design, the engineering analysis of any complicated abject (or system) can be carrie out in a shortest time by using the engineering analysis software like, finite element analysis (FEA) software. The analysis is carried out on the geometric model ‘of an object (or system) and the output is presented in the textual as well as graphical form on the graphics screen. Evaluation : Evaluation is measuring the design against the specifications set in the definition of problem. Its often requires the fabrication and testing of a prototype to assess performance, quality, and reliability. Itis the final proof of a successful design. ‘The fabrication and testing of the prototype is time consuming and costly. In a computer-aided design, the geometric model is created on the computer and evaluation is done by using simulation software. ‘The design review can be carried out by features like, automatic interference checking between the components of the assembly. Presentation : Presentation of the design is the final phase in the design process. The design is presented by means of drawings, parts list, material specifications, ete, The automated drafting feature in a computer aided design creates the manufacturing drawings directly geometric model. For better viewing, the different sectional views can bbe automatically created. two dimensional from the ‘The three dimensional solid model of the object (or system) can be viewed on the graphics screen from any given orientation. The visualization can be enhanced by using different colours and shades. 15 introduction aided design also generates. the Information like: parts lst, material specifications, tc, directly from the geometric model 1,5 ADVANTAGES OF CAD/CAM (REASONS FOR IMPLEMENTING CAD/CAM) D> (tay 11, May 13) im cute the esac or mplomenting CAD oo (2, What ar the advantages o CAD in design? ‘There are many advantages of CAD/CAM. Few of them are as follows : 1, In a CAD system, more number of alternative designs can be checked for sultability. This results in better optimization of the design. Hence, the CAD. system improves the quality of design. In a CAD, as the calculations are performed by the computer, the approximations can be minimized. This improves the accuracy of design. In a CAD, all the time consuming and iterative phases ofthe design process are carried out on the computer. Therefore, the time required for the design is reduced drastically. 4. The CAD system reduces the engineering personnel requirements. 5. Ina CAD system, as the model of the object (or system) is available in the computer database, the modifications are easier to make, 6. The CAD assists in a big way in preparation of documentation, ‘The CAD eliminates the prototype testing, which is, costly and time consuming, It is replaced by simulation on the computer, In a CAD, the manufacturing drawings can be ‘generated automatically, 9, The CAM system generates a complete tool pat! required for the automatic manufacturing, Woes Computer Atded Design (GTU) 10, The CAM system can use computer-aided process planning and computer assisted production planning. This results in effective planning, and hhence reduces the manufacturing time, 11, The CAM system can use on-line automatic Inspection. This results in better product quality, 1.6 LIMITATIONS OF CAD/CAM ‘The limitations of CAD/CAM are as follows : 1. The cost of hardware and software used in CAD/CAMis high. 2. Highly trained manpower is required to operate CAD/CAM systems. 1.7 APPLICATIONS OF CAD D (Ove, 12) Tr Q. State the different applications of CAD in engineering field. SEE ‘The different applications of CAD In engineering field are as follows: ‘Applications of CAD Tia Eon 1, Geometric Modeling : Geometric modeling ‘software are used for generating two-dimensional as well as three-dimensional models of components, assemblies and systems, . Finite Element Analysis (FEA); FEA software are used for stress strain analysis, thermal analysis and vibration analysis, 3. Simulation ; Simulation software are used for evaluation of engineering system. 4, Automated Drafting : The automated drafting feature in CAD creates the two dimensional drawing directly from geometric mode 16 Introduction 1.8 CAD/CAM SYSTEM EVALUATION CRITERIA (CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF CAD/CAM SYSTEM) ‘The evaluation and selection of CAD/CAM system for a given application is the first and one of the most important steps in CAD/CAM implementation. It Involves selection of hardware and software, which should be compatible with each other. + Now-a-days, with a large number of options available for hardware and software, it is really a difficult task to select an appropriate CAD/CAM system to suit the requirement of the particular application ‘+ The following categories of criteria are considered while evaluating the CAD/CAM system for a given application: i. Hardware Criteria 2. Software Criteria 3. Organization Related Criteria 1. Hardware Criteria: Some of the hardware related criteria considered while selecting the CAD/CAM system are as follows : (il) Hardware architecture; (li). Speed of hardware system; (lil) Graphics capability of hardware system ; (iv) Compactness of hardware system; (¥) Cost of hardware system; (vi) Flexibility of hardware system for upgradation; (vil) Ease of maintenance of hardware system; and (vill)Compatibiity of hardware system with CAD/CAM software. 2. Software Criteria: Some of the software related criteria considered while selecting the CAD/CAM system are as follows : (1) Operating system required; (W) Interfacing of diferent modulus of software Le. modelling software, analysis software and ‘manufacturing software. | | | W Computer Aided Design (GTU) (Ui) Ease of data transfer between different modules of software, (iv) User friendliness of software system: (¥)_ Ease of interface of software with existing CAD/CAM software of organization; (vi) Capabilities and features of software; (vil) Ease of maintenance of software; (vii) Flexibility of software for upgradation; and (ix) Compatibility of software with hardware system 3. Organization Related Criteria : ‘Some of the organization related criteria considered while selecting the CAD/CAM system are as follows: (0 Costof the CAD/CAM system; (i) Suitability of the system for the given application; (lil) Logistic support and service avalilabl (iv) Technical experty available with the organization; (v)_ Training facilities required and available with the ‘organization; and (Wi) Rating of the CAD/CAM system in industry. 1.9 HARDWARE IN CAD A typical CAD system Includes the following hardware components : CAD Workstations Output Devices Central Processing Unit (CPU) ‘Storage Devices (Memory Units) Fig. 1.9.1 shows the configuration of a typical CAD system. 17 Introduction ‘The CAD workstation is the interface of the CAD system with the user It consists of : (0). Graphics display device; and (i) Input devices. The CAD workstation must accomplish five functions : (0) Itmust interface with CPU. (W)_Itmust generate a steady graphic image. (lll) tt must create digital description of the graphic image. (iv) It must convert Input commands ‘operating functions, (¥) It must act as an interface to facilitate the ‘communication between the user and the rest ofthe CAD system, ‘The subsequent sections discuss the various ‘hardware components used in CAD systems. into 1.10 GRAPHICS DISPLAY DEVICES ‘The graphics display device of a workstation is one of the most important hardware components, because the quality of the graphics image displayed fon the screen influences the perception of the design on the CAD system. The various display technologies available are : Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Light Emitting Diode (LED) Display Plasma-Panel Display 1 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) : ‘The principle of operation of CRT is : when the high ‘energy electron beam strikes the phosphor coating at very high speed, the energy transfer from the electron beam to the phosphor causes it to illuminate and glow. Fig, 1.10.1 shows a schematic diagram of a typical cathode ray tube (CRT). An electron beam emitted by an electron gun passes through the focusing and. deflecting systems and strikes on to a phosphor: coated glass screen at very high speed. The electron beam energizes the phosphor coating, causing it to emit a light and glow at the points where the electron beam makes contact. Olas Introduction Boam Focusing System Comece, Wonzoriat_— Detecton Paes oe Ponnon) Detection System Coated Scroen Electron Boam Vortcal Detection Plates (positon) Fig. 1.10.1 : Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) + The control grid in the electron gun controls the intensity of the electron beam between zero and ‘maximum, The focusing system forces the electron beam to converge into a stall spot as it strikes the phosphor-coated screen. ‘© The deflection system of the CRT controls the horizontal (x) and vertical (y) positions of the electron beam. © The phosphor excited by an electron beam glows for a short period. Therefore, in order to maintain a steady flicker-free Image, {t must be refreshed or redrawn. 1.11 TYPES OF GRAPHICS DISPLAY DEVICES Following four types of display devices are commonly used for generating the picture on screen: Random-Scan (Stroke-Writing or Vector Scan) ‘Type Display Raster-Scan Type Display Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Light Emitting Diode (LED) Display 1,114.1 Random-Scan (Stroke-Writing or Vector Scan) Type Display : ‘© Ina random-scan or stroke-writing, an electron beam operates like a pencil to generate a picture on the CRT screen, as shown In Fig. 1.11.1, ‘© As an electron beam moves from one point to another on the CRT screen, a straight-line segment Is created. The picture Is constructed out of a sequence of straight-line segments, The picture is stored in the computer memory in the form of set of lines. Fig. 1.11.1: Stroke-Writing for Generating Picture on CRT Based on the stroke-writing technique, there are two types of display devices ( Directed-beam refresh display (refresh display) (W) Direct-view storage tube (DVST) The two display devices are discussed below : Directed-beam refresh display (refresh display) : ‘The directed-beam refresh display device uses the stroke-wrting technique to generate the picture on the CRT screen. After the picture is generated, the phosphor elements on the screen surface can maintain their brightness (glow) only for a short time. In a directed-beam refresh display, in order to maintain a steady-flicker-ree picture, the picture Is refreshed or redrawn at least 30 to 60 times per second. ‘Advantages of directed-beam refresh display (a) In this display device, as the picture is continuously refreshed, the selected parts of the plcture can be erased and altered easily. ¥ WF Computer Aided Design (GTU) (b) The resolution of display Is very high (4096 x 4096), and hence the quality of picture Is excellent, (thas the excellent animation capability. * Disadvantages of directed-beam refresh display: (a) For complex pictures (Le. pictures with large number of straight-line segments), It's difficult to avoid the flickering of the picture, (b) This display device has limited colour capability. (i) Direct-view storage tube (DVST) : > (may 17) cn , DVST stands for a. Digital view storing tablo b. Direct visual storage tube © Direct view storage tube 6. Digital view storage tube * The direct-view storage tube also uses the stroke- writing technique to generate the picture on the CRT screen, ‘+ In DYST display, once the picture is generated on the CRT screen, it Is stored on the CRT screen and no refreshing of the screen is required. * Two electron guns are used in DVST. One, the primary gun, is used to generate the picture on the phosphor-coated screen; the second, flood gun, Is used to keep the phosphor elements glowing once they have been energized by the electron beam of the primary gun. The resulting picture on the CRT screen Is flicker- free. ‘© Advantages of direct-view storage tube: (a) Itis the lowest-cost display device. (b) It produces flicker-free picture as no refreshing is required. (©) As no refreshing Is needed, very complex pictures can be displayed without flcker. (4) The resolution of display Is very high, and hence the quality of picture is excellent. 