CROP PRODUCTION 1

Agriculture means cultivation of the land for the purpose of producing crops and management of
livestock.
-It also involves the storage, processing and marketing of agricultural products.
- There are some disciplines that are directly or indirectly allied (related) to agriculture.

- Entomology (insects pests)

- Pathology (diseases)
- Agricultural engineering
- Agriculture economics
- Soil science etc

ROLES OF AGRICULTURE

a) Provision of food – A well fed nation is a healthy one. Agriculture therefore provides virtually
all the food required to feed the population except in prolonged drought.
b) Provision of employment. Agriculture provides employment directly e.g. workers in ranches,
coffee, tea, sisal estates, and on small farms.
In Kenya Agriculture and Agriculture related sectors employ large number of people e.g. food
processing industries e.g. Kenya canners, textile manufacturing industries, mean canning, grains,
milk et.c.
We also have field extension workers, scientist, Transporters, traders e.t.c.
c) Foreign exchange earning. The greatest percentage of exports from East Africa consists of
Agricultural commodities. The foreign exchange earnings is important for the purchasing of
other goods e.g. machines like tractors, fertilizers, oil from foreign countries.
d) Revenue generation for the country Agriculture earns the government much of its revenue from
taxes imposed on the sale and exports of Agricultural products.
- This revenue can be used by the government to provide such services as medical services,
schools, roads etc. for the public
e) Provide raw materials for industries Most Agriculture products needs some processing before
they are eventually utilized e.g. cotton, sisal coffee, tea hides etc

PROBLEMS FACING AGRICULTURE

1. Poor crop animal husbandry – Due to law level of education the conservative farmers do not
practice the recommended husbandly practices. They thus plant late, fail to control pests, plant
poor seeds and as a result yields obtained are very low compared to the yield obtained in
developed countries.
2. Poor marketing facilities- Some times the transport system is inefficient or unavailable thereby
leading to spoilage of produce due to delay in delivery to the market. Some times the middlemen
involved in marketing of the farmers produce take too large profit. As a result the farmer receives
too low prices for his produce hence he has no incentive to produce more.
3. Lack of capital Every farmer requires capital to invest in the development of his farming e.g.
installment of piped water in the farm, buying fencing materials, fertilizers etc.

Mostly farmers obtain capital or loans. Source of these loans include Commercial bank or AFC
which is a government credit agent.
Security is required for one to get a loan and mast farmers don’t have security hence the level of
investment in their farms is low.
 4. Psyccological and sociological factors: poor Attitude towards Agriculture as an occupation has
seen many people migrate in urban areas in search of white color jobs leaving behind the old and
the less educated to attend to the land.
5. Poor tools – In most rural areas the farmers still use the traditional hand tools e.g. fork, pangas
etc which are rather inefficient consequently critical operation such as seedbed operation and
planting are often completed late and the quality of the same is poor. This leads to low yields and
poor income to the farmer.
6. Pest and disease: The tropical climate in Cental Africa encourages a wide range of pests and
disease.
- The pests and diseases multiply much more rapidly here than in the cooler temperature countries
hence farming is a constant battle between the farmer and the pest and diseases.
7. Fluctuations of commodity prices: Due to the change in supply and demand prices of most
Agricultural products keep on changing from time to time with the unsettling effects on farming.
8. Aridity: - Large trucks of land receive very little rainfall per annum and are therefore either
marginal for economical farming or are semi-deserts.
9. Land tenure: This is the state of ownership of land and conditions governing that [Link]
land tenure problem facing East Africa is that most of the land is owned either by a community or
by a clan and therefore an individual has no real incentive to look after such land.
10. Poor storage: - This is a common problem amongst small scale farmers. Much spoilage is
experienced via pest damage which results to considerable waste.

SOLUTION TO IMPROVE AGRICULTURE

1. Adoption of irrigated agriculture: Rather than depending on rain this will help overcome the
problem of aridity hence boast agriculture even in marginal areas.
2. Diseases and pest control measures: If pests and diseases are keenly controlled the yields lost
through attack by pest and diseases can be recovered and overall output increased.
3. Implementation of new technology: Moving from the old ways of farming practices to modern
technology can highly boast the yields e.g. green house farming.
4. Crop rotation: This is an important crop husbandry practice since it can minimize build up of
disease and pest of a given farm. Nutrients are also optimally utilized without extremely
depleting the soil of particular nutrients.
5. Investment in Agricultural Research: - Research can be done to come up with crop varieties
that are resistant to particular pests and diseases.
6. Farmers trainings/Agriculture education and extension to farmers: – farmers can be trained
on matters of importance
7. Good land policies/land tenure system: – Systems that can motivate or encourage land
construction measures as well as soil and water conservation are important e.g. individual owner
operation system.
8. Establishment of marketing agencies: – Which are to research for good market and commodity
prices.
9. Timeliness of activities: - Avoid late planting, late weeding and late harvesting as these can
adversely affect crop output.

FARMING SYSTEM: - Refers to the decision and function that farmers make to utilize land in
raising crops and livestock to produce food and other necessities not only for themselves but for the
country as a whole.

DECISION FARMER MUST MAKE IN ADOPTING A FARMING SYSTEM

1. What to produce among the many alternatives available e.g. grow crops, keep livestock or grow
both crops and keep livestock.
 2. What method to be used e.g. settled, shifting/nomadic mechanized, intensive or extensive. A
pastoralist may be settled or nomadic while the Arable farming may be mechanized or use
traditional tools.
3. What will be the scale of operation e.g. may be small or largescale?

Shifting Cultivation
– This is a method of raising crops by pioneer farmers in large scarcely populated area. Here the
farmer can occupy any piece of land without causing any undue land shortage to his
neighbours
- The farmers rarely need to manure his farm because land which has been formerly under forest is
usually fertile.
- When there is a sign of soil exhaustion indicated by a drop in yields the farmers shifts to another
area to develop a new farm.
- The previous land is left fallow for some time and returns to bush that may be cleared several
years later.
- As the population increases the farmers finds no option of new land to cultivate.
- In such case the farmer claims all the plots he uses though not simultaneously.
- The land which is resting is said to be fallow and remains so only for a few seasons.

Advantages of shifting cultivation

a) The farmer does not incur cost of maintaining land fertility.

b) Cropping is always done on a fertile ground.
c) Land deterioration is rare.

Disadvantages of shifting cultivation

a) The farmer has no permanent settlement

b) Production is normally on a very small scale.
c) Only practicable where the population is very low

PASTRALISM AND NOMADISM

Pastoralism- Involves raring of livestock by the pastoral community without growing of crops.
Nomadism Is the leading of unsettled way of life.
Nomadic pastralism is therefore a term used to describe livestock keeping communities who move from
place to place looking for pastures and water for their cattle, sheep, goats etc.

- These people occupy the drier parts of the country and depend mainly on the products of their
livestock for food, clothing and shelter.
- Nomadic pastoralists are subsistence farmers in that although they may have large herds the level
of production is very low. This is due to poor pastures, drought, poor breeding poor parasite
control, and land deterioration due to over stocking.
- Where water sources, schools hospitals, administration centers and other necessities have been
installed this farmers may form co-operative ranches and become settled farmers.
- This has been encouraged by the government in recent years. In this way the advisory services
can reach the farmer more easily and livestock improvement is possible.

ARABLE FARMING AND PLANTATION

(a) Arable farming: - is the growing of crops where farmers may practice Monocropping
(monoculture) in which they specialized in production of only one crop or mixedcropping
where more than one crop is produced.
 - Mixedcropping involves diversifying production and is preferred by some formers to
specialization as a way of reducing risks where some crops may be more susceptible to severe
ecological factors than others.
(b) Plantation - involve large scale farmers growing cash crops e.g. tea, coffee etc.
The plantation may have processing factories for the crop on the same farm e.g. tea estates or
low fibre processing.

MIXED FARMING
-Involves growing crops and keeping livestock on the same farm. This farming system is common in
high potential areas.
NB: If a farmer grows fodder e.g. Napier grass, Lucerne or maize for livestock feed he is a livestock
farmer and not a mixed farmer.
Advantages

a) Mutual benefit between crops and animals i.e. crops supply feed to animals while animals
supply manure to crops.
b) Insurance against total lose by the farmer since if one enterprise fails the farmer will benefit
from the other.
c) Proper utilization of labour throughout the year.
d) Better soil conservation
e) Permits all-round the year harvesting

Disadvantages

(a) High initial capital investment

(b) Lack of specialization
(c) Requires high level of management skill for both enterprises
(d) Cannot be practicable where land is limited
(e) Only practiced in areas with high production potential.

LIVESTOCK FARMING
Livestock farming in East Africa is carried out in either of two system; substances system and
commercial farming.
Substance system
-Under this method livestock keeping is a way of live and animals are kept to meet the basicneeds of food
and shelter.
-Management practices re aimed at the survival of the animals.
Commercial farming

-The aim of this farming system is to produce animal products in sufficient quantities for sale locally and
overseas market.
-Under commercial farming animals are kept in small or large well managed farm. In these farms there is
considerable capital investment.
-As a result, yields are considerably high.
-The products are marketed through organization such as K.C.C., K.M.C. and the Upland Bacon Factory.
-There is also ranching and dairy farming.
-Ranching involves improved pastoral-nomadic system because movement is restricted.