9 Introduction * Disadvantages of direct-view storage tube : (a) With DVST, the selected parts of the picture ‘cannot be erased. In order to erase a picture Portion, the entire screen must be erased and the modified picture is redrawn. (b) Itlacks color capability. (©) Itlacks animation capability. (@)_ With DVST, Its not possible to use light pen as ‘input device. 1.11.2 Raster-Scan Display : ‘+ The inability of the directed-beam refresh display and direct-view storage tube to meet the increasing demands of CAD/CAM applications for colors, shaded images, and animation capabilities, motivated the hardware designers to search for a better solution. i + Ithas led to the development of a new technique for generating the picture on the CRT screen, known as Raster-Scan dis © The raster-scan display device is the most commonly used display device employing CRT. + Its similar to ateleviston set. The difference is that a television set uses analog signals, while raster- scan display device uses digital signals. ‘© For this reason, the raster-scan display devices are sometimes called digital TVs. ‘© Inthe raster-scan display device, the display screen area is divided horizontally and vertically into a ‘matrix of large number of small phosphor elements called picture elements or pixels, as shown in Fig, 1.11.2(a). © A pixel is the smallest addressable area on the screen. An M x N resolution defines a pixel matrix with M columns and N rows. ‘© The definition ofa picture to be generated Is stored In a fixed area of the system memory. This area of the system memory is called frame buffer or refresh buffer, ‘© The frame buffer stores the intensity values for all the pixels. Each pixel has a memory location in a frame buffer. OH hteeteag + Im the rasterscan display device, In order to ‘generate a picture, the electron beam is swept along the horizontal line (row) from left to right. ‘+ As the electron beam moves along the horizontal line (row), the beam intensity is turned on and off depending upon the Intensity value of the corresponding pixel, stored ina frame buffer. * When the sweep of one horizontal line (row) is completed, the electron beam moves to the next line below it Pro (2) Typical Pixel Matrix of Raster-Scan Display Device (b) Generation of Picture In Raster-Scan Display Device Fig. 1.11.2 : Raster-Scan Display Device This sweeping of the electron beam across the ‘screen, one horizontal line (row) at a time from top to bottom generates the picture out of the glowing pixels, as shown in Fig, 1.11.2(). In order to maintain a flicker-free picture on the screen, the screen must be refreshed at the rate of 60 to 80 frames per second (12) For a simple monochrome (black-and-white), two Intensity level display, each pixel requires one bit in a frame buffer. The pixel intensity is either on or off. ‘Abit value of 1 indicates that the electron beam is to be turned on, while a bit value of 0 indicates that Introduction the electron beam Is to be turned off, at that pixel position. Two bits per pixel gives 2? Le. 4 intensity levels, three bits per pixel gives 2? Le. 6 intensity levels, and eight bits per plxel gives 2" Le. 256 intensity levels, Hence, a monochrome display with a screen resolution of 1024 x 1024 and 8 bits per pixel (Le. 256 Intensity levels) requires 1024 x 1024 x 8 bits ‘or 1 megabyte of storage memory for the frame butter. In a color display device, the CRT screen has three phosphor color dots at each pixel for three primary colors - red, blue, and green. ‘The CRT has three electron guns, one for each color dot. ‘The shadow mask, which contains a series of holes, Is placed between electron guns and phosphor coated screen, at a short distance from the phosphor coated screen, as shown in Fig. 1.11. Fig. 1.11.3 : Operation of Raster-Scan Color Display Device Because of the geometrical arrangement of the shadow mask, each electron beam can strike and illuminate only its corresponding color dot. By combining the three primary colors with different Intensity levels, any desired color can be obtained on the screen, Eight bits per color dot (Le. 24 bits per pixel) can give 2* Le. 16.777 million different colors. The color display device with a screen resolution of 1024 x 1024 and 24 bits per pixel (Le. 16.777 million different colors), requires 1024 x 1024 x 24 bits or 3. megabytes of storage memory for the frame buffer, ¥ W Computer Aided Design (GTU) (In this display device, as the picture is continuously refreshed, the selected parts of the picture can be erased and altered easily (i). This display can use different intensity levels inpieture. {Gil) thas excellent color capability. {iv) Ithas good animation capability, Disadvantages of raster-scan display device : The major disadvantage of the raster-scan display device is its cost. The high resolution color display requires frame buffer with large memory capacity This increases the cost of the device. 1.11.3 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) : > (may 19) ‘Write ful form of LCD. 1, Introduction : Honzonta Transparent ecrodes (Gonsuaan) | Twstea neonate | Cavs cyas | (6) Pixel OMTSeate Fig. 1.11.4 : Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Introduction Liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat - panel and non-emissive type display. The non-emissive display is a display which uses optical effects to convert light from source Into graphies patterns. ‘The LCD produce a picture by passing a polarized light from an internal light-source through a liquid crystal material that can aligned to either block the light or transmit the light. 2. Components of LCD Panel : ‘The LCD panel, shown in Fig. 1.11.4, consists of : () Two polarizing filters or polarizers (li) Twisted nematic liquid crystal ; and (iil) Two glass panels coated with transparent electrodes (Two polarizing filters or polarizers : ‘Two polarizers which are placed parallel to each ‘other, have polarizing planes at right angles to each other. (ii) Twisted nematic liquid crystal : ‘The liquid crystal is a compound which’ has crystalline structure of molecules like solid but it flows like a liquid. The twisted nematic liquid crystal is placed between two polarizers, The molecules of twisted nematic liquid crystal are like thread and are twisted by 90°. The alignment of nematic liquid crystal molecules on two end layers are at 90°, as shown in Fig. 1.11.4. (Ui) Two glass panels coated with transparent electrodes: Each of the two glass panels, which is coated with transparent electrodes (conductors), is placed between polarizer and nematic liquid crystal. Rows ‘of horizontal electrodes (conductors) are used on ‘one glass panel while columns of vertical electrodes (conductors) are used on another glass panel. The Intersection of two conductors define a pixel position, All vertical as well as horizontal electrodes (conductors) are wired separately, so that 1280 vertical electrodes and 1024 horizontal electrodes give 1280 x 1024 = 1.3107 x 10° pixels. BF _computer Aided Design (GTU) 3. Working 4 {60 panel: ‘The unpolarized light enters the right side polarizer, as shown in Fig. L114(a), which ppolarizes the light. It creates the polarized light with, ‘one polarization plane, The left side polarizer is having polarization plane at 90°, and hence, would have blocked the polarized light. The polarized light has to be rotated by 90° in order to pass through the next polarizer, This rotation of polarized light through 90° is done by twisted nematic light crystal, placed between two polarizers, As the polarized light is rotated by 90°, it passes through the left side polarizer. The light Is then reflected back to the viewer. ‘When the voltage is applied between two electrode panels, the nematic liquid crystal molecules untwist and are aligned with the plane of first polarizer, as shown in Fig. 1.11.4(b). Therefore, when voltage is applied between two electrodes, the plane of polarized light remains unchanged as it passes through the nematic liquid crystal, and hence, the light is blocked by next polarizer. Therefore, when voltage is applied between two Intersecting electrodes (conductors), the particular pixel portion is off Thus, when voltage is on, pixel is off and when voltage is off, pixel is on. Colours can be displayed by using different materials and placing triad of color pixels at each screen location, Picture definitions are stored In a refresh buffer and sereen Is refreshed at the rate of 60 frames per second. ‘Advantages of LCD : (i) LeDs are completely fat screen. (Wi) LeDs are thin, compact and light weight. (tii) LCD consumes less power, It consumes less than 1/3rd the power of a comparable CRT. (iv) LCD produces very bright images due to high peak Intensity. Hence, highly suitable for environments that are brightly lit. 5. Disadvantages of LCD: (vi) LCD has good contrast. (1) LCDs are more expensive than CRTs. (U) LCDs have fixed aspect ratlo and resolution. (i) In LCDs, panel may not be uniformly iluminated by the backlight, resulting in ‘uneven intensity and shading over the screen. (lv) LeDs can have many weak or stuck pixels, ‘which are permanently on or off. (¥)_ LCDs have restricted viewing angles, (vi) LCDs have limited temperature range of operation (between 0°C and 60°C). 6. Applications of LCD : LCDs have displaced CRTs in most of the applications. Some of the applications of LCDs are : | (0) Computer monitors ; (i) Television; (li) Instrument panels ; (lv) Aircraft cockpit displays (¥) Gaming devices; (vi) Video players; (vii) Clocks and watches (viil)Cateulators ; (ix) Mobiles, ete, 1.11.4 Light Emitting Diode (LED) Display : ‘© Light emitting diode (LED) display is a thin, flat panel and emissive type display. The emissive type display isa display which converts electrical energy into light. . | © LED display uses an array of light-emitting diodes | as pixels for video display. * Each pixel position is a cluster of three coloured light - emitting diodes : red, green and blue, forming a full coloured pixel. The picture definition is stored {na refresh buffer, * Another type of LI.D display Is known as LED - backlit LCD display. It is same as LCD with the only difference of backlight source, While LCD uses uorescent lamps to provide backlighting, LED display uses array of light emitting diodes as (v)_ Images produced by LCD are perfectly sharp. backlight source to illuminate the screen, ] Wren | Introduction © Advantages of LED display (0) LED displays are completely fat screen, (W)_ LED displaysare thin, compact and light weight. (lil) LED displays consume less power. (iv) LED displays have long life, 50,000 hours or more. (¥) LED displays have rugged construction, (v1) LED displays have better contrast. (vil) LED displays do not use mercury in backlight, and hence, are environment friendly. © Disadvantage of LED display : (LED displaysare expensive. 1.5 Comparison of Graphics Display Device: ‘Table 1.11.1 gives comparison of three types of display devices. Table 1.11.1 : Comparison of Display Devices Directed-Beam Refresh | Direct-View Storage | Raster-Scan Display Tube Display + _ Image Generation Technique Stroke-Writing Stroke-Writing Raster-Scan + _ Picture Quality (Resolution) Excellent Excellent Good. + Data Content Limited High High + _ Selective Erasure Possible Not Possible Possible + Color Capability Moderate No Excellent + Animation Capability Excellent No Good 1.11.6 Comparison of Random Scan (Vector Scan) and Raster Scan Displays t > (May 14, Dec. 17) Q. ‘Sate ditoronce between raster sean and vector scan displays. ‘The comparison of Random Scan (Vector Scan) display and raster scan display Is given in Table 1.11.2, ble 1.11.2 : Comparison of Random Scan (Vector Scan) and Raster Scan displays [Link]. | Random Scan (Vector Scan) Display Raster Scan Display (0 | Invector scan disp \y, the electron beam | In raster sean display, the electron beam Is swept along operates like a pe veil to generate a the horizontal line (row) from left to right. During the picture on the CRT screen as shown in | swapping of electron beam, the beam intensity is turned Fig. 1.11.5(a). ‘on and off depending upon the Intensity value of the corresponding pixel, as shown in Fig. 1.11.5(b). WF _ Computer Aided Design (GTU) 14 Introduction Random Scan (Vector Scan) Display Fig. 1.11.5(@) Fig. 1.11.5(6) (ii) | in vector scan display, the electron beam | In raster scan display, the electron beam sweeps one sweeps between the end points of a line | horizontal line ata time from top to bottom. tobe generated. j (ii) | For complicated Image, vector scan | Even for complicated image, raster scan display can't| | display can fllcker. flicker. iv) | tn vector scan display, the quality of | Inraster scan display, the quality of picture Is average. picture is excellent. | 1.12 ORGANIZATION OF RASTER SCAN DISPLAY SYSTEM Ina raster scan display system, there are two processing units Central Processing Unit (CPU) | 2, Video Controller or Display Controller + Video controller (display controller) is used to control the operation of the display device. Fig 1.12.1 shows a commonly used organization for raster scan display systems. + Afixed area of the system memory Is reserved for the frame buffer, which stores the definition of picture tobe | generated. ‘* The frame buffer gives an input to the video controller, which controls the operation of the display device, | Fig. 1.12.2 : Organization of Raster Scan Display System | 1.12.1 Organization of Raster Scan System with Display Processor ; | * Inaconventional architecture of a raster scan display system, though the video controller Is used for controlling the operation of the display device, the processing of graphics data with the help of graphics software Is essentially done by CPU. WF_ Computer Aided Design (GTU) + Inorder to free the CPU from graphics processing, a separate processor is used for graphics processing. Such processor is called as display processor or Aisplay coprocessor, * Fig. 1.122 shows the organization of a raster scan system with a display processor, Fig. 1.12.2 : Organization of Raster Scan System with Display Processor © This architecture contains, separate display processor memory, in addition to the system memory. © A major function of the display processor Is digitizing a picture definition into a set of pixel- Intensity values for storage in the frame buffer. 1.13 INPUT DEVICES In a CAD workstation, input devices facilitate the effective communication between the user and the system. These devices are used to Input two types of information to the CAD system : text and graphics. ‘The input devices can be classified into four general categories : 1. Alphanumeric Keyboards 2, Cursor Control Devices 3. Digitizers 4. Scanners 1.13.1 Alphanumeric Keyboards : * An alphanumeric keyboard is the most commonly used input device, which is primarily used for entering text strings. Introduction ‘+ Ina CAD system the keyboard Is used for inputting (1) non-graphic data such as pleture labels, (W) screen coordinates, and (ii) menu selections. + Punction keys and direction keys are common features on keyboard. Function keys F, to F,, allow liser to enter frequently used operations in a single keystroke, and direction keys are used as cursor control device. Fig 1.131 shows 104 key alphanumeric keyboard. Fig. 1.13.1 : 104-Keys Alphanumeric Keyboard 1.13.2 Cursor Control Devices : ‘* The cursor normally takes the form of f+, or a bright spot on the CRT screen that indicates the position where drawing or lettering will occur. + The computer is capable of reading the current position of the cursor and It can be entered into the CAD system database. * The accuracy In locating the point on the screen highly depends upon the user's capability to control the cursor. * The various cursor control devices used in CAD systems are: (Direction keys on keyboard (i) Thumbwheels (ut) Mouse (Wv) Trackball and spaceball (¥) Joystick (ui) Light pen (Direction keys on keyboard: * The direction keys on the keyboard, shown in Fig. 1.13.2, are the basic cursor control device. Four keys are used for movement of cursor in each of the Computer Aided Design (GTU) 1.16 troduction four directions (right, left, up, and down), The use of direction keys, as a cursor control device, is slow and tedious. uP O RIGHT Fig. 1.13.2 : Direction Keys on Keyboard (i) Thumbwheels: * The thumbwheel device uses two thumbwheels, ‘one to move the cursor in horizontal direction and other to move it in vertical direction. The cursor is normally represented by the intersection of a vertical line and a horizontal line. The thumbwheels are usually mounted as an integral part of the display device. (uy, Mouse : © The mouse, shown in Fig. 1.13.3, is a small hand- held device used to position the screen cursor, * — When the mouse is held in hand and moved on the flat mouse pad surface, the spherical ball on the bottom of the mouse rolls on the mouse pad. * — The rolling movement of the ball is converted into movement In X and Y directions by two encoders. These movements in X and Y directions are converted to electrical signals, which control the movement of screen cursor. Ball Mouse Pad Encoder For Y-directon Encoder For X-direction Ball Movement Ball Movement (Ww) “ Since a mouse can be pleked up and put down ae another position without change in cursor movement, it measures the relative change in ‘screen cursor position with reference to its last position. ‘A mouse Is equipped with two or three buttons on top for execution of some commands such as recording current cursor position, or selecting the menu. The functions of these buttons are user- programmable. There are two basic types of mouse available : mechanical and optical ‘As the mouse Is very convenient to use, the recent trend in the CAD/CAM software development Is to replace the keyboard by the mouse as far as possible. ‘Trackball and spaceball : ‘The trackball, shown in Fig. 1.13.4, is similar to the mouse lying on its back. In this the device is stationary, while the ball is rotated with the fingers cr palm of the hand to produce the screen-cursor movement. Like mouse, trackball is also a two-dimensional positioning device. Fig. 1.13.4 : Trackball The spaceball, which provides six degrees of freedoms used for three-dimensional positioning, {In the spaceball, however, the ball does not actually move, The ball is pushed or pulled in various directions for spatial positioning and orientation. ‘The strain gauges measure the amount of pressure applied tothe spaceball doystlck : ‘The Joystick, shown in Fig. 1.13.5, consists of @ vertical lever (called the stick) mounted on the small box. The toggle stick can be pushed in any W Computer Aided Design (GTU) direction to cause the movement of screen cursor in that direction Buttons, Fig. 1.23.5 : Joystick It Is similar in principle to trackball. Both the Joystick and the trackball are used in radar and Aight control systems. (w)_ Light pen: A light pen, shown in Fig 1.13.6 is a pencil-shaped pointing or picking device used to select the screen positions or a displayed graphics item on the screen, by touching the tip of the light pen at respective point on the screen, The light pen itself does not emit light but detects, the light coming from point on the CRT screen. ‘+ The user touches the pen tip at the required point ‘on the screen and presses the push button on the pen. Using the emitted light as an input, it sends signal to the computer to select the point or item, ‘The light pen Is sensitive to the short burst of light emitted from the phosphor coating at the instant the electron beam strikes a particular point. However, It 1s not sensitive to the amblent room ight. Pa Pen Tp Display Seon Fig, 1.13.6 : Typleal Light Pen 17 Introduction ‘+ Disadvantages of light pen: ‘The light pen is no longer popular as input device because of the following disadvantages : (a) During operation, part of the screen image is obscured by the hand and pen. (b) Holding the light pen in a elevated position . the display screen for long periods causes arm fatigue. (C)_ The light pens, sometimes, give erroneous results due to background room lighting, ‘The light pens cannot detect positions within black areas. (€) The light pens cannot be used with direct-view storage tube type display. (d) 3.3 Digitizers The digitizer is an input device used for inputting the coordinates of points on existing drawings. It consists of a flat surface known as digitizing tablet or graphics tablet over which a stylus or a puck (a hand cursor) can be moved by the user, as shown in Fig. 1.13.7. © Asstylus is a pencil-shaped device that is used to point at positions on the tablet, while a puck (a hhand cursor) contains cross hairs for locating a point on the tablet. + The puck (hand cursor) contains 2,4, or 16 buttons. ‘The graphles tablet size varies from 12 x 12 inches to 44 x 60 inches. A typical resolution of tablet Is, 200 dots per inch, ‘+ The operational concept of the digitizer is simple. The user moves the pointing element (stylus or puck) to the desired position and then presses the button, + The stylus sends the coordinates at the tip while the puck sends the coordinates at the cross-hairs, to the computer. WF Computer Aided Design (GTU) Graphics Tablot ) Fig. 1.13.7: Digitizers 1.13.4 Scanners : A scanner, shown in Fig. 1.13.8, is an input device used to quickly convert text, drawings, pictures, or photographs Into digital signals which can be stored in computer database for further graphical processing or some other use. Scanned image Paper Drawing Fig. 1.13.8 : Hand-Held Scanner 1.13.5 Other Input Devices : In addition to the above discussed commonly used Input devices, there are some specialized Input devices. These are : three-dimensional digitizers, touch panels, and voice-systems. The three-dimensional digitizers are used for inputting the coordinates of points in a 1 2 3. 4 5. 0 1.14.1 Printers: three-dimensional space. The touch panels are used to select the screen positions with the touch of a finger. The volce-systems are used for inputting the commands through voice. 