ORGANIC FARMING
-This involves farming without use of Agro Chemicals i.e. crops grown in a natural environment.
-This method of farming is environment friendly and products do not have any inorganic residue.
-Naturally occurring materials e.g. medicinal plants are used instead of chemicals.
-Organic manure is used to replenish soil nutrients.
-Soil structure is improved and soil water infiltration as well as aeration is enhanced.
-These farming also provide food for soil microbes which help is releasing minerals for crop nutrition.
-Mulching can also be done using organic material.
-Crop rotation is also used to enhance organic farming.

Advantages

a) It is cheap and cost effective

b) Makes use of locally available materials
c) Helps soil structure.
d) No environmental pollution
e) Enhances H20 retention by the soil

Disadvantages

a) Low overall output.

b) Control of pests and disease is not easy. Since there is no use of Agrochemical.
c) It is laborious

EXTENSIVE FARMING SYSTEM

-Is a system that requires large tructs of land, low capital investment and low labour per unit area
-It is characterized by low yield per unit area.

INTENSIVE SYSTEM

-It is a system that requires high capital and high labour investment per unit area
-It is characterized by high yield per unit area
-It is both extensive and intensive and can be large scale or small scale.

Large Scale

- Involves use of large tructs of land

-Requires heavy capital investment
-Skilled labour
-High level management
-Mostly carried out for commercial purposes
-Operation costs per unit of production are low because it makes use economy of scale.

Small Scale

- Practiced in a small piece of land

-Productivity depends on land potentiality
-Production can be on subsistence or commercial scale
-Surplus can be sold for cash benefit
-No heavy capital investment

CROP ROTATION

-This is the growing of different crops on the same field in an ordered sequence.
-In this practice the field is demarcated into a number of units, the main objective being to make
maximum use of the soil by growing a variety of crops with different growth habits and nutrient
requirement.

Guidelines to crop rotation

1. Crops with high nutrients requirement should come first in a newly cultivated land.
2. Deep rooted crops should alternate with shallow rooted crops.
3. A grass break should be incorporated in the rotation in order to rebuild soil structure.
4. Crops which are easy to weed should alternate with crops which are not so easy to weed.
5. Crops having similar pests and diseases should not succeed one another during rotation.

Advantages

-There is maximum use of soil resources by growing plant with different growth habits.
-There is efficient control of pests by breaking the life cycle of the pests.
-Efficient disease control i.e. life cycle of disease organism is interrupted.
-Parasitic weeds such as striga species which are specific to cereals can be controlled by planting non
cereal crops for a period of time.
-Nitrogen content of the soil may be enhanced by including a legume in the rotation

PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

ECOLOGY- This is the study of how both plants and animals live and interact with each other and the
environment. This interaction benefits each entity in the relationship. Plant ecology involves the
interaction of plants/ crops with the environment. Environmental factors such as water, nutrients, warmth,
and light determine the growth and yielding of the plant.

FACTORS INFLUENCING CROP PRODUCTION / AGRICULTURE

A. SOCIO–ECONOMIC FACTOR/HUMAN FACTORS:

1. Market force – Supply and demand forces affect Agriculture in a free market economy. prices for
good are influenced by supply and demand forces.
- When supply is high, prices are low and demand subsequently increases.
2. Cultural practices, taboos, religious beliefs
This affects what people produce and consume, some pastoral communities rely on meat and milk while
other communities rely on crop.
3. Transport and communication
- These allow agricultural products to move from production point to consumption point.
- All weather roads are necessary to avoid rotting of produce in farms since these affects their
income.
- Road, railways and airways are important.
- Use of computers for communication has developed and these media helps access wider market.

4. Level of education and technology

- High level of education helps in hastening development in all farming activities e.g. use of improved
methods, knowing why when or what should be done under certain conditions, accuracy of applying
inputs and Assessing results. Generally decisions are made properly.
5. Health HIV/AIDs
- Some qualities such as Vigor, Strength, vision and determination are required for successful farming
and can only be found in healthy people.
- increases in cases of HIV/AIDS have negative effects on Agriculture production
- As a result much government and NGO resources are channeled towards caring for the sick.
Effect of HIV/AIDS in healthy Agriculture
1. Shortage of farm labour
2. Increasing the cost of living of patients and their relatives.
3. Low food production and poverty in general has increased criminal activities
4. Low living standards lead to despondency, helplessness and lack of motivation to invest in
agriculture
5. The government and NGO’s use a lot of time and resource in controlling the pandemic. This
resource could be used in development of Agriculture.
6. GOVERNMENT POLICY
These are enactment of laws which govern production marketing and distribution.
The government regulates the amount of imported good by
(i) Heavy taxation of imports in order to protect local industries
(ii) Subsidizing the price of locally produced commodities
(iii) Quality control
(iv) Conservation of natural resources
(v) Stepping up the control of diseases of parasites that affect crop. Such regulations as
quarantine, licensing of quality products and vaccination of animal against infectious and
contagious diseases are followed wisely.
7. ECONOMY
- Collapse of co-operative movement and factories have affected the sale of farm produce such as
milk, sugar and cotton
- Rehabilitation of Kenyan and world trade has led to dumping of cheaply produced and cheaply
imported goods that have flooded local market.
- This has forced prices of agricultural goods to drop resulting in low income for farmers.

B. BIOTIC FACTORS
- These are living organisms that affect Agricultural production
(i) Pests – Effects of pests. Pests feed on the whole or part of the plant.
These pests feed on leaves and reduce photosynthetic surface which further lowers quantity and quality
of produce.
They transmit crop disease
Some pest injure the plant parts which they feed on and expose the plant to secondary infection
Pests increase the cost of producing crops in terms of money used in their control.

(ii) Parasites
- Parasites leaving on plants are plant parasites. Those living inside animals are endoparasites e.g.
round worms, tape warms etc. they absorb food substances from the digestive track of the
animal
- Those leaving on the animal are called ectoparasites. They suck blood from the animal cause
irritation by biting on their skin.
 (iii) Decomposers
- Are very important and they include large and small (micro) organisms which decompose organic
remains from animals and plants hence producing nutrients.
(iv) Pathogens
Are microorganisms that transmit diseases. These can cause death. They also reduce both quality
and quantity of agricultural products. They include Bacteria, viruses and fungi.
(v) Predators An animal that kills and feed on the animals. Those that feed on pest are
beneficial to farmers as they reduce pest population.
(vi) Pollinaters – Can be insects or birds. They transfer pollen grain from the stamen to the pistil
of the flower causing cross pollination e.g. bee.
- Cross pollination helps in production of new and improved varieties of crops for the future
generation.
(vii) Nitrogen fixing bacteria
- Useful in leguminous plants. They are found in nodules of the roots. They covert nitrogen from the air
into nitrates. When these bacteria die, they release nitrates to the soil which helps other plants in the
next season
(viii) Weeds
They compete with the crop plants for moisture, nutrients space, sunlight etc. They can also act as
alternate host of disease-causing microorganism, vectors and also pests.

C. CLIMATIC FACTORS
Weather is the atmospheric condition of a place over a given short period of time
Climate is weather condition observed and recorded for a long period e.g. 30 – 40 years.
Rainfall:
- Is the main source of water required by all life processes?
- It must be adequate to sustain both animal and plant life.
Aspects of rainfall important in Agriculture
1. Rainfall reliability
- Depending on meteorological timing of the onset of rainfall. I.e. long rains begin around March-
April of every year and continue for around 3 months.
- Short rains begin in October to November.
- Reliability determines the time for land preparation and planting.
- When rains fail to follow this expected patterns massive crop failure occur and sometimes
domestic animals die due to lack of food and water.

ii. Rainfall quatity

- This is the amount of rain that falls in a given area within a given year measured in mm
- It determines the type of crop to be grown and the type of livestock to be reared in an area.
iii Rainfall distribution
- Is the number of wet months in a year.
- It influences the choice of crop varieties growing in a given area.
iv. Rainfall intensity
- this is the amount of rain that falls in an area with a period of one hour and is measured in
mm/hour
- High rainfall intensity damage crops and causes soil erosion. It may also lead to destruction of
soil structures.
2. Temperature
- This is the degree of hotness or coldness of a place measured in (C0)
Cardinal temperature
-Is the temperature in which plants grow and thrive well.
Optimum Temperature
Is temperature which has a narrow range within the cardinal range which allows the plant to thrive best
and produce well.
EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON CROP PRODUCTION
Low Temperature
1. Slow growth rate of crop as the process of photosynthesis is slowed.
2. Increases incidences of disease infection to crop e.g. C.B.D. in coffee.
3. Quality of crops such as tea and pyrethrum improves with lowering of temperatures.
EFFECTS OF HIGH TEMPERATURES
-Increases evaporation leading to wilting of corps
Increases the rate of growth and hastens the maturity of crop
Improves the quality of crops such as Pineapples and oranges
Increases incidences of plant pests and diseases e.g. Aphids, Leaf rust.