1,14 OUTPUT DEVICES ‘There are various types of output devices used in CAD system. These output devices are : Printers Pen Plotters Hard-Copy Units Electrostatic Plotters Computer-Output-to-Microfilm (COM) Units ‘The printers are the most widely used output devices. They provide hard coples of text as well as graphics. The printers produce output by either impact or non-impact method. In impact type printers, character faces are pressed against an inked ribbon on to the paper. | ‘The non-impact printers use laser techniques, ink- | Jet sprays, electrostatic methods, etc. | ‘The following three types of printers are commonly used: (i) Dot-matrix printer (W) Ink-4et printer/plotter (iil) Laser printer Dot-matrix printe ‘The dot-matrix printer is most widely used, as it is | fast with both character and graphics printing | capabilities. It is an impact type printer, It has a print head containing a rectangular array of protruding wire | pins (Le, matrix of dots), with the number of pins depending on the quality of the printer, a aa at on i ae smell Wrenn WF _Computer Aided Design (GTU) w 0) Fig, 1.14.1 : Dot-Matrix Individual characters or graphics patterns are obtained by retracting certain pins so that the remaining pins from the pattern to be printed. This pattern is pressed against an inked ribbon on the paper. Though the dot-matrix printer Is fast, the quality and accuracy of the drawings are poor. Fig. 1.14.1 shows a dot-matrix printer. Ink-jet printeriplotter : The ink-jet printer is a non-Impact type printer. In this, an electrically charged ink is squirted in horizontal rows across a roll of paper wrapped on a drum. The ink stream is deflected by an electric field to produce dot-matrix patterns. ‘The ink-jet printer is fast as well as quality and accuracy of the drawings are good. Laser printer : ‘The laser printer is a non-impact type printer. Fig. 1.14.2 shows a schematic arrangement of a laser printer. Inthis, a laser beam creates a distribution of charge, as per the required pattern, on a rotating drum coated with a photoelectric material, such as selenium. The toner which is applied to the drum, is transferred to the paper so as to create the picture ‘onthe paper. ‘The fuser then binds the toner to the paper so as to ‘make the picture permanent on the paper. In laser printer, the quality and accuracy of drawings are excellent. Tonet 14.2 : Schematic Arrangement of Laser Printer Fuser Fig 1.14.2 Pen Plotters: + The plotters are used to produce the large size drawings. The pen plotter uses a ink pen to produce a drawing on the paper through relative movement of the pen and paper. ‘+ _ There are two types of pen plotters : (Drum plo (il)_Flat-bed plotter Drum plotter © Ina drum plotter, shown in Fig. 1.143, the paper is attached to the horizontal drum that rotates back and forth, thereby providing a movement to paper {none direction, + Apen holder having one or more pens, is mounted fon a cross-bar that spans a width of paper. The pen holder slides along the cross-bar, producing the movement of the pen in a direction parallel to the axis of the drum. © The two-dimensional relative motion between the paper and pen, required to create the drawing, is achieved by coordinating the rotation of the drum with the motion of the pen holder. ‘© The pen can be raised or lowered to provide the contact with paper as desired. © The drum plotter can make drawings of virtually unlimited length. However, the width of the drawing is limited by the length of the drum, which range between 85 in (216 mm) and 42 in (1067 mm), ‘© The color plotter uses more than one pen so as to produce the drawing in multi-color as per the requirement, we Computer Aided Design (GTU) Fig. 1.14.3 : Drum Plotter (i) Flat-bed plotter: + Aflat-bed plotter, shown in Fig. 1.144, uses a flat drawing surface on which the paper is attached. The parallel tracks are located on two sides of the flat drawing surface, Cross-Bar Tracks Maton of Cross-Bar Motion of Pen Holer fo] Contd Panel Pen Hoar and Pon Fig. 1.14.4: Schematic Arrangement of Flat-Bed Plotter © Accross-bar or bridge slides along these tracks to provide the motion in X-direction, © — The pen holder, mounted on the cross-bar, slides along the cross-bar to provide the motion in Y- direction. The pen holder carries the pen or pencil, which can be raised or lowered to provide the contact with paper as desired, # The size of the flat-bed plotter can be as large as 5 fe (1.5 m) x 20 ft (6.1 m). Introduction Some models of the lat-bed plotter use horizontal drawing surface, while other models use vertical — drawing surface in order to save the space. | ‘The plotter function can be combined with a | digitizer. Such a device is called a digittzer-plotter, Comparison between drum plotter and flat-bed _ plotter: | (a) The drum plotter is less expensive than the | Mat-bed plotter. | (&) The drum plotter can make the drawings of | unlimited length, whereas in a flat-bed plotter the length of the drawing is limited by the length ofthe flat drawing surface, | (©). The drum plotter is fast as compared to the Aat-bed ploter. | (@) The drum plotter requires less space as compared to the horizontal type flat-bed plotter. (c)_ As the paper is stationary in flat-bed plotter, the accuracy of flat-bed plotter Is more as | compared to drum plotter. | In general, the plotters are highly accurate and the quality of drawings 1s excellent but takes longer time for plotting 1.14.3 Hard-Copy Units (Dry Silver Copiers) : In a hard-copy unit, the light sensitive paper is exposed to CRT beam by moving It past the CRT | window, | ‘The CRT window is typically 8.5 In (216 mm) in Tength (corresponding to the width of the paper) and about 05 in (12.5 mm) in width. The CRT beam transfers the Image to the paper. The paper Is then developed by a heated roller inside the unit. The | hard-copy unit can duplicate the picture on the CRT | screen in afew seconds, | Though the hard-copy unit is relatively fast, the quality and accuracy of the drawings produced are _ poor. j WF _ Computer Aided Design (GTU) + The drawings produced by the hard-copy unit can bbe used as records of Intermediate steps but not suitable as final drawings. Another drawback of the hard-copy unit drawings is the copies will darken with time when they are exposed to normal light. 1.14.4 Electrostatic Plotters : ‘* The pen plotters yield excellent quality and high accuracy drawings but takes longer plotting time. + The hard-copy units are relatively faster but the quality and accuracy of the drawings are poor. ‘+ The electrostatic plotters offer a compromise between these two types in terms of quality, accuracy, and speed. In terms of quality and accuracy, it is almost as good as the pen plotter, while in terms of speed, it is almost as fast as the hard-copy unit. «The electrostatic plotter consists of a bar mounted with a series of wire styli having density upto 200 styli per linear inch, ‘* The length of the bar is equal to the width of the paper which might be upto 6 ft (1.83 m).. ‘+ As the charge-sensitive paper moves gradually past the bar, certain styli are activated to place dots on the paper. + By coordinating the generation of the dots with the ‘motion of the paper, the picture is created on the Paper. The dots overlap each other slightly to achieve the continuity. * Advantages of electrostatic plotter : () _Itcan make the drawings of virtually unlimited length. (i) His relatively fast. (lil) It produces the drawings of excellent quality and high accuracy. ‘+ Limitation of electrostatic plotter : It needs data in raster format, Ifthe data Is not in a hat Introduction raster format, some type of conversion mechanism 1s required to convert it into a raster format. 1.14.5 Computer-Output-to-Microfilm (COM) Units ‘+ The computer-output-to-microfilm (COM) unit reproduces the drawings on microfilm. ¢ Advantages of COM untt (1) Itcan store large drawings on microfilm (i) It is faster than pen plotter as well as electrostatic plotter. + Limitations of COM unit: (1) The COM unit is expensive. (li) The enlargement of the microfilm on to paper Is not of good quality. 1.15 CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU) ‘© The central processing unit (CPU) is like the brain of the computer. It does the most of information Processing and controls the most of activities of computer. + The central processing unit (CPU) is so important that often people refer to their PC by just the name of ts central processing unit (for example, 286, 386, 486, Pentium Il, Pentium II, Pentium IV, etc). ‘© ‘The CPU's used in the CAD systems are: Pentium III, Pentium IV, ete. ‘©The Apollo, Apple MAC II, Micro VAX and Sun workstations use chips : 68020, 68030, 68040, etc. ‘+ In order to accomplish the functions, the CPU consists of basically two units Arithmetic-Logie Unit (ALU) 2, Control Unit (CU) 4. Arlthmetie-Logie Unit (ALU) : ‘+ Most of the work of information processing is don bby arithmetic-logic unit (ALU). Wiatertete * It performs the arithmetic operations (such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, ete.) and logical operations (such as comparison) as per the program instructions, 2. Control Unit (CU): * Itdirects the various parts of the computer Le. ALU, storage devices, display device, input devices, and output devices to do their job. Without a control unit, a computer would be no more than a fancy calculator, 1,16 STORAGE DEVICES (MEMORY UNITS) © The computers are required to store the information which includes data to be processed, Instructions (ie. programs) and results. ‘Some information is required to be stored briefly, while some other information is required to be stored for the longer duration of time. ‘The storage devices are used for this purpose. The storage devices are basically divided into two types: Primary Storage Devices (Main Memory) Secondary Storage Devices (Auxiliary Memory) 1.16.1 Primary Storage Devices (Main Memory) : The primary storage consists of two types of memories ; Read-Only Memory (ROM) or non-volatile ‘memory and Random-Access Memory (RAM) or volatile memory. (Read-only memory (ROM) or Non-volatile memory: * — Read-only memory (ROM) stores the information that never changes, It Includes the set of Instructions required to start the working of ‘computer when it is turned on. 1.22 Introduction * The content of the ROM Is stored during the manufacturing of ROM chip, It can never by changed. (Wt) Random-access memory (RAM) or volatile memory: * Random-access memory (RAM) stores the information temporarily. It stores the input data, set of instructions (1. programs), outcome of all the arithmetic and logical operations, results, ete. ‘The RAM loses the entire content when computer is) eset or turned off. The RAM used in the CAD — systems generally ranges from 1 MB to 16 GB. 1.16.2 Secondary Storage Devices (Auxiliary Memory) : ‘The secondary storage is the place to store the Information for along time which can be changed as and when required. The commonly used secondary storage devices are: (5 Noppy disk having storage capacity of 1.2 MB (obsolete). i) 3k floppy disk having storage capacity of 1.44 MB of 2.88 MB (obsolete) (lil) Hard disks : The CAD systems use hard disks ranging from storage capacity of 1.2 GB to 320 GB. (Iv) Compact disks (cb’s) (¥) CDROM (Compact Disc Read Only Memory) (Wi) DVD (Digital Video Disc) (vi) Zip drives for storage of large data, (viipPen drives. A brief overview of different hardware components _ used in CAD systems is shown in Fig. 1.16.1. Computer Aided = Deh Ma Prvae 1. Printers | «InkJet PrnterPettar + Laver Partor user [Link] + Drum Proto t Protiers | Flat Bed Pioter 3. Hard-Copy Units (Ory Giver Copers) ‘CAD WORKSTATION a. Elecrosine Pitre ] 1. Dect: Beam Retresh Display OIsPLAY 5, Computer Optio Maretim (COM) Unt) Ostia, [2 DvectView Storage Tube ‘Raster Sean Deplay ff = ‘CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU) Processing|_A”mete-Logic Unt (ALU) ‘Ariat: Logie Unt (ALU) ] Unit (epuy | Contot Unt (cu) Conivat Unit (CU) 1. Aiphanumeric Keyboard * Direction Keys + Thumbaheo's 2 cursor |. mouse INPUT | “Control |. Trackball & Spacebai| pevices | Divces |? Soysnck + Light Pen 3. Digtizer Scanner q ‘STORAGE DEVICES (MEMORY UNITS) PRIMARY |- ROM STORAGE |. paw DEVICES + 5% Floppy Disk| +34" Floppy Disk SECONDARY | ard Dusk STORAGE |. Compact Disk Devices + CO ROM DvD + Zip Devo + Pon Drivo Fig. 1.16.1 : Overview of Hardware in CAD 1.17 SPECIFICATIONS OF CAD WORKSTATION > (Dec. 12, May 13, May 14) . Give spociticaion of CAD workstation ©. Prepare the detaled specifications for a typical CAD workstation with latest hardware. CAD applications require workstations with reasonably enhanced processing speed, graphic capability, and storage capacity. The number of ‘workstations of international brand are available in market, : ‘As an example, the specifications of a typical CAD ‘workstation is given below : Processor + Quad Core Intel Xenon 2.83 GHz Memory : Graphics : Hard Drive Standard 1/0 Ports : Monitor Keyboard Mouse Storage Devices Speakers Operating System 16 GB DDR2 1333 MHz (Expandable to 32 GB) NVIDIA Quadro Fx1500 320 GB Sata 7200 rpm, 1x9 Pin Serial Port 1 Parallel Port 12x USB Ports 21° Flat Panel TFT Display Enhanced Multimedia USB USB Optical Two-Button Scroll Mouse CD-RW/DVD Combo; USB Media Card Reader ‘Three: Piece Stereo System Windows XP pro x6+ 1,18 COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE SOFTWARE AND THEIR FEATURES "D (Dec, 13, Dec. 17, Dee. 19) |Q, State the diferent commercially available CAD | software and explain the features of any two CAD setae n gta | Ja, State te various CAD softare commerciaty | available and explain the features of software used to model Hexagonal rut 1,18.1 Some of Commercially Available CAD Software : Some of the commercially available CAD software are listed below: 1. 3D Modelling Software : (CATIA (ti) CREO (iil) SOLID-WORKs (iv) SoLIDEDGE (¥) INVENTOR 2. Finite Element Analysis Software : ()_ ANSYS (i) NASTRAN (iii) HYPERWORKS (iv) ADINA (v) ALGOR 3. CAM Software : (i) DELCAM (W)_ MASTERCAM (iii) VISUALMILL (iv) ONECNC 1.18.2 Features Of CATIA: CATIA Is the most widely used 3D modelling software developed by French company Dassault Systems. Some of the features of CATIA are: (i) Excellent solid modeling capability, (li) Excellent surface modeling capability. (tii) Facility to. modify the model by changing the dimensions of features. (iv) Automatic generation of 2D-drawing from 3D- model {v) Auto dimensioning facility. (vi) Facility to modify dimensions. 24 1.18.3 Features of ANSYS (0) Reasonably good modelling capability. Ww 0) | Excellent automeshing capability. | Capability to modify the automatically generates | mesh. | (v) Can import model from standard solid rote software, | (¥) Excellent analytical capabilities: linear, non-linear, | thermal, dynamic analysis ete | (vi) | 1,19 COORDINATE SYSTEMS Excellent post processing capabilities. > (Dee. 18)| | . Explain different types of co-ordinates systems | | available CAD software, EEE # InCAD modelling, itis often required to transform | the objects from one coordinate system to another. | | + There are three major types of coordinate systems commonly used in CAD modeling, 1, Model Coordinate System (MCS) or World. Coordinate System or Global Coordinate System 2. User Coordinate System (UCS) or Working Coordinate System or Local Coordinate System 3, Screen Coordinate system (SCS) 1.19.1, Model Coordinate System (MCS) or World Coordinate System or Global Coordinate System : + The CAD software stores the graphical Information | (coordinate data) in the model database with | reference to the coordinate system known as | ‘model coordinate system or world coordinate | system or global coordinate system. i * The model coordinate system or world | coordinate system is the refence space of the ‘model with respect to which all the geometrical data of model is stored. * This is the only coordinate system that modelling software recognizes when storing or retrieving the graphical information in or from model database. 1.19.2. User Coordinate System (UCS) or Working Coordinate System or Local Coordinate System : © In CAD modeling, the user inputs the graphical information (coordinate data) with reference to the coordinate system known as user coordinate system or working coordinate system or local coordinate system. ‘© Ifthe geometric model has a complex geometry or a specific orientation, it ts highly inconvenient to input the graphical data in a model coordinate system (MCU). In such cases, for the convenience of graphical data input, the coordinate system Is defined with respect to the model and is known as user coordinate system (UCS). ‘* This coordinate system is defined by the user for the convenience of input of the graphical information. © Fig. 1.19.1 explains the difference between the ‘model and user coordinate systems, x (cs) Fig. 1.19.1 : Model and User Coordinate Systems 1.19.3 Screen Coordinate System : + Screen coordinate system is the two-dimensional cartesian coordinate system whose origin in located at the lower left corner of the graphics display screen, as shown In Fig, 1.19.2. * This system Is the display-device dependent. Fig. 1.19.2: Screen Coordinates System 5 Introduction 1.20 GENERATION OF GRAPHIC ELEMENT : LINE ‘+ Ina raster-scan display, a picture is generated with the help of a set of intensities for the pixel positions {n the display. Each pixel Is controlled by a bit or a ‘number of bits ina frame buffer memory. + I the display is mono with single intensity level, one bit in frame buffer Is sufficient to control each pixel. ‘+ However, If the display is colour with number of intensity levels, number of bits are required to control each pixel. wo Tt rt ee” : rf (eo. TESA SOT OO LOINi2I9 IAI TOIT TO Ten0R ERR Fig. 1.20.1: Line Representation on Raster-Scan Display System © For a black and white (mono) raster-scan display system, a point is plotted by setting the bit value in a frame buffer corresponding to a specified screen position to 1. As the electron beam sweeps across ‘each horizontal scan-line, it emits the electrons to glow the pixel (Le. plots a point) whenever a value of 1 is encountered in the frame buffer, ‘© Line drawing ts accomplished by plotting discrete points between the two end points. ‘© The coordinates of discrete points along the line are calculated from the equation of the line, When an attempt is made to calculate the coordinates of in between points from the equation of line, real values of coordinates are more common. Re tomy | Computer Aided Design (GTU) ‘© But screen positions of pixels are- represented integer umber coordinates. Hence, actual calculated positions of the polnts have to be approximated to nearest integers. + For example, a computed position of (10.48, 11.51) ‘would be converted to pixel position (10, 12). + The rounding of coordinates of points to integers causes line to be displayed with a stair-step appearance, as shown in Fig, 1.20.1 © The stair-step shape of line is more noticeable on system with low resolution, whereas the appearance can Improve on system with high resolution. 1.21 LINE GENERATING ALGORITHMS ‘The following two algorithms are commonly used for generating the line between two end points : 1, DDA (Digital Differential Analyser) Line Algorithm 2, _Bresenham’s Line Algorithm 1.21.1 DDA (Digital Differential Analyser) Line Algorithm : > (May 12, Dec. 14, May 16, May 18) Q. Explain DDA algorithm for generation of line. ATID Q. Explain DDA algorithm for line generation with its limitations. SUE + DDA algorithm is used for generating the straight line between points (xy, ¥1) and (xy ¥_),as shown in Fig. 121.1, y Xe Beet Fig. 1.21.1 DDA algorithm works on the principle that x and y are simultaneously incremented by a small step proportional to the first derivatives of xand y. | | | 1 For straight line, y = mx + ¢; Nia 124.4) | and ax = (121.2) | jut (1.213) | or ym (1214) | Similarly, | fer = x tAK (1215) | or oma = (1.21.6) the pixel positions of line Is discussed below. 1 In DDA algorithm, either 4x or Ay, whichever is larger, is chosen as one raster unit. Using Equation (1.21.1) or (1.21.2), other increment is calculated. The following two cases are possible : CaseT:] Ax] = Tay! Lay] > ax} 2. Casell For both the cases, the procedure for calculation of Caso t=|xq—%) 12] YY lt (ASI x.— x12 1ye-yi bl Ax 121 Ay] (i) Therefore, take |Ax|= 1 ax = th dx = 41 Why, Oke A1 ifm 1%e~%r1é (ASL ya~yi1> tem b dy 1? 1x1 wv Computer Aided Design (GTU) (il) Therefore, take | Ay| = 1 a ay etl ay = 41 ity,> yy ay 2-1 yey % (i) Calculate, ax face (v) Starting from intial plxel position (x,y) the successive pixel position are calculated by using equations : Yer = yey Meer = Fx ‘The flow chart for DDA algorithm is shown in Fig. 1.21.2. (Caloulato my =m, +a Yost SY + Fig. 1.21.2 : Flowchart of DDA Algorithm Introduction ‘Advantages of DDA line Oo Igorithm ‘The DDA algorithm in a faster method for calculating pixel positions than the direct use of equation y = mx-+c. It makes use of incremental addition in x and y direction to calculate the pixel positions. It does not involve multiplication. Limitation of DDA line algorithm ; Gi) ‘The roundoff error gets accumulated in successive addition of increments, Hence, this can cause the calculated pixel positions to drift away from the true line for long line segment. 1.21.2 Bresenham’s Line Algorithm : ‘> (May 11, May 12, May 13, Dec. 12, May 15, Dec. 17) in Bresenham's algorithm for generation of line AAPA Wiite @ Bresenham’s algorithm for line having slope ‘more than 45°. Stan 1 @ wy) Bresenham’s line algorithm Is used for generating the line between end points (x, y,) and (x, Ya). It increments by one unit inelther x ory, depending upon the slope of the line, The increment in the other variable is taken as either zero or one, and is. determined by examining the distance between the actual line and the nearest plxel location, ‘The following two cases are possible ‘case [Slope |$1[(.-y¥) SO Slope |>1[ a] Y)> Oa-*D] For both the cases, the procedure for calculation of the pixel positions of line is discussed below Case !