Effects of Strong Wind on Agriculture

(i) Increases evaporation leading to wilting of corps
(ii) Causing lodging of crops and damage to plants.
(iii) Acting as an agent of soil erosion
(iv) Blowing away or bring rain bearing clouds.
(v) Increasing the rate of evatranspiration
(vi) Destroying farm structures
(vii) Areas with high humidity tend to be hotter but when wind takes away
atmospheric water a cooling effect occurs.
4. Relative Humidity
- Is the amount of water vapor held by air at a given temperature compared to what it would hold when
saturated.
- It affects the rate of evaporation and transpiration.
- At high relative humidity the rate of evertranspiration is low.
5. Light
- It provides the energy required for photosynthesis.
Aspects of light important to crop growth
1. Light intensity
-Is the strength with which the light is harnessed by chloroplasts for the purpose of photosynthesis.
-The amount of light harnessed can be increased by pruning, thinning, weeding or wider spacing.

2. Light duration
- is the period during which light is available to plants per day.
- Plant varieties can be classified as long, short, or day neutral depending on the hours of light required
for proper growth.
Short day plants – Require less than 12 hours of day light e.g. tobacco, rice, soya beans e.t.c.

Long day plants – Require more than 12 hours of day light e.g wheat varieties.
Day neutral plans - Require 12 hours of day light e.g. coffee, maize beans e.t.c.
2. Light Wave length
- Chlorophyll absorbs certain wave lengths of light which are not present in artificial light unless in case
of U.v. of or intra- red.
- This makes natural light more suitable for plant growth than artificial light.

D. EDAPHIC FACTORS OR SOIL FACTORS

Soil formation
Soil profile
Soil structure
Soil texture
Soil constituent

ECOLOGICAL ZONES

(1) TROPICAL ALPHINE

(c) Found at the pick of high mountains e.g. Mt Kenya my Elgon etc.
(d) Found at an altitude of 3000m above sea level.
(e) Temperatures are low or below 10oc
(f) Has moorland vegetation i.e. short grass and no trees
(g) Have two sub-zones.

Tropical Alpine (I) TA1 and TA2

Tropical alpine (1) (TA1)

-Natural pasture utilized by cattle is found.

-The area is alienated with game parks.
-Soil erosion in experienced e.g. Areas near Mount Kenya.

Tropical alpine (2) TA2

-Annual rainfall is lower than in TA1 and drier than TA1.

- soil erosion is experienced
-Good for wood production
-Livestock pasture found here
-Good for crop production

(2) UPPER HIGH LAND ZONES (UH)

- Altitude falls at 2200 – 3000m above sea level.
-Temperature range is between 10 – 170C
-Frost is experience
-Subdivided into four major sub-zones

UH1
Good for keeping sheep, goat and dairy farming. Pastures are available there is negligible dry season.
e.g. upper parts of Nyndarua and Nyahururu.

UH2
-Pyrethrum and wheat zone
-No enough rainfall e.g. upper parts of Timau
-Temperatures are not optimum.

UH3

- Wheat, berry zone

-Low production of pyrethrum

UH4

-Ranching zone
-Rain can’t support dairy farming e.g. Laikipia

Lower Highland

-Relatively wide area compared to UH

-Altitude of 1500 – 1800m above sea level
-Has five (5) Sub-zones

(1) Lower highland one (LH1)

-Good pastures for livestock

-Suitable for mixed enterprises
-Cool and humid areas
-Dominated by tea production e.g. Kericho

Lower high land (LH2)

-Wheat, maize, pyrethrum zone

-Small scale maize production
-Climate is cool e.g. Bomet

Lower highland (LH3)

-Wheat zone – maize is not very suitable.

-Sometimes we have crop failure due to drought e.g. Mweiga/Timau

Lower highland (LH4)

-Cattle and berry zone

-Drought escaping plants are grown

Lower Highland (LH5)

-Low Rainfall
-Not suitable for crop production
-Low grazing intensity
-E.g. Samburu

Upper Mid-land (UM)

-1300 – 1900m Above sea level.

- Temp 13 – 210C
-Supports coffee livestock keeping
-Have 5 sub-zones.

Upper mid-land 1(UM1)

-Tea, Coffee zone

-Mixed farming can be practiced
-Thin and transitional e.g. Kiambu and Nyeri

Upper mid-land 2 (UM2)

-Coffee zone
-Dairy and zero grazing is practiced
-Food crops grown e.g. maize, cabbages and tomatoes

Upper mid-land 3(UM3)

- Marginal coffee zone

-Established pastures for livestock
-Coffee grown under irrigation. Drought escaping crop can be grown e.g. Makuyu, Mbeere and Tigania
-Irrigation is necessary for this region.

Upper mid-land 4(UM4)

-Sunflower zone
-Rainfall is insufficient thus drought resistant crops are grown.

Upper mid-land 5 (UM5)

-Millet is grown
-Livestock and sorghum zones

Lower –mid lands (LM)

-Altitude 800-1300m above sea level

-Average temp 240C e.g. Western Kenya
-Has six sub-zones.

Lower mid-land (LM 1)

-Sugar cane zone

-High and reliable rainfall. E.g. South Nyanza
-Maize can also do well

Lower mid-land (LM 2)

-Marginal sugar cane zone

-Maize and tomatoes do well e.g. Miwani in Mohoroni

Lower mid-land (LM 3)

-Cotton zone
-Maize planted depending on the type of soil.

Lower mid-land (LM 4)

-Marginal cotton zone

-Maize growing is also practiced.
-The place is warm and very transitional e.g. lake Victoria Mbita.

Lower mid-land (LM 5)

-Livestock/Millet zone
-Sorghum sisal pigeon peas and cow peas are also grown.
-Low stocking rates e.g Lusinga island in Lake Victoria.

Lower mid-land (LM 6)

-Ranching zone warm and semi-arid

-Unreliable rainfall
-Lower parts of Tigania

Lowlands (LL)

-Found in coastal areas

-Altitude 0 – 1800m above sea level.
-Has seven sub-zones.

Low land 1(LL 1)

-Does not exist in Kenya
Low land 2(LL 2)
-Sugar cane zone cassava, maize, coconuts and citrus fruits are grown.
Hot humid area e.g. Mombasa town and Kilifi
Low land 3(LL 3)
-Coconut and cassava zone e.g. Kilifi and Kaloleni
Low land 4(LL 4)
Cashew Nut, cassava zone. Cotton also grown but not well spread.
-Composite varieties of Maize “Katumani”
Low land 5 (LL 5)
-Livestock, millet zone
Cow peas, green grams and sisal e.g. Magarini Central scheme in Lamu

Low land 6(LL 6)

-Ranching zone, hot and semiarid, no crop exists. rainfall unpredictable.
Low land 7 (LL 7)
-Nomadism zone e.g. Eastern Kenya except Marsabit
-60% meat comes from the area
-Hot and arid areas
LAND PREPARATION
Seedbed: A piece of land varying in size from a few square meters to hundreds of acres that has been
prepared in such a way that is ready to receive the planting material where planting materials are planted
and remain there until the crop is ready for harvesting
Nursery bed: Small plot or bed where planting materials of low viability that need special attention are
planted and allowed to grow until ready for transplanting.
Reasons for seedbed preparation
 1. To kill weeds either by burying them or desiccation by exposure to the sun.
2. Help in breaking hard soil surface thus allowing infiltration to rain H20.
3. Helps in improving soil aeration.
4. Encourages penetration of roots into the soil
5. To incorporate or distribute manure and other organic matter into the soil.
6. To make subsequent operations possible e.g. planting, fertilize application etc.
7. Destroy different stages of crop pest such as egg, larvae, pupae and adult by either burying
them in the soil or exposing them to sun’s heat.

Stages of land preparation

A. Land clearing
-This involves removal of vegetative cover from the surface before land is tilled.
-It is necessary when opening a virgin land or land that has been left fallow for a long period of time or
when one wants to remove stalks of previous crops.
-It may include tree felling, use of chemical, slashing or burning.
Burning is discouraged because a lot of organic matter is lost and soil micro organisms as well as plant
nutrients are killed.

B. Primary Cultivation
-This is the initial opening of the land after clearing the bush
-Its done to remove weeds and incorporate organic matter.
Expose pests and disease causing micro organism to the sun
-Improve soil aeration.
-Allow easy planting
It includes hand digging where simple tools are used e.g. Jembes, hoes etc.
It may also include mechanical cultivation where mould board ploughs and ox-ploughs are used.
Cultivation should be done before the onset of rain inorder to:-
1. Give weeds and other vegetative plants enough time to dry and decompose into Organic
Manure.
2. Allow carbon dioxide and other gases to defuse out of the soil and be replaced by oxygen
necessary for germination and microbial activities.
3. Allow enough time for subsequent operation before planting.
The choice for the primary cultivation implements depends on:-

a) Condition of land
b) Type of tilth required
c) Depth of cultivation
d) Size of seeds.

SECONDARY CULTIVATION/HARROWING - Seed bed refinement practices that follow primary

tillage before planting process. Reasons for secondary tillage/ cultivation include:

i. Removing weeds that have germinate after primary cultivation

ii. Helps also in breaking soil clods to smaller pieces for easy planting.
iii. To level land to achieve uniform depth for planting
iv. Incorporating organic matter into the soil.

The number of hallowing depend on

a) Size of planting material
b) Slope of the land
c) Moisture content of the soil
 d) Condition of land after primary cultivation.