-| Slope | $1[(¥n~¥1) $ a= Hi] If (Yn ~¥s) $ (xy 1) the positive slope is less than. or equal to 1. In such case take, Ax = 1 and Ay = 0 or 1, depending upon the distance between the actual line and the nearest pixel location. NF _ Computer Aided Design (GTU) veaasers x @ y A wt a Wy Nai) | oa * ) Fig, 1.21.3: Bresenham's Line Algorithm For | Slope | <1 (iii) Mlustration for Bresenham's algorithm for Islope|s1: (a) Fig, 1.21.3(a) shows a line drawn between end points (1, 2) and (8, 6). For the given line, yq~y =6-2=4andx,-x,=8-127, ‘Therefore, (y,~ 1) < (%a~ X:) and slope is less than 1, (b) According to Bresenham's algorithm, Ax = 1. (6) For second location, as actual line Is closer to upper arid, Ay = 1. a % = xj¢dxe1+1=2 and Ya = yedye2ete3 (4) For third location, as actual line Is closer to lower arid, dy =0. My = my tdne2eleg and ys = y:+dy=3+0=3 (iv) Bresenham’s line algorithm for | slope | < The Bresenham's line drawing algorithm for a line with a positive slope less than 1 fs discussed below : {a) Input the two end points, (x;, yi) and (x, y,), of a line, 126 (b) Calculate : X, = x, =x; and ¥, = Yq ~Yir (©) Calculate the starting value of decision parameter, | Pyas:P, =2Y,-X, (A) Ateach value of x, along the line, starting at k=1. IfPy <0: The next point Is (x,+ 1,y,) and Post = Pht 2 Yo IfP, > 0: The next point is (x, + 1, y,+ 1) and Poor = Py 2Ye~ 2X, (e) Repeat the step (d),X, times. Fig, 1.21.4 shows the flowchart for Bresenhan‘t line algorithm, Fig. 1.21.4: Flowchart for Bresenham’s Une Algorithm for | slope | <2. Computer ded Design (GTU) 0 Introduction Case N-| Slope |>1[(Ya=¥s)> (=) (b) Calculate :X, = xq =x, and ¥, * Yn Yo (©) Calculate the starting value of decision parameter, > (May 17) Pras: 1. Write steps required to plot a line whose slope is Pye 2K -% between 45° & 90°, using Bresenham’s algorithm. (IE a - yx) > 6% - %), the positive slope Is greater than 1. (i) In such case take, Ay = 1 and Ax = 0 or 1, depending upon the distance between the ‘actual line and the nearest pixel location. ¥, 8 7 6 5 ‘ 3 2 1 IVT x (@) Y, at we a Kia * ) Fig. 1.21.5 : Bresenham’s Line Algorithm For | Slope | > 1 {i} Bresenham's|ine algorit. m for | slope |>1: ‘The Bresenham's line draw.1g algorithm for a line with a positive slope greater than 1 Is discussed below : (a) Input the two end points, (xy, ,) and (xy y,), of a line, Fig. 1.21.6 : Flowchart for Bresenham’s Line ‘Algorithm for | slope | > 1 {d) Ateach value of x, along the line, starting at k= 1: IfP, <0: The next point s (xp y+ 1) and Pere Pe2X IfP,,> 0: The next point is (x,¢ [Link]+ 1) and hater WE Computer Aided Design (GTU) =Pe2X-2%, (e)_ Repeat the step (d), ¥, times, Fig. 1.21.6 shows the flowchart for Bresenham’s line algorithm, Advantages of Bresenham’s algorithm: This method is efficient for generation of straight line because it uses only integer addition, integer subtraction, and multiplication by 2. The computer ‘can perform these operations very fast. points (1, 2) and (8, 6) using DA algorithm. Solution Given: * n Ya = 6 x = 8; Estimation of increments : X,-X = 8-127 and Yn-yy = 6-2=4 Inthis case, (%-m) > W4-¥0) Hence, Ax and = 0571 Xo % «Determination of pixel positions: () Point1: % Mn Fy +05=2405=25 Set point (x.y) = (1,2) (i) Point 2: X= Xy+Aee 1541225; Ye = it Ay=25 +0571 =3.071 Set point (xy,yz) = (2,3) (il) Point3: My = Xp AK= 2541235; Ys = Yat Ay=3.071 +0571 = 3.642 Set point (x,y) = (3,3) (lv) Point 4: x % Set point (x4, ¥4) = x, 405=1405 21.5; = xy +Ax=3.541=45; = yt By = 3.642 +0571 = 4.213 = (4,4) | 1.30 Introducting (¥) Points | = Mt AK= 4541255; | Ys = Yor by =4213 + 0.571 = 4.704 % Set point (xs,y5) *-(5,4) (v1) Point 6 me = Kye | = 55+1=65; | Yo = Ystdy | = 4704 +0571 =5.355 | Set point (xe ¥.)_ = (6,5) | (vil) Point 7: Xy =X +AN=6.5415 7.5; Vy = Yet y= 5.385 +0571 = 5.926 Setpoint (0.99) = (7,5) (vill) Point 8: Xp = xy +AK=7.5 +1285; Ya = yytby=5.926 + 0.571 = 6.497 Set point (xp yy) = (8,6) ‘The pixel representation of line Is shown is Fig. P. 1.21.1. y 10} q le | Tr?sas6e7890 % Fig. P, 1.21.1 : Display of Line Example 1.21.2 + Wently the plel locations that wit BE chosen by the DA algo-ihm while scan converting a nt {rom screen coordinate (10, 30) to (19, 36). KETENE Solution: Given: x #10; i = 30; Ye = 36 X= 19; WF _ Computer Aided Design (GTU) © Estimation of increments: Xeomy = 19-10 #9 and yy~y; = 96-3086 Inthis case, (Xy~%1) > (¥n¥s) Mence, ax #1 Ya-¥i a and ay = 0.6666 ‘+ Determination of pixel positions : (® Point1: X= xj 405= 10405 = 105; Yr = ¥40.5=30+05=305 Set point (x,,y,) = (10, 30) (ii) Point 2: xy = xy 44K 2105+ 12115 Ya = yy + Ay = 305 + 0.6666 = 31.166 Set point (x,y) = (11,31) (it) Point 3 Xy = xt Ax= 115412125; Ys = Yat Ay = 31166 + 0.666 = 31,832 Set point (x3,y3) = (12,31) (iv) Point 4: Xq = xy 4AK= 125412 135; Ye = yn tdy = 31.932 + 0.666 = 32.498 Setpoint (X4.94) = (13,32) (¥) Point 5: Xs =X edxe 138412 145; Ys = Y4+ Ay = 32498 + 0.666 = 33.164 Set point (xs,¥s) (14,33) (vi) Point 6: Xe = Xp 4 AK= 145 + 1 155; Yo = Ys+ Ay = 33.1644 0,666 = 33.83 Set point (xe y4) = (15,33) (vi) Point 7: Hy # x4 x= 15.5415 165; Yo = Yo+ By = 33.83 + 0.666 = 34.498 Set point (xy.y4) = (16,34) La Introduction (will) Point: My Hy OAC 16S 61 ITS, Ye * Yr PAY = 34AI0 + 0666 «35.162 Set point (xe ya) = (17,35) (ix) Point 9: My Ht hK# 175 612185; Yo = Yet AY = 35.162 + 0.666 = 35.828 Set point (xp Yo) (18,35) () Point 10: Xp = % 4 Ax= 18561 = 195; Yio = Yo Ay = 35.828 + 0.666 = 36.494 Set point (xy, ¥10)™ (19,36) The pixel representation of line is shown in Fig. P.1.21.2. Bevagess TOHRDW EET Bw x Fig, P. 1.21.2 : Display of Line Example 1.21.3 : Using DDA algorithm, find the pixel value Position of line between poinis (2, 10) and (6, 5). y= 10: wes ‘© Estimation of increments: mom = 6-224 and yy-y) = 5-10 Inthis case, | ¥u-ys | 2 [¥a-% say ed ay = 41 Hence, dy = -1 @ y Ys ~ Yy hence positive slope is less than 1. Therefore Ax = 1 + Estimation of X, and ¥,: X= xox 215-2213 Y, = yp-ys2 10-723 2Y, = 2x3=6 2Y,-2K, = 2x3-2«13=-20 + Determination of pixel positions : (Point 1: Set pixel ([Link])_ = (2,7) Py = 2¥-X.=6-13=-7 (it) Point2: Ry = yy tl=2e1=3 <0 “We Set pixel (x2, y2) = (3,7) Py = Py+2¥e2-7 462-1 (un) Point 3: x 2m t1834124 P, <0 Ya YET Set pixel (x ys) = (447) Py = Py+2% 2-146 25 (lv) Point 4: £ xy = myt1 e445 Py > 0 AW Byte 74128 Computer Aided Design (GTU) 33 Introduction pixel ( 8) ye) Set plxel (x ) Py = Pye 2¥= 2% # Pyt2¥e- 1160-5 =5-208-15 (xt) Point 11 (¥) Points: Ay # xe D2 o 212 Me tage deS e196 Py <0 <0 2 * ue Aye yee Set plxel (uy) = (12,9) Set pivel (xs. y¥6) = (6,8) Pu = Pot 2¥2-5 +621 Py = Pyt2¥, 2-15 462-9 (ail) Point 12 (0) Points: hy = Xyele12+1213 my axgrinbetal Py >0 Ph <0 Yr = yne1=961=10 i Set pixel (%i2¥uz) = (13,10) Set pixel (XY) Pur = Put 2¥e-2X, =1-202-19 me (xii) Point 13: (049 Point 7: My = Xb 121361214 My = me127 4128 Py <0 mR <0 * Ya #¥a=10 2 Wy =e Set pixel ([Link]) = (14,10) Set pixel (x;,y;) = (8,8) Pyy = Pyp+ 2Y, Py = P.+2¥, 2-19+6=-13 (vit) Points: (xiv) Point 14: Me = X41 284129 Mie = My t= 1441215 P, > 0 Py <0 Ye = “Yu = Ya 10 inate Setpixel (Jud) (25,10) Py ‘The pixel representation is shown in Fig. .1.214 (x) Point 9: ‘ % =m t1=9+1=10 TTT +H ce | daa Yo Feo "| eee Setpinel me) = (10,9) ‘Loee- Py = Pet 2¥,2=17462-11 TF a THOT VON TDW x (2) Point 10; t Fig. P. 1.21.4: Display of Line Keo He ANO Stat Example 1.21.8 : Determine tho raster scan locations aah selected by Bresenham’s algorithm while generating @ line Yao = Yet 9 {rom (1,0) 0 (10.3). WF Computer Aided Design (GTU) Solutlon Given: yeas yy 20; X= 10; wed + Estimation of slope Ayoxy 8 10-189 YerY * 3-083 An this case, x, ~ x; > yp ~ yy, hence positive slope is Jess than 1. Therefore, Ax = 1, © Estimation of X,and Y,: XB Xn 10-129 Ye = Yi 3-0=3 2, = 2x3=6 2Y,-2K, = 2x3-2x9=-12 + Determination of pixel positions : (@ Point1: Set plxel (x,y) = (1,0) P= 2Y-% = 6-92-3 (i) Point2: My = xjtlel41=2 <0 oN Set pixel (X2.y2) m zy, =0 = (2,0) = Py42¥, =-3 4623 (i) Point3: = mt le2e1=3 >0 “Ms Set plel (xs, ys) P zy:tlsO+tet = (3,1) = P+ 2¥¢- 2K 3-122-9 (iv) Point 4: Mo = xytlededed ry <0 “oY eyed Set pixel (x.y) = (4,1) Py = Pyt2¥p=-946=-3 Introduction (W) Point 5: MS Kyrledeles <0 Ys eyed Set pixel (xy. ¥s) = (5,1) Py = Pye2¥, = -3+6=3 (vi) Point 6: % EX t1Se126 Ps >0 oye e yet dedete? Set plxel (X.Y) * (6.2) P, = Pyt2¥,-2K=3-12=-9 (vit) Point 7: xy = xt164127 mR <0 SY zed Set pixel (x,y) = (7,2) Py = Pyt2¥,= -9462-3 (itt) Points: Me = ytleTH1=8 P, <0 Ye = y=? Set pixel (Xs, Ya) = (8,2) Py = Py42%e=-366= 3 (tx) Point 9: X% = yt1=B+1e9 my >0 “Wy Sythe 2eled Set pixel (X.¥s) = (9,3) Py = Pye 2¥e~2X=3~12 (9) Point 10: Xp = +12 941210 Pp, <0 Yo = W283 Set pixel (Xo Yio) * (10, 3) ‘The pixel representation of line is shown Ini Fig. P,1.21.5. WF _ Computer Aided Design (GTU) o-nean 204567891 Fig. Pe 1.24. O71 isplay of Line Ex, 1.21.6 : Determine the can locations selected by Bresenham’s algorithm while generating a line from (1,1) to (65). ao Soin: Given: x, = 1; Y= dy x = 8; Ya = 5 «Estimation of slope = 8-127 5-1=4 YoY In this case, x ~ x1 > Ya~ Yusheence positive slope is less than 1, Therefore, Ax = 1 * Estimation of X, and ¥,: X= yon s8-127 Ye = Yer eS-1=4 2Y, = 2x428 2.- 2K, = 2x4-2K7 2-6 * Determination of pixel positions : () Pointi: Set pixel (xy yi) (141) P, = 2¥,-X=8-7-1 (U) Point2: xy = xye1s141=2 P, > 0 oy, Fy tdedete2 Set pixel (x;,y2) = (2,2) Py = Prt 2¥.-2X=1-6=-5 (lit) Point 3: X= xy¢1e26123 Introduction P, <0 Ms ems? Sot pixel (x, ys) = (3,2) Py = Pp+2¥,=-5+8=3 (iv) Point: My = xysledeted Po ye l=2ei=3 oy Set pixel (xu ya) * (4,3) Py = Pat 2¥.-2X=3-6=-3 (v) Points: Me = XytL ede ss Py <0 Hs 83 Set pixel (xy ys) = (5,3) PL = Pye 2¥ 34825 (vi) Point6: x xt1=5+126 Po “Ye = Yet ‘Set pixel (xo) ™ (6,4) Py = Pet 2Ve-2K.25-6=-1 (vit) Point 7: Hy = Xb 1866127 <0 OY Berd ‘Set pixel (x>,ys) = (7,4) P, = Pye 2¥e 16857 (vill) Points: My #4187415 P, > 0 oe Ye Syeda deded Set plxel (x Yo) = (8,5) The pixel representation of line is shown in Fig. P. 1.21.6, er yf PEEEEEE .21.6 : Display of Line oT? é7o0 °* Fa, 10). 1; 4a y Xe Ye = ‘+ Estimation of lope: em wor In this case, y, ~ ¥1 > X~% , hence positive slope is seater than 1. Therefore, Ay = 1. = 4-153 = 10-525 2K,-2¥, = 2x3-2x5=-4 + Determination of pixel positions : (® Point1: Set pixel (x,y) = (1,5) Py = 2X-¥26-S=1 (i) Point 2: Ya = WtlsSo1e6 My = Xeledete2 Set pixel (x¥2) = (2,6) Py = Pye 2X 2¥21-4 AsP,>0, Gil) Points: Ys = yatl=6e127 ASP, <0; xy 22 Set Pixel (x;.¥5) = (2,7) Py = Pye 2X =-34+320 1.36 Introduction (lv) Point 4: Yet ystle7 e198 ASPy20; xy = t= 24123 Set pixel (tuys) = (3,8) Py = Py+2K.-2Y, 20-42 (v) Points: 4 Ys Ytl=B+1=9 ASPQSO; xy = X23 Set pixel (x,y) = @,9) Py = Pye 2X=-44622 (vi) Points: Yo =Yst1=941=10 ASPs>0; x = Xs+1=341=4 Set pixel (xp y4) = (4,10) % Fig. P. 1.23.7 ‘The pixel representation of line ts shown in. Fig P1217. | 1.22 GRAPHICS STANDARD | ‘Any CAD/CAM software consists of two parts : graphics software and application software. The graphics software is embedded in the application | software In the form of functions and subroutines. | 1.22.1. Need of Graphics Standard : D (Dec. 11, May 12, Dec, 12, Dec, 13, May 16, Dec. 16) Q. What is graphic standard ? SUES . Give your Comments on the naed for standardization in Computer Grapes Q. Write about graphics standards, WF com Aided Design (GTU) Introduction ‘© In early years till 1974, when there were no graphics standards, the graphics software, and hence CAD/CAM softwares, were hardware system- dependent. It was not possible to transfer software developed for one hardware system to another system without extensive rewriting of the programs. This created lot of inconvenience and difficulties to both CAD/CAM vendors as well as users. + In order to overcome these difficulties, the CAD/CAM community all over the world decided to establish the graphics standards. With the objective of making the CAD/CAM software device- Independent, the search for standards began in 1974, 1.22.2 Development of Graphics Standards : © After considerable efforts, the first graphics software standard, known as GKS (Graphical Kernel System) was developed. ‘+ This was adopted as the first graphics software standard by the ISO (International Standards Organization) and by various national standards organizations including the ANSI (American National Standards Institute). © Although GKS was originally developed as a two- dimensional graphics software standard, a three dimensional GKS extension i.e. GKS-3D was subsequently developed. +The second graphics software standard to be developed and approved by the standards organizations was PHIGS (Programmer's Hierarchical Interactive Graphics Standard), © With the graphics PHIGS 1s an extension of GKS with Increased capabilities. 1.22.3 Organization of Typical CAD / CAM Software : > (May 13) . Wy orphi standard plays Important oles in CAD ? a 13 © Fig. 1.22.1 shows the conceptual organization of a typical CAD/CAM software. With the use of graphics standards, the graphics software Is divided into two parts (Fig, 1.22.1(b)I: (0) Kernel (core) system, which is hardware- Independent; and (Wl) Device handler/driver, which ts hardware: dependent ‘© The application software interfaces with the Kernel (core) system, which in turn interfaces with the device handler/driver. The application software calls the standard functions and subroutines provided by the Kernel (core) system. © These functions and subroutines, in turn, call the device handler/driver functions and subroutines to complete the task required by the application software. standards, the CAD/CAM software can serve several hardware generations, © Inaddition, application software can also be moved from one graphics system to another. As and when the device (hardware) becomes obsolete or a new one is to be used, only the device handler/driver Is, to be written or modified. Fig. 1.22.1 : Organization of a Typical CAD/CAM Software hee WF Computer Aided Design (GTU) 1,22.4 Various Graphics (CAD) Standards : > (Dee. 11, May 12, Dec. 12, May 13, Dec, 13, Dec. 14, May 10, Deo, 17) ITM Q. Explain different CAD standards. Q. Briefly discuss about various graphics standards avaabio (0. Ente various graph slndar vat il ame, UEIMEE ‘The various graphics (CAD) standards available are: GKS (Graphical Kernel System) GKS-3D (Graphical Kernel System - Three Dimensional) PHIGS (Programmer's Hierarchical Interactive Graphics Standard) PHIGS + (Programmer's Hlerarchical Interactive Graphics Standard - Plus) VDM (Virtual Device Metafile) VDI (Virtual Device Interface) ‘©The graphics standards GKS, GKS-3D, PHIGS and PHIGS +, interface application program with Kernel (core) system [interface A in Fig, 1.224(b)], whereas VDM and VDI, interface Kernel (core) system with device handler/driver (interface B in Fig. 1.22.4(b)]. ©The various CAD/CAM vendors may use one or more of the above graphics standards, For example, three-dimensional modeling software requires GKS- 3D or PHIGS, whereas for two dimensional drafting software, GKS-2D Is adequate. 1.22.5 Achievements of Use of Graphics Standards : © The achievements of the use of graphics standards areas follows: (0) Portability of software : The use of graphics standards avoids the hardware dependence of the software. (i) Portability of picture date : The use of graphics standards makes the description and 1.38 Introduction storage of pictures Independent of the graphies devices, (ill) Portability of text + The use of graphies standards ensures that the text associated with graphics is independent of the hardware. (iv) Portability of object database : The use of fraphies standards facilitates transfer of, design and manufacturing data from one system to another. 1.23 CAD / CAM DATA EXCHANGE (CAD / CAM DATABASE) > (Dec. 11) Q. What is CAD database ? Explain the advantage of database wih poplar database models, Sun © Now a days with automation and computerization of all the phases of product design and manufacturing, hard copy records of product description are being replaced by the computer databases. The geometrical and non-geometrical product modeling data for all the phases of product design and manufacturing is stored in the computer database, + The complete product description is made of four types of modeling data Types ‘of Modeling Data 1. Shape Data 2. Non-Shape Data 3. Design Data 4, Manufacturing Data 1, Shape data: The shape data consists of both geometrical and topological information, In addition to shapes, features, and dimensions; the geometrical data also includes entity attributes such as font, color, and layer, hater Computer Aided Design (GTU) 2, Non-shape data: ‘The non-shape data includes graphles data such as shaded images, and model global data such as measuring units of the database, 3. Design data: The design data includes the information that designers generate from geometric models for analysis purposes such as volume, mass, moment of inertia, finite, element mesh data, ete. 4. Manufacturing data: ‘+ The manufacturing data consists of the information such as tolerancing, tooling, NC tool paths, process planning, and bill of materials. The four types of modeling data need to be ‘exchanged among the CAD/CAM systems. The need to exchange modeling data Is arising out of the need to integrate and automate the design manufacturing processes to extract maximum benefits from CAD/CAM systems. + There is always the demand either internally within the organization or among the different ‘organizations to tie together two or more CAD/CAM systems that shares common data, such as integrations of geometric modeling, design (which includes finite element analysis and optimization), drafting, tolerancing, and manufacturing. The data exchange between the similar CAD/CAM systems does not face any problem, as the files storing the modeling data are compatible, and therefore can be transferred directly. and However, the problems arise in a data exchange between the dissimilar CAD/CAM systems, as each system has its own system-specific data structure to store product modeling data. 1.24 DATA EXCHANGE TRANSLATORS (DATA TRANSFER) D> (may 14) Q. Write note on interfacing. Data transler for CAD-CAM So After having acknowledged the necessity to 9 introduction exchange the product modeling data, it is necessary to discuss the methods to achieve it. The data exchange (translation) among the dissimilar CAD/CAM systems ‘can be achleved by two methods : 2 Indirect Translators 1. Direct Translators : (6) direct Translators Fig. 1.24.1 : Methods of Exchanging Modeling Data ‘Among Dissimilar CAD/CAM systems © The direct translators convert data directly in on step. The two translators link a system pair as indicated by the dual direction arrows in Fig. 1.24.1(a). wr or Computer Aided Design ( Two translators are required to exchange (translate) data between systems 1 and 2; one from system 1 to system 2 and the other from system 2 to system 1, Each pair of CAD/CAM systems need two translators. Hence, If the modeling data Is to be translated between all possible pairs of ‘n’ CAD/CAM systems, then the total number of translators required to be written Is given by, % 1 ‘n(n-1) w= 2ed=2[ era [MA] N Advantages of direct translators : vu) n(n-1) (1.244) (The direct translators run more quickly. (i) The data files produced by the direct translators are compact and smaller In size. Limitations of direct translators: (0) The direct translators are feasible only when a small number of CAD/CAM systems are involved. As the number of systems increases, the number of translators required to be written becomes very large. Adding one system to existing ‘n’ systems requires writing ‘Qn’ additional translators. In Fig, 1.24.1(a), in order to accommodate the additional system 5, eight additional translators (shown by dotted lines in Fig. 1.24.1(a)) are required to be written, ‘The use of direct translators increases the risk of system obsolescence. Indirect Translators : ‘The indirect translators utilize the neutral database structure, with each system having its own pair of translators to exchange data to and from this neutral database, ‘The translator that translates data from a given system database format to the neutral database format is called a preprocessor, while the translator that translates data from the neutral database format to a given system database format is called a postprocessor, For ‘n’ CAD/CAM systems, the total number of indirect translators that must be written Is given by, eof 1.24.2) 0) N= 2n Introduction Advantages of Indirect translators (In case of indirect translators, adding one system [system 5 shown in Fig. 1.24.1 (b)} ts) existing n systems requires writing only tw) additional translators regardless of the value of n. Hence, indirect translators can be used for| data exchange among large number ¢f| CAD/CAM systems, Indirect translators provide communication among CAD/CAM systems. (lil) The use of indirect translators reduces the risk of system obsolence. stable w © Limitations of indirect translators : (i) Indirect translators are not suitable for data exchange among limited number of CAD/CAM, systems, ‘The data files produced by indirect translators are larger in size. ww) + It is important to note that, use of indi translators Is more common now a days, direct translators are seldom used, The subsequent sections ofthis chapter present material related t indirect translators only. 1.25 DATA EXCHANGE FORMATS > (Dec. 17) For an effective integration and automation 4 modeling, design and manufacturing; It is necessary exchange four types of modeling data (shape, non-shap®) design and manufacturing) among dissimilar CAD/CAM) systems. The upsurge of interest In product modeling data exchange has led to the development of varioss data exchange formats. ‘The data exchange formats can be divided Into two categories: | Types of Data Exchange | Format Q. Explain IGES. WE _Computer Aided Design (GTU) b ‘Shape-Based Formate { In late 1970s, the US Department of Defence recognized the need to develop the standard format for exchanging the modeling data (mainly geometrical data at that time) among different types of CAD/CAM systems. In 1979, US Department of Defence and US industries joined together and set up a technical committee consisting of the Boeing Company, the General Electric Company, and then National Bureau of Standards (now National Institute of Standards and Technology) to develop the data exchange method. This effort led to the creation of the Initial Graphics Exchanges Specification version 1.0, popularly known as IGES verston 1.0, which was adopted by ANSI (American National Standards Institute) in 1980 as the standard for the exchange of digital product data, IGES version 1.0 addressed mostly the exchange of geometrical and non-shape data. Since then, IGES has gone through number of revisions : version 2.0 released in 1983, version 3.0 released in 1986, version 40 released in 1988, version 5.0 released in 1990, version 6.0 released in 1991, and so on. ‘The IGES verston 4.0 is the standard data exchange format for exchanging shape and non-shape data. ‘The other standard formats which are in use for exchanging shape and non-shape data among dissimilar CAD/CAM systems are : SET (French), DIN TAP (German), VDA/FS (German), XBF (USA), ESP (USA), etc. Product Date-Based Formats : ‘The success in development of standard data exchange formats for shape and non-shape data, coupled with the need to fully integrate and automate dissimilar CAD/CAM systems, has led to the efforts being made to develop standard data exchange format for design and manufacturing data {n addition to shape and non-shape data. Thus, the emphasis in developing new standard format is on the complete product modeling data shape,’ non-shape, design, and manufacturing) Lat Introduction ‘As a first step towards this, US Air For developed the standard known as Product Data Definition Interface (PDI) in 1904. The PDI system was developed to serve as the information Interface between engineering and all manufacturing functions including process planning, NC programming, NC verification, quality assurance, tool design, and robotics. ‘The scope of the PDDI system is limited, and is not Intended to be a complete product data exchange format. The project initfated in 1985 led to the development of the first standard data exchange format for a complete product data, known as Product Data Exchange using STEP (PDES). PDES Is directly influenced by the existing standard data exchange formats such as IGES, XBF, ESP, and PDDL. ‘The PDES is designed to support any industrial application in the fleld of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, architecture, and construction. The similar research program initiated in Europe in 1984 has led to the development of standard format known as ESPRIT, ‘Through the development of large number of standard data exchange formats did give impetus to the efforts towards full integration and automation of CAD/CAM systems, it also created problems to CAD/CAM vendors and user, as there was no accepted common format, In 1984, 10 formed a technical committee with the objective of developing a single worldwide standard for the exchange of complete product modeling data, This has led to the development of standard known as standard for the Transfer and Exchange of Product Model Data (STEP). The development of STEP is influenced by the existing standard data exchange formats such as IGES, SET, DIN TAP, VDA/FS, PDDI, PDES, and ESPRIT, The goal of the STEP is to enable the exchange of complete product model with its all types of data in a neutral format. 