TERTIALLY CULTIVATION

These are operations carried out to suit production of a certain crop. They include:
Ridging- Process of digging soil in a continuous size and heaping it on one side to form a ridge and
furrow suitable for root crops e.g. Irish potatoes. Ridges are used for:-
a) Allowing for the expansion of tubers
b) Allowing easy harvest
c) Conservation of soil moisture

Rolling - Carried out in small seeded, crops e.g. wheat to prevent seed from being carried away by wind
and increases seed – soil contact.
Leveling- Soil surface made flat and uniform to promote easy germination of small seeded crops and
facilities uniform germination.
Sub- soiling- Breaking sub-soil that might be as a result of use of heavy machinery
-Helps in breaking up hard pans formed after land preparation.
-Helps in soil aeration

MINIMUM TILLAGE
- These is practice aimed at a reduction in the disturbance of the soil structure e.g. use of mulch on soil
surface and application of herbicides to control weeds, timely cultivation, use of cover crops, uprooting
and slashing of perennial M weeds etc.
Reasons for carrying out minimum Tillage

1. Reduce cost of cultivation by reducing plough operations

2. To maintain soil structure
3. To maintain soil moisture
4. To prevent soil erosion
5. To prevent disturbance of crop roots and other underground structure like tubers.
6. Prevent exposure of Humus and soil micro organism to sun’s heat.

PLANTING MATERIALS
Planting is the placement of planting material in the soil for the purpose of regeneration to produce more
of the plant species.
Types of planting materials

1. Seed
2. Vegetation parts

Seeds
Advantages of using seeds

1. Seeds are less bulky compared to vegetative material thus easy to store
2. Use of machines can easily be practiced e.g. seed drillers and planters
3. Seeds are easy to treat against soil borne pest and diseases.
4. Easy to handle during planting making operation easier
5. Possible to apply manure and fertilizers together during seed planting.
 6. Possible to develop new varieties due to cross pollination.

Disadvantages

1. Some seed have long dormancy hence may need special treatment in order to germinate.
2. Some seed may lose viability if stored for long
3. Cross pollination may produce undesirable characteristics
4. Some soil borne pest may damage seed if left in the soil for some time before onset of the
rain.

2. VEGATATIVE MATERIALs
These are plant parts which have ability to produce roots then grow to develop into new plants.
Advaantages of vegatative material:
a) Fast crop maturity compared to seeds

b) Crops show uniformity in various characteristics like disease resistance. Seed colour and
composition
c) It Possible to produce similar varieties from the same stock
d) Resulting plant has desirable characteristics like shape and size making field practices like
spraying and harvesting easier.
e) Use of vegetative material is found easier and faster especially when seeds show prolonged
seed dormancy.
f) They facilitate propagation of crops which are seedless.

Disadvantages

1. Does not result to new crop varieties

2. Keeping materials free from diseases is found to be difficult.
3. Materials cannot be stored for long

Vegetative material include

1. Suckers – e.g. Bananas

2. Bulbs – e.g. Onion
3. Cuttings - cassava
4. Setts - Sugar cane
5. Vines - Sweet potatoes
6. Bulbils - sisal
7. Tubers - Irish Potatoes
8. Crowns - Pineapples
9. Splits - Grass/pyrethrum
10. Runners - Straw berry
11. Stollons - Star grass
12. Rhizomes - Couch grass
13. Slips - Pineapples

PLANTING METHODS

Direct seeding – Seeds are planted directly into the main field (seed bed) without use of nursery bed
establishment.
Transplanting – Seeds are established in nursery bed first to grow into seedlings before being transferred
into the main field.
Common method of planting include

1. Broadcasting Seed are scattered all over the field in a random manner by hand or spreaders. It is
common in light and tiny seeded crops like grasses. The scattering or spreading is
followed by harrowing to cover the seeds. For best outcome or result for broadcasting the
seedbed should be weed free.
Advantages
-quicker than row planting
-Cheaper and easier compared to row planting
-Cops planed by broadcasting have a good soil cover preventing soil erosion
-No special skills required
Disadvantages
-Plant population cannot be established easily since spacing is not known
-More seeds are used
-Not easily mechanized
-Uneven germination of seeds due to uneven depth of planting
-Because seeds are scattered randomly there is overcrowding

2. Row Planting –It is the planting of crops using rows where spacing between rows and within
rows is known. Sees are placed in holes or drills and the distance between one hole to another
is uniform. This is common in planting various field crops and root crops. This can be done
manually or mechanically

Advantages

1. Easy to use machines in farm operation

2. Cultural practices like weeding, spraying and harvesting are easily carried out
3. Lower seed rate is used compared to broadcasting
4. Easy to establish correct plant population.
5. Proper utilization of nutrients and light moisture because crops are in the correct spacing.

Disadvantage

a. More expensive, in term of labour and time

b. Requires skilled labor to measure distance
c. It does not provide ample soil cover. This is prone to soil erosion

3. Ridge and furrow planting

-Seed are planted either on the ridges or furrows

-Suitable for root crops like Irish potatoes
-These helps in soil conservation.

4. Undersowing

This is the establishment of pasture under a cover crop e.g. maize is planted as recommended and weeded
two to three weeks after onset of rains. Pastures seed are then broadcasted with a half the recommended
basal fertilizer
No further weeding is done, and maize is harvested early to expose the young pasture to sunlight.
It facilitates more intensive land utilization and encourages early establishment of pasture.
Oversowing

Introduction of a pasture legume like desmodium in an existing pasture.

DEPTH OF PLANTING

Depth of planting is determined by;

Seed type (size) – The larger the seed the greater the depth and therefore large seeds are planted deep
since they can easily emerge from the soil and can accommodate large quantities of material.
They therefore produce vigorous seedlings with enough stock.

2. Type of germination

Influence the ability of seedling to emerge from great depth e.g. Epigeal germinating seeds are able to
push the cotyledon to the surface therefore have the ability to emerge from deep depth.

3. Moisture status of the soil

As wet soil dries out after rains or irrigation, upper surfaces are the first to dry while deeper layers
maintain moisture for long. Under dry condition seeds need to be sown deeper in order to place them into
contact with moist soil.

4. Soil Type

Other factors being constant, seed can emerge from great soil depth in sand soil than in clay soil therefore
the planting depth can be adjusted according to the soil texture.

5. Time of sowing

Each crop has an optimum sowing time. The actual time of sowing is determined by moisture condition
of the soil.
Excessive moisture and water logging conditions at sowing can lead to;
1. Swelling and bursting of seeds during germination
2. anaerobic condition in the soil.
3. Favouring of bacterial and fungal pathogen development
A farmer may be forced to saw a crop even when the moisture in the soil is less ideal.
This practice can lead to risk whereby the present moisture will initiate but not complete the process of
germination.
Rooting of seeds will not occur unless there is rainfall within a few days of planting.
Sowing in the tropics is also determined by the temperature where certain crops will require certain
minimum soil temperature before germination occurs.
Sowing in cold areas increases the likelihood of deterioration of seed germination.
A soil temperature of 180C is required for satisfactory germination of crops like maize. Delayed sowing
may later lead to water deficiency during Anthesis period (flowering period and post flowering period).

1. BIRCH EFFECT

-During the rain most of nitrogen is leached below root zone. During the dry period a lot of nitrogen
moves up with capillary water and concentrates on the root zone.
-Microorganisms tend to disappear during dry seasons.
-At the beginning of rains the seed spores absorb some water and microorganisms multiply by fusion.
-Soon the population of microorganisms increases. More organic matter is broken down at a high rate. --
The yield in plant nutrients like nitrogen increases. This is referred to a Nitrogen flush bunch effect. For
this reason, it’s advisable to plant crops like maize before the onset of rains.
SEED RATE
This is determined by germination rate. That is if the germination rate (%) is low the number of seeds
planted per hole is increased.
Germination rate of 70% will only require 2 seeds per planting hole and seedlings are well established.
Extra plants are removed to remain with desired number a process referred to as Thinning.

Seed rate depends on

 Seed quality
 Type/method of sowing
 Moisture content of the soil
 Soil fertility
 Growth habit of the plant/crop

Plant population

-It is the number of plants per unit area

-The decision on the appropriate number of plants in a given area is based on experimental evidence and
the kind of crop e.g. for large sized crops like tree crops - one (1) crop per stand.
-Medium sized crops 2 plants per stand.
-The spaces between the stand will be determined by the roots and shoot system of the crop.

PLANT POPULATION = Area (units2)

Spacing (units2)

Example
(a) Calculate the number of beans seeds required to plant in one hectare where a spacing of
40cmx40cm is used.
Plant population = Since Area (M2)
Spacing (M2)

1 ha X 1000m2
1m=100cm Thus 40cm =0.4m
2 =
Plant pop = 1000 M 10,000 M2 = 62500
0.4mx0.4m 0.16 M2
(b) Assuming a hundred (100) seed weigh 50 grams, establish the amount of beans seeds required per ha

62500 625 X 50gm = 31250gms = = 31.25kgs

100 100

1. Calculate the number of seeds required to plant maize in 100 M2 of land at a spacing of 20 by 10cm

Plant population = 100 M2 = 100 M2 20 X 10 = 200cm2

200/10000 M2 0.02

= 500 seeds
2. Mugendi has 10ha of land on which he plans to plant bean. Calculate the number of seeds he
requires if he uses a spacing of 50cm by 40cm.

(h) Assuming 100 seeds weigh 50 grams establish the amount of seed required per 1 ha of beans.

3. Christine practices pomology. She has a 1 ha piece of land on which she wishes to grow citrus trees.
Calculate the number of seeds required by her to plant on the 1 ha piece of land if she uses a spacing
of 4m by 5m.

Area = 10ha X 10,000 = 100,000 M2.

50 X 40 = 2000 cm2
10,000 = 0.2 M2.

100,000 M2.
0.2 M2.
500,000 seeds

500,00 = 50,000 p.a ha

100

50,000 = 500 X 50 = 25000 grams

100

25000
1000
25kgs

1 ha X 10,000 = 10,000 M2.

4x5= 20 M2. 10,000 M2.

20 M2.
= 500 seeds

Example 2

(a) Mugendi has 10ha of land on which to plant he plans to plant beans. Calculate the number of
seeds he requires if he use a spacing of 50cmx40cm
(b) Assuming 100seeds weigh 50 gms establish then amount of seeds required per hectare of
beans
Example3
Christine practices pomology and has a 1ha piece of land on which she wishes to grow Citrus tree
trees. Culculate the number of seeds she requires if the spacing is 4mx5m

Ans

Plant population = Since Area (M2)

Spacing (M2)

1 ha X 1000m2
Plant pop = 10000 M2 =
10,000 M2 = 500 seeds
4m x5m 20 M2

PLANT PROPAGATION
Propagation Involves the formation and development of new individuals which are established as new
plant.

IMPORTANCE OF PLANT PROPAGATION

1. Perpetuate plant as independent units

2. Through propagation and selection of cultivated plant with desirable characteristics as well as plants
of great economic importance from naturally existing species with disease characteristics. Through
propagation and selection plants with desired characteristics and great economic importance from natural
existing species are developed.
Methods of propagation

1. Propagation by seed (sexual) propagation

2. Vegetative propagation (Asexual propagation)

Sexual propagation

(i) Seed formation is presented by the union of female (ovule) and male (pollen grains) gametes
during the process of fertilization.
(j) The production by seeds is expected to show variability in regards to various characteristics like
plant height, vigour and yields expected.
(k) Except for the highly homozygous plants which are self pollinated there characteristics remains
similar.

Advantages of sexual propagation

1. Cheap compared to asexual

2. Easy to treat seeds against soil born diseases
3. Easy to handle planting materials (seeds) during planting.
4. Easy to use machines like planters
5. Easy storage of planting materials (seed)
6. Fertilizer and manure application can be mechanized.

Disadvantages

1. Seeds can easily be damaged by soil born diseases. If left in the soil for a long time without
germination.
2. Cross pollination may introduce undesirable characteristics.
3. Some seeds may lose viability if stored for long.
4. Some seeds have long dormancy thus need special treatment inorder to germinate.

A sexual propagation

 This includes all methods of propagation other than the seed propagation which do not depend
on seed formation.
  This method depends on vegetative structures like stems, leaves, tubers, root, etc to perpetuate
the parent plant. Vegetative parts develop buds which give rise to new individuals e.g. in sweet
potatoes and Irish potatoes.

Advantages

1. It results in plants which are identical copy of the parent crop.

2. From one plant a few plants with desirable characteristics can be produced.
3. Crops mature faster than those propagated by seeds.
4. Easier and faster especially where seed shows prolonged dormancy.
5. Facilitates propagation of seeds less crops or those that produce unviable seeds or with long
dormancy.

Disadvantages

 Does not result into formation of new crop varieties.

 Storage of materials is difficult.
 Materials are bulky for transport

Materials used for vegetative propagation

1. Bulbils

 Tiny sisal crops produced in the inflorescence of the sisal plant almost at the end of sisal plant.
 They resemble mother plant except they are smaller in size and produced by pole of the sisal
when it is mature.
 They produce rudimentary roots.
 Mature bulbils fall on the ground then collected and are raised in a nursery before getting
transplanted to the main field.
 One plant produces about 3,000 bulbils and they make good planting materials for sisal
compared to suckers because they are easy to collect and mature faster and uni
infloresence

Pole
bole
Suckers

Rhizome

2. Splits
Are plants sections existing from mother plant used to propagate grass pastures and pyrethrum.
Pyrethrum splits are firs raised in nursery bed before getting transported to the main field.
3. Crowns
-Propagate pineapples. They are borne from the top of pineapple fruits and broken off and prepared for
planting they are preferred than suckers because they have uniform growth and mature in 2 years
4. Slips
- Are also used to propagate pineapples and are borne at the base of pineapple fruits
- They are cut and established in nursery before being transplanted
- Their Growth rate is faster than crowns and gives an average uniformity
- They take 22 month to mature from planting time.
5. Suckers
Are small plants that grow at the base of mother plants and have adventitious roots that grow quickly
when planted.

 Common in bananas and pineapples.

 Give ununiform growth leading to ununiform maturity.

Crown

Slips (Leafy shoot growth arising

From the fruit stalk)

(leafy show grow produced from

Stem leaf axil
6. Tubers

(l) Under ground structures used for food storage. They sprout and produce root for growth.

They can be:-

 Root tubers-This develop from thickening of advantageous roots. Not commonly used for
propagation as they produce weak stem e.g. sweet potatoes
 Stem Tubers-Have an auxiliary bud which sprout to produce scale leaves e.g. in Irish Potatoes.

Stem tuber

Auxiliary bud

Root tubers(sweet potatoes)

Adventious roots
7. VINES

 These are soft wood cuttings which produce roots easily to give rise to new plants.
 They are cut from the mother plant and planted directly to the main field.
 Soft green upper part is preferred for rapidly growing shoot
 When preparing cutting some leaves are included for photosynthesis.
 Nodes are included from where root emerge.

Nodes

Sweet potato vines

8. Cutting and settings

- Portions of mother plant cut for propagation which may be root or stem
- Stem cuttings must have a bud which develop into a shoot
 - Root cuttings must have an eye auxiliary bud.
- Cutting must also produce leaves as soon as possible to ensure that they are able to make
their food.
- They may be induced to produce roots by use of rooting hormones.
- In some crops they need to be established in nursery beds before getting transplanted to the
main field e.g. in Tea.
- Stem cutting used in sugar canes are referred to as setts.

Stem cutting in tea

Sugar cane sett

Factors affecting cuttings

 Temperature - warm temperatures are required in rooting zone while low temperatures are
needed in aerial buds.
 Relative humidity – high relative humidity leads to lower rate of transpiration and increase and
maintain leaf turgidity
 Light intensity -soft cuttings need high light intensity to increase rate of photosynthesis for more
root to be produced. Hard wood cuttings do well in dark conditions as they have stored enough to
carbohydrates.
 Oxygen moisture supply- rooting media require sufficient supply of oxygen and moisture so as
to improve root forming process.
 Leaf area - soft wood requires a lot of leaf area to increase surface area for photosynthesis.
Hardwood cutting require less leafs since they have enough stored carbohydrates.
 Chemical treatment -chemical that quickens the rooting if applied at the base of the stem. These
are also referred to as rooting hormones e.g. I.A.A (Indole acetic acid), I.B.A, NAA

LAYERING
This is where plant parts are induced to produce roots while they are still attached in the mother plant.
Once roots are produced the plants parts are cut off from mother plant and planted to the main field.

Types of layering

Marcotting/Aerial layering
-Commonly used in hard woods plant where stems cannot be bent easily to reach the ground.
-Some rooting medium is heaped around the section of the branch whose bark and cambium layer have
been removed. Auxins accumulate there after inducing the development of roots
-The rooting medium quickens rate of root development
 Rooting medium

Devt. Of roots

Tip layering
Shoots bearing buds are bent to the ground and covered with a layer of moist soil. The shoots are
held in position using pegs.
- The covered part of the shoot is induced to produce roots after which it is cut from mother plant
and transplanted.

peg

hea of Moist soil

Trench layering
- Stem is bent and laid down in a trench and is held in position by use of pegs.
- Buds develop shoots that grow upwards while roots are produced at the base of every shoot.
- The shoots are then cut off from mother plant.

Pegs

Moist soil heap

Grafting
- Uniting of 2 separate woody stems where one of the 2 parts provide the base and has a
rooting [Link] part is known as Root stock.
- The other part is obtained from different plant (e.g. diff variety) and is grafted onto the
root [Link] is referred to as Scion.
- The scion has buds which develop into the future plants.
- The ability of scion and root stock to form a successful union is referred to as
Compatibility.
 - Only plant structures from related plants varieties (botanically closely related plants) are
found to be compatible e.g. lemon and orange or lemons and tangerines

METHODS OF GRAFTING

Tongue/ whip grafting

-Used for materials in which the scion and root stock have the same diameter
Scion should have 2 – 3 buds. A slanting cut is made with sterilized sharp knife on the scion and root
stock.
2 separate parts are fitted together and wrapped with a tape, grafting wax, polythene strip, e.t.c

Scion

Rootstock
SIDE GRAFTING

- Done when the root stock has larger diameter than the scion.
- The scion is inserted into one side of the stock.
- A 2 ½ cm deep cut is made at an angle of 20 0 to 300and a scion with 2-3 buds is inserted
in such a way that there is cambium contact between the cambia of stock and scion.

Scion

Root stock

Cleft Grafting
- Is a method adapted to top work Stalk/ branches 2.5 – 10cm in diameter.
- It is best carried out when the plant is dormant.
Steps
The stem/limb to be grafted or top worked is cut off with a sharp pruning saw. The branch is then split in
the middle longitudinally using chisel, large knife or a special tool that is combination blade/wedge
designed specifically for cleft grafting.
The limb is split for a distance of 2 – 4 inches with care taken to make the split in middle of the limb.
For species that do not split evenly the initial cut may need to be made with a saw to prevent uneven
splitting
(Saw kerf clefting)

Limb
After the spit is made (cleft) it is opened and held open with the wedged end of he grafting tool

-A 3 – 4 bud scion stick between 4 – 6 inches is prepared for grafting into the cleft.
-The bud stick should be obtained from small limp or water sprouts that grew vigorously during the past
season of growth. The lower end of the bud stick is trimmed with gradually sloping cuts made on opposite
sides of the stick.
-The slop of the cut on the bud stick should match the angle of cleft as closely as possible.
The cuts should be even in slop to allow a maximum contact between the bud stick and the root stock. If
the bud stick is too blunt the amount of contact will be too small to promote good healing of the union.
When the bud stick is inserted into the cleft the cambia of the 2 pieces must be matched exactly to
promote the healing.

The cambium is recognized as the faint line that separate the bark from the wood.
The ability to align the cambia of the 2 partners to be grafted and maximizing the contact between the 2
pieces to promote rapid healing are the 2 principles determinant of success in cleft grafting.

Grafting wax

- After insertion and alignment the wedge holding the cleft open is carefully removed.
- Painting with grafting wax is done to prevent dedication.

4. APPROACH GRAFTING

- The distinguishing feature of approach grafting is that 2 independently growing self sustaining
plants are grafted together.
- After the grafting union heals the stock is cut above the graft union while the scion is cut below
the graft union.

Procedure followed in Approached grafting

1. Plant an adapted growing plant as close to the base of the non-adapted variety as possible
without extensively damaging the root system.
2. From both plants closely position shoots which are at least 3/8 inch in diameter and preferably
close to the same size. At the point where the union is to occur a slice of bark 1 – 2 inches long is
peeled off from both stems. The peeled area should be the same size on each.
3. The peeled surfaces are then bound tightly together with a budding tape, wrap completely to
completely cover the region where the 2 peeled areas are in contact.
4. Remove some of the top portion of the foliage from the adapted variety 6 – 8 inches above the
graft union. This will encourage a more rapid healing of the grafted union.
5. The union should be complete in 4 weeks. This graft is more successful during growth season.
6. After the parts are well united the remainder of the adapted variety can be cut off immediately
above the grafted union and the bottom or root system of the non- adapted plant can be cut off
immediately below the graft union.
 7. The graft union is now completed, and the problem of chlorosis and indigenous soil pathogens
has been solved if the proper root stock has been used.

Notch |Grafting
Used for top working when branches are larger than 7.5 – 10cm in diameter.

It is similar to side grafting but doesn’t require to make a deep split.

You need to make a notch at the bark of the stock and cut the scion that will fit into the notch and insert it
into the notch then cover with a tape or grafting wax to prevent drying.

Bud grafting/budding
A special from of graft that consist of a union of vegetative bud (scion) to a seedling of another plant or a
mature tree.

 The scion consists of only one bud and some bark with or without wood.
 After the bud starts to grow the parts of the stock above the bud are cut off.
 Any subsequent buds growing from the root stock must be removed regularly.

Methods of budding

1. T-budding
 A common method of budding whereby a T- shaped incision is made on the stem of the stock
with a sharp knife.
 A well-developed vegetative bud from a desirable plant is inserted into the T- cut first by
raising the bark and fixing it tightly to the cut with a tape.

Open cut Bud developing

Root stock

Top Budding
- Involves budding of small young trees where buds are inserted at the desired locations. It allows
production of different varieties of fruits on the same root stock as long as they are from the same species.

Importance of budding and grafting

 i. Plants with desirable root characteristics such as disease resistance, vigorous root system,
resistance to nematodes attack but with an undesirable products may be utilized to produce
desirable product e.g. lemon and orange grafts.
ii. They facilitate the changing of the top of the tree from being undesirable to being desirable.
iii. They help to shorten the maturity period.
iv. They make is possible to grow more than one type of fruit or flower on the same plant.
v. They help propagate crops that cannot be propagated in any other way
vi. Grafting helps to repair damaged trees.

Factors affecting graft union

-Workmanship/ skills - the person performing grafting should be well informed and knowledgeable about
what is expected to be done for the union to succeed.
-Compatibility - use botanically closely related plant /varieties.
-Growth state of scion and root stock -The root stock should be fully established plants so as to be in a
position to support the scion and continue growth as one. Scion should be obtained from a vigorously
growing plant.

LAYERING IS USUALLY USED UNDER THE FOLLOWING CONDITIONS

1. When cuttings do not root easily

2. When a larger amount of planting parts are required.

TISSUE CULTURE (BIOTECHNOLOGY)

 This is a method used extensively to propagate vegetative propagated plants. It is based on

the ability of plant tissue (cell to regenerate the other parts of the plant.
 Tissues which are also called propagules or explants are derived from shoot tips where cells
are undergoing rapid cell division and are not differentiated.
 The cells are then provided with the right conditions which enable them to multiply and
develop roots and shoots.
 These conditions include culture medium which contains the correct nutrients and growth
regulators.
 They are also subjected to the correct light intensity, temperature and relatively humidity.

Glass container
Banana plantlet

Stages of tissue culturing

Stage 1

Establish the asceptic culture and develop the propagule by enhancing cell division and enlargement.
All tools used must be sterilized to establish a clean culture
Avoid contamination by using disinfectant e.g. alcohol, calcium or sodium hypochloride, mercury and
antibiotics.
Ingredient of culture medium at this stage includes inorganic minerals carbon and energy source,
vitamins, organic supplement and growth regulators.

Stage 2
At this stage there is need to multiply the propagules through somatic development of embryo to produce
auxiliary buds and advantageous roots.
The culture medium at this stage should be enriched with substances that enhance development of plant
organs.

Stage 3
Involves preparation of the propagules for establishment in the soil.
It includes

 Rooting of the regenerated plantlets.

 Hardening the plantlets by imparting some tolerance to moisture stress.
 Converting the plantlets from heterotrophic mode of nutrition to autotrophic mode.

Rooting of plantlets is promoted by.

-Leaving out the growth hormone in the medium
-Supplementing the medium with auxins – aids in secondary & primary growth.
-Hardening occurs due to change in the physical environment e.g. high temperature and light intensity
beyond those in the second stage and gradually exposing the plantlets to conditions similar to those in the
field.

IMPORTANCE OF TISSUE CULTUE IN CROP PROPAGATION

1. Used in mass production of propagules

2. Used to recover and establish pathogen free plants especially in the control of viral diseases.
3. It is fast and requires less space than the cultural method of using cuttings which require larger
space.

Challenges in tissue culturing

-These methods require highly skilled manpower.

-Special structure are required in order to control temperature and relative humidity in the preparation of
propagules and culture medium.

Propagation Medium
General properties

1. Should be firm with ability to hold seed/cuttings

2. Have a high-water holding capacity
3. Be porous and freely drained
4. Be free from weed seeds and plant pathogens
5. Have adequate nutrients supply
6. Should not have high salinity levels
7. Should be capable of being sterilized and pasteurized without harmful effects.

Types of propagation medium

Soil - Acts as a natural habitat for plants and provide anchorage

Sand – Consist of small rock grains ranging from 0.25mm – 0.50mm in diameter formed as a
result of weathering
1. Peat
 A vegetation preserved under water in partially decomposed place.
 Peat is normally found in marshes where vegetation is sub-merged in water e.g. peat moss
and peat humus.
 2. Vermiculite
 Consists of mica minerals which expand when heated and have high cation exchange
capacity.
 Has a high water holding capacity and is used for seed germination
3. Pumice
 Mixture of silica dioxide and aluminum oxide. It has small amounts of iron, aluminum,
magnesium, calcium and sodium oxides.
 It has a good aeration and drainage

4. Perlite
 Has silica materials with high water holding capacity and a P.H, 6 – 8
 It has no plant nutrients
5. Saw dust
Made from wood shaving and cuttings.
1. Propagation structures
1. Green houses
 They re used for protection in cultivation of tender plants that grows out of season.
 They are designed to have a balance of temperature moisture and light to suit the growth of a
particular crop.

TYPES OF GREEN HOUSES

Small domestic green house

 These are lean structures that are built against existing walls.
 They consist of glass panes sloping roof and free supporting glass panel sides.
 Large conventional green houses
 They have A-shaped roofs over 2 side walls and 2 end walls.
 Natural light in tropical regions is found to be sufficient to meet light requirement of plants.
 Sometimes natural light can be supplemented with artificially light.
2. Lath houses
 Is an outdoor shaped mainly used to protect the container grown plants also known as pot
plants.
 They protect the plants from high temperature, high light intensity and moisture stress
3. Mist chambers
 Used to propagate cuttings
 They are used to hold moisture with high humidity released electronically from the chambers
in form of mist.
 Sprayed at intervals to control temperature and raise humidity.
4. Boxes
- Are normally used for propagation of vegetables and agro-forestry nursery trees

WEEDS ABD WEEDS CONTROL

- A weed is any plant growing where it is not wanted.
Any plant whose economic advantages outweigh its economic advantages.
Types of weeds (Weed classification)
These are based on:-
(a) Lifecycle
(i) Annual weeds – Complete their life cycle in one season/year.
(ii) Biennial - Compete their lifecycle in 2 seasons
(iii) Perennial: - Take more than 2 seasons to complete their lifecycle.
(b) Morphology
- Leaf formation e.g. size, shape venation
 broad leaved weeds e.g. blackjack
 Narrow leafed weed e.g. cough grass.
(c) Habitat
Some are terrestrial while others are aquatic
Weed identification
- Weeds are identified by their common/ individual local names and by their botanical /scientific
names.