2 Introduction Computer Aided Design (GTU) 1 Fig. 1.25.1 shows the evolution of the various standard data exchange formats. eeeg Corn fan eu Fig. 1.25.1 : Evolution of Standard Data Exchange Formats 1.26 INITIAL GRAPHICS EXCHANGE SPECIFICATION (IGES) FORMAT CTI Q. Write full form of IGES, IGES Is the first standard data exchange format developed for exchanging product. modeling data among the dissimilar CAD/CAM systems. It has been used for two purposes : (i) exchange of modeling data within the organtzation among the dissimilar CAD/CAM systems, and (i) digital communication between the organization and its suppllers and customers. ‘The IGES format is used for exchanging mainly shape and non-shape data. The IGES version 1.0 was adopted by ANSI (American National Standards Institute) in 1980, Since then it has gone through number of revisions : version 2.0 released In 1983 ; version 3.0 released in 1986, version 4.0 released in 1988, version 5.0 released in 1990, version 6.0 released in 1991, so on. In the IGES format, a modeling data of a given product Is stored as ‘1GES modet In the form of fle in a neutral database, This 1GES modef in neutral database can be used by dissimilar CAD/CAM systems, Introduction Computer Aided Design| H ‘+ The CAD/CAM vendors specialized In data transfer, write the software to translate the product modeling data from the CAD/CAM systems to the IGES format Le. IGES file and vice versa. ©The software that translates the data from the native database of a given CAD/CAM system to the IGES file is called a preprocessor, whereas the software that translates the data from the IGES file to the native database is called a postprocessor. Fig, 1.26.1 shows the data exchange using IGES. a Fig, 1.26.1: Data Exchange Using IGES Format ‘The Identitcaion character or seston code for 1.26.1 IGES File Format and Structury these sections excluding the Flag Section are : S, G, D(May 11, May 13, Dec. 14, May 15) D,P,and T respectively. €. Descibe the structure ofan IES tie Q. Explain IGES graphic standard in detail with structure. UEITEH Combresin Q. What is data structure ? Explain its use in CAD. o ASC Fomat TEE © In the IGES format, the fundamental unit of information in the product model as well as IGES file is the entity, The product model as well as its Fig. 1.26.2 IGES file are expressed as a list of predefined | (1) Flag section: entities. There are two different formats used to ‘The Flag Section Is used only with compressed represent the data ina IGES file: ASCII and binary. ASCII and binary format. It is a single record (line). ‘* The ASCII form has two types of formats : a fixed The character ‘C’ in the column 73 identifies the flag 80-character record length format and a section in compressed ASCII. compressed format. In a fixed 80-character record | 4) tan section : length format, the entire IGES file is 80-character records, IGES data is written In columns 1 through ‘The Start Section Is a human-readable introduction 72, column 73 stores section identification to the file. It Includes the information such as the ‘character, and columns 74 through 80 are specified names of the source and target CAD/CAM systems, for the section sequence number of each record. brief description of the product being converted, fete. It basically contains the comments, The character 'S' In the column 73 identifies the start section, (li) Global section : ‘The Global Section includes information about the IGES file such as the name of the IGES file, date and time of file generation, name of the author of IGES file, vendor and software version of source CAD/CAM system, model scale, units, precision, etc. ‘© An IGES file is a sequential file consisting of six sections in the order (Fig. 1.26.2] : (0) Flag Section (Optional) (W) Start Section (iit) Global Section (iv) Directory Entity Section (¥) Parameter Data Section WF compu ‘The character ‘Gin the column 73 Mentifes the lobal section, (WW). Directory entry section : ‘The Directory Entry Section is the list of all the entities and their attributes defined in the IGES fle, Some of the entity attributes specified in this section are : line font, layer number, colour, and transformation matrix. The character ‘D’ in the ‘column 73 identifies the directory entry section. (¥) Parameter data section : ‘The Parameter Data Section contains the data defining each entity of the product model. For example, a straight line is defined by the six coordinates of its two end points. The character ‘P’ in the column 73 identifies the parameter data section, (vi) Termination section : ‘© The Terminate Section contains single record ‘specifying the number of records in each of the four preceding sections. The character “T* in the column, 73 identifies the terminate section. ‘© Any CAD/CAM system that supports IGES usually provides its users with two IGES commands : ‘Put IGES’ and ‘Get IGES’. The command ‘Put IGES' enables the user to create an IGES file of a given model residing in the system, while the command “Get IGES' allows the user to read an existing IGES file of a model into the system. + Aided Design (GTU) Fig. 1.27.1 : Product Data Exchange Using PDES 1.28 INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE In order to study Database Management System, It is necessary to first understar 1.28.1 Database; a4 Introduction 1.27 PRODUCT DATA EXCHANGE USING STEP (PDES) D (ay 11, Dee. 14) Q. Compare IGES and POES, © PDESis the standard data exchange format used for exchanging the complete product modeling data (Le. shape, non-shape, design and manufacturing data) among the dissimilar CAD/CAM systems. + The ‘product data’ includes data related to the entire life, cycle of a product such as design, manufacturing, quality assurance and testing. * The development of PDES gave big impetus to the Industrial automation, It eliminated the human presence from the ‘product data’ exchange. © Difference between IGES and PDES : There Is a fundamental difference between IGES data ‘exchange format and PDES data exchange format. ‘The basic unit of data representation In the ‘IGES model’ Is the entity, whereas in ‘PDES model’ it is the application, The application contains various types of entities. ‘+ Fig. 1.27.1 shows product data exchange using PDES. the meaning of database. Q. Define the database and state its functions, = W_Computer Aided Design (GTU) A database is a large structured set of date database stores electronte data in an organized and ‘accessible manner. A simple database might be a single file containing many records, each of which contains the same set of fields where each field is a certain data type and length. In short, a database fs an organized store of data wherein the data is accessible by named data elements. ‘The size and scope of database can vary widely, from a small database used by an individual to file the phone numbers, to an extremely large enterprise database that stores several terabytes of information accessed by tens of thousands of individuals. A database tables and rows hold data in the same way as a file cabinet or an address book, However, database allows user more Mexibility in searching of the data as well as viewing of the data. 1.28.2 Functions of Database : ‘The function of database are : 1. To Store Information 2, To Hold Information Over Penod of Time in Computor Readablo Form To store the information : Typical examples of information stored for some practical purpose are: (® Information collected for making statistical analysis : eg, national census, survey of cracks Ina stretch of motorway. (i) Textual material required for information retrieval : eg. technical abstracts, statutory or other regulations. (ill) Operational and adn nistrative _ Information required ‘or running an organizatton : stock records, personnel records, customer records, etc, Introduction To hold Information over perlod of time in computer readable form Because of the Investment involved In setting up a database, the expectation must be that it will continue to be useful over years rather than months. Census information is collected on a particular date and stored as a snapshot of the state of affairs when the survey was taken. Information from later observations will be kept quite separately, but appropriate comparisons may be made, provided that the framework remains consistent. Such database is known as static database. Bibliographic or other textual databases are accumulated over the time. The new material is added periodically but probably very little will be removed. When designing such a database it will be Important to estimate and allow for the expected rate of growth, and perhaps to ensure that the more recent information {s given some priority. Such database is known as growing database. Organizational database may not change very drastically In size, but it will be subject to frequent updating (deletions, amendments, insertions) following relevant actions within the organization Itself, Ensuring the accuracy, efficiency and security of this process is the main concern of many database designers and administrators. Such database is known as dynamic database. ‘The data stored in database is to be updated and processed using computer systems over the long period of time. Computer storage and processing implies the use of software ie. Database Management System (DBMS). The function of the DBMS is to store and retrleve information as required by applications programs or users sitting at terminals, using the facilities provided by the computer operating system ‘A database consists of two or more related files which we may wish to process together In various different ways. It will store not only. the individual records contalning the numbers or words needed for some application, but auxiliary information which will allow those records to be accessed more quickly, or

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