Some common weeds include:

COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME

Blackjack Bidens pilosa

Pig weed Amaranthus aspera

Mexican marigold Tagetes minuta

Oxalis/sorrel Oxalis spp

Double thorn Oxygonum sinuatum

Thorn apple Datura stramonium

Couch grass Digitaria scalarum

Wondering dew Cimmelina bangahlensis

Nut grass Cyperus rotundus

Saw thistle Sonchus oleraceus

Devil horse whip Achyranthes aspera

Macdonald eye/Gallet Galisoga parviflora

solder

Black night shade (managu) Solanum nigrum

 Chinese lantern Nicandra plysalode

Blacken fern Pteridium aqullium

Love grass/ Bristly foxtail Setallia verticillata

Cleavers Gallium purium

Stinging nettle Urtica massaica

Fat hen goose feet Chenopodium spp

Rape weed Brassica napus

Wild oat Avena Fatua

Lantana/Tick Berry Cantana camara

Water hyacinth Eichonia crassipes

Striga/witch weed Striga hermonthaea

Creeping indigo Indigotera specata

Lions ear Leonites nepetifolia

Sodom apple Solanum incanum

Manyatta Grass Eleusin jaegeri

Star grass Cynodon dactylon

Kikuyu grass Pennisetum

clandestinum

Flea bane conyza spp

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF WEED IN CROP PRODUCTION

1. Compete with crops for nutrients, space light and soil moisture.
2. Some weds are parasitic to cultivated crop e.g. Stiga weed.
3. some weeds lower the quality of Agricultural produce
4. Some weeds are poisonous to human beings and livestock.
5. Some weeds are allelopathic (produce toxic substances)
6. Some weeds block irrigation channels.
7. Some weeds are alternative host for insects pests and nematode.
8. Weeds lower the quality of pasture.
9. Some weeds irritate workers thus lowering their efficiency
10. Weeds increase cost of production.
11. Some are Source of food for man and livestock
12. Some weeds have medicinal value.
13. When weeds decompose they add organic matter to the soil
14. They provide soil cover thus reducing chances of soil erosion

Factors contributing to the competitive ability of weeds

Weeds produce many seeds
Heir seeds remain viable for a long time
They have effective seed dispersal mechanisms
Most of them are efficient in utilization of little moisture, nutrients and sun light
Some are gross feeders and aggressive
Some propagate by means of underground food storage structures

METHODS OF WEED CONTROL

(a) Cultural method it involves
(i) Mulching: - use of vegetable matter/or synthetic material to cover the soil surface.
(ii) Cover cropping - Establishment of correct plan density by adopting the recommended
spacing to ensure covering of the ground.
(iii) Crop rotation- Some crops are difficult to weed and thus encourage weed multiplication
(iv) Timely planting – These gives crops an early and healthy start which enable them to
outcompete the weeds.
(v) Use of clean seed/ planting materials.
(vi) Proper spacing.
(vii) Proper seedbed preparation
(viii) Flooding
(ix) Burning
(x) Control grazing

(b) Biological method

- This involves use of living organism to control weeds e.g.
- Use of livestock to graze
- Use of weed eating fish to control aquatic weed.
- Use of moths to control weeds.

(c) Chemical method

- This is the use of chemical known as herbicides to control weeds.
Classification of herbicides
- Clssification is based on:
(i) Forrmulation - The physical form of herbicides e.g. liquids, wettable powders (WP), emulsifiable
concentrates( EC), dust.
(ii) Time of application
- pre-emergence - applied before the crop germinate
- post emergence applied after the crop plant germinates
(iii) Selectivity It can either be selective or nonselective ( e.g. round up)
(iv) Mode of action
- Contact:- kills only the parts it get into contact.
- Translocated / systemic

Methods of herbicides Application

 (i) Spraying
Application of solutions
(ii) Dusting
Application of dust
(iii) Fumugation
Application of fumigants.
Safety measure in use of chemical
1. Read manufacturer’s instructions and follow them.
2. Wear protective clothing, breathing mask, gloves, boots
3. Avoid inhaling herbicides
4. Wash thoroughly after handling chemicals
5. Do not blow or suck blocked nozzles
6. Avoid chemical drift to livestock feed and water.
7. Avoid spilling chemicals to pastures and fodder crops.
8. Dispose off the empty containers properly (burry them in the soil).
9. Store chemical in safe place.
10. Wash spraying equipment thoroughly.
11. Sink left chemical into the soil after work.

Merits/Advantages of chemical weed control

1. It is less laborious
2. Effective in control of difficult weeds
3. Does not disturb crop roots and other underground structure
4. Make control of weed in certain crops easier.
5. Efficient in both dry and wet conditions.
6. Does not destroy soil structure.
7. Cheaper in large scale production.
Disadvantages (Demerits)
1. Requires skilled labour in mixing and application
2. It causes environmental pollution
3. Some chemicals have long residual effect that may interfere with feature crops
4. very expensive
MECHANICAL/PHYSICAL WEED CONTROL
It involves the following operation
- Tillage/ cultivation
This is the opening and loosening up of the soil. It can be done using hand tools or tracter drawn
implements.

Advantages of tillage/cultivation
1. Cheap in small scale production.
2. Increases water and air infiltration into the soil.
3. It incorporates crops residue into the soil.
4. The earthing up done during tillage encourages root growth.
Disadvantages
1. Destroy soil structure when done repeatedly
2. Laborious and expensive in large scale production.
3. May not be effective controlling some weeds
4. It may lead to soil erosion and loss of soil moisture
 5. Damage crop roots.
2. Splashing/ Mowing - Mechanical removal of shoots from weeds. Effective on annual weds.
3. Aprooting - Done when the crops are too close to allow mechanical cultivation.
Intergrated methods of weed control
- These involves deployment of different methods of weeds prevention and control in right
proportion and appropriate time against the target weed without damaging the environment in
any way.
Legislative/quaratine
- Involves law and regulations which prevents the introduction of foreign weeds in a country or
area.
PEST AND CONTROL
Crop pests: - This refers to living organisms that destroy crops/ trees either directly or indirectly by
introducing pathogen (disease causing organism)
Economic importance of pests
1. Some transmit disease e.g. Aphid
2. Pests such as squirrels and rodents unearth planted seeds resulting in poor germination.
3. Some pests like termites, mice nematode and moles damage crop root causing wilting and death
of the crop.
4. They lower the quality and quantity of crop produce.
5. They increase the cost of production.
6. Chemical used to control pest cause pollution to the environment.
7. They exterminate the crops by feeding on them e.g. eating the embryo.
Classification of pests
Pests are Classified according to:
1. The type of mouth parts
(a) Pests with biting and chewing mouth parts They cause physical damage and reduce the
photosynthetic area
(b) Pest with piercing and sucking mouth parts. They suck out the nutritious plant sap and the
process may introduce disease causing organisms.
Example of pests with biting and chewing mouth parts

Cotton stainer Dysdercus superstitious

Rhinocerus beetle Orycetes monoceros
Black citrus Aphid Toxopera sordidus
Mearly bugs Planococus citrs
Bean Weevil Archanthoscelides dotecteus
Maize stalk borer
Grasshopper
2. Crop Attacked
Some crops pests attack specific crops e.g. stem borers prefer cereal crops
3. Stage of growth of crop attacked
- Some pests attack young seedling e.g. cut worm
- Pest of fruit: - It attacks crop at fruiting age.
- Pest of grains: - Attack crops when grains are formed e.g. bird.
4 Some classification based in field and storage pest.
- Some pests attack crops in the field while some attacked after crops have been harvested and stored
e.g. weevils
METHODS OF CONTROLING PESTS
 a) Cultural
b) Biological
c) Chemical
d) Physical/mechanical
e) Integrated pest management (IPM)
Cultural
- Farming practices that aim at reducing the pest population by destroying the life cycle of the
pest either by exposing them to adverse conditions or denying them food.
They include
a) Timely planting
b) Timely harvesting
c) Proper tillage
d) Closed season – period where susceptible crop is not grown in a given field in order to control a
certain pest.
e) Trap cropping: - Trap crops are crops which attracts pest diverting them from the main crop.
Trap crops are grown together with the main crops.
f) Crop rotation
g) Planting resistance varieties: - these are plants with natural protective mechanisms against
pests.
h) Alteration of environmental condition
i) Field hygiene include rogueing and removal of crop residue which harbour pest from field,
j) Crop nutrition – application of fertilizers and manure to make the crop strong and able to escape
pests attack.
k) Destruction of alternative host e.g. weeds like mallow which harbuors cotton stainers.
l) Use of clean planting materials: - this help to prevent introduction of crop pests.
m) Proper spacing: - if well spaced some pests find it difficult to move from one plant to another.
n) Use of organic manure.
CHEMICAL CONTROL OF PESTS
- Chemicals used to control pests are known as pesticides
- pesticides are administered through dusting, spraying or fumigation
factors that affect the efficiency of pesticides conclude:
1. concentration
2. Time of application - efficiency is high if the application is done when the pest is most
susceptible.
3. Weather condition at the time of application
4. Resistance to the pest
Advantages of chemical methods
1. faster
2. immediate results are achieved
3. low labour required
Disadvantages
1. Expensive to buy
2. cause pollution
3. require skilled labour
4. some pesticides may kill beneficial organism and predators
5. Some target pest may build up resistance.
MECHANICAL PEST CONTROL
It involves killing of pest using physical method or creating physical barriers to prevent pests from
getting into contact with the crops.

1. Flooding/irrigation e.g. moles are suffocated through flooding

2. Use extreme temperature either too cold or too hot.
3. suffocation commonly used in grain storage by being made air tight
4. Trapping and killing e.g. rat
5. Creation of physical barrier
6. proper drying
7. Scaring devices e.g. scare craws
BIOLOGICAL METHODS

Predators Target pests

Parasitic wasp -White flies in citrus

-bollworm and stalk borer

Birds Crickets, locusts, caterpillar

Ladybird beetles Aphids

Track and flies Cotton stainers

Praying mantis Giant looper

Cat Moles mice rat

Brachonid wasp Mearly bugs

Majimomo ant Scales

chicken Larvae, cotton Steiner, crickets

Advantages of biological method

1. Cheap
2. No environmental pollution
3. saves on labour
Disadvantage
1. Take too long to get the agent
2. difficult to control the pest effectively
I.P.M. integrated pest management
- Involves the combination of all the methods mentioned above.
- The aim is to have least hazards to the user and to the environment.
Legislative quarantine
- This measure of pest control are effected by KEPHIs

CROP DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL

Disease A disease is any deviation from the normal performance or functioning of an organism
 - A PLANT DISEASE: - it is any harmful physiological disorder in a plant caused by a pathogenic
agent such as virus, bacterial and fungi.
Economic importance of crop diseases
1. lower crop yield
2. They reduce the quality of the produce
3. they reduce the market value of the crops
4. They increase the cost of production
5. They cause food poisoning e.g. Ergot in wheat
6. They reduce photosynthetic area of the plant.
Classification and identification of plant diseases
- Plant diseases are classified according to their causal agent.
a) Fugal
b) Bacterial
c) Viral
FUNGAL DISEASES
- Fungi are non-green plants. Some are parasitic others are saprophytic
Parasitic fungi are divided into
- Obligate
- Facultative
Obligate parasites are organism that depend on other living organism for food.
Facultative parasites are organism that are able to leave on both living and dead tissue.
Examples of fungal diseases
a) Late blight (Phytophthora infestans)
Attackes -members of solaneceae family e.g. potatoes and tomatoes
Symptoms
- Dry patches on the leaves and fruit (necrotic lesions)
Control measure
- Crop rotation
- Use of effective fungicide.
- Use of treated seeds
- Use of resistance variety.
b) Rust
Crops attacked - Rice, wheat barley, oats, grasses, sorghum.
Symptoms of attack
- Red and brown pustules on the leaves
- Shriveled grains
Control measure
- Use of resistant varieties
- Use recommended fungicides
c) Smuts ( ustilago spp)
Crops attacked - Maize, wheat, sorghum
Symptoms
Black powder mass on the spike/ears
Control measure
1) Use field hygiene to control
2) Use of certified seeds
3) Use of resistant varieties
4) Crop rotation
d) Blast (Pricularia oryzae)
Attacked Rice
Symptoms
- Stained bluish spots on leaves with grayish centre
- Attacks inflorescence to cause empty heads
Control
Seed dressing
Use resistant varieties e.g. Sindano
Destruction of attacked plants
Use of fungicides
Coffee berry disease (colletotrichum kahawae)
Crops attacked: coffee
Symptoms
- Dark blue blotches on flowers
- Brown concentric rings on the leaves
- Dark sunken wounds on the berries.
Control measures
- Use of resistance varieties such as Ruiru II
- Proper pruning
- Use of effective fungicides
- Stripping
Other fungal diseases are
- Panama disease – banana
- Cigar end rot – banana
- Die back – attacks the tips of shoots and roots
- Mildew – Both powdery and downey mildew attacks several crops
- Amillaria root rot – (Armillaria mellea) attacks coffee, tea
- -Damping off disease in seedling in nurseries
- Anthracniose – ( colletotricum spp) in coffee, beans, tomatoes.

BACTERIAL DISEASES
- Bacteria are microscopic single cell organism which reproduce by binary fission
Transmission - Transmitted through irrigation water, seeds, fertilizers, manure, weed, raindrop splashes,
insects, and through mechanical means.
General symptoms
1. Wilting
2. cankers (nectrotic tissues)
3. Gall formation in the infected tissue
Example
1. Halo blight (Pseudomonas phaseolicolae)
Crops attacked include beans
Symptoms
1. irregular dark lesion on leaves and pods
2. Yellow bands around the lesion referred to as halo
3. Water soaked lesions
Control
1. Use of resistant varieties (e.g. wairimu and rose coco)
2. Use of effective bactericides
 3. crop rotation
2. Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum)
Attacks tomatoes
Symptoms
1. Stunted growth
2. Yellowing and shading of leaves.
3. Wilting of the plant
Control
- Use of resistance varieties
3. Black arm (Xanthomonas oxysporum)
Crop attaked include cotton
Symptoms
- Small round spots on the cotyledons of young seedlings
- The spots elongate to form black lesion on the stem.
Control measures
1. Field hygiene
2. Use of certified seeds fromKenya Seed company Simlaw seeds etc
Bactarial wilt ( Pseudomonas solanacearum)
Crops attacked include potatoes and tomatoes
Symptoms
1. Uniform wilting of the whole plant even with adequate supply of soil moisture
Control measures
- use certified seeds
- crop rotation

Viral diseases
- Viruses are small living organisms which can only be seen under a very powerful electronic
microscopic
- Viruses interfere with photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration and nitrogen utilization.
Symptoms of viral infections
1. leaf chlorosis – yellowing of leaves
2. leaf curling
3. mosaic – light green and yellow patches
4. malformation/distortion of plant parts
5. Rosetting (shortening of internodes)
Transmission
1. Through the use of infected vegetative materials and insect vector like Aphids mealy bugs and
leafhoppers.
Examples
1. Ratton stunting disease - crop attacked – sugar cane
Symptoms
- Red discolorations on the vascular bundles (Xylem and phloem)
Control measures
- use clean planting material
- Treat seed canes.
2. Maize streak
Crops attacked: - maize
Symptoms of attack
 - Yellow strips alternating with green parallel to the mid-rib
Control measure
- control leafhoppers
- use of certified seeds
- field sanitation
3. Greening diseases
Crop attacked cirrus e.g. Orange symptoms
- Yellow mottling in the leaves.
- Die back.
- Premature leaf fall
Control
-Use of clean tools when budding.
-Control of insect vectors.
4. Leaf mosaic
Crop attacked are sugar cane, cassava, sweet potatoes
Symptoms
 Yellow mottling
 Necrosis of stem
Control measure
1. Control of aphids
2. use clean materials
3. seed treatment
4. Tristeza
Crop attacked : citrus
Symptoms of attack
- Die back
- Dwarfing of the plants
Control measure
-Striping affected fruits
-Use of clean equipment for budding

Other causes of crop diseases

(a) Flooding: - Leads to formation ammonia which is poisonous to the crops causing a burning
effect on leaves.
(b) Chemicals: - Some chemicals may be toxic e.g. Afratoxins
(c) Poor weather: -Extemes of day and night temperature.
(d) Stress: - such as irregular watering as in tomato blossom end lot.

Control of diseases
CULTURAL METHOD OF DISEASE CONTROL
This involves: -

 Use of healthy planting materials

 Practicing field hygiene
 Proper seedbed preparation
 Proper spacing
 Heat treatment of planting material e.g. sugar cane
 Proper drying of cereals to 13% moisture content
  Growing disease resistance varieties.
 Crop rotaion
 Pruning
 Proper spacing

Legislative method

-Imposing quarantine -this involves the imposing of regulations and law especially in the case of disease
outbreaks to prevent the introduction and spread of diseases.

CHEMICAL CONTROL OF DISEASES

- It is used as a last resort

- Chemical control measures include:
1. Seed dressing before planting
2. Soil fumigation to control soil borne diseases
3. Spraying e.g. application of fungicides, bacterialcides /or nematocides.

Integrated method of pest control

This involves combination of more than one of the other control methods

AGROFORESTRY
This is a practice of integrating a variety of land use that combines tree growing pasture and/or crop
production practice on the same piece of land, to improve the output of the land.

Forms of Agroforestry
There are many forms of agroforestry

1. Agrosilvi-culture: - this is the combination of trees/shrubs and crops in agriculture

2. Silvopastoral: - A combination of growing trees/shrubs and keeping livestock.
3. Agrosilvopastoral – It is a combination of growing trees/shrubs and animals and also growing
crops.
4. Apisilvo culture – is a combination of keeping bees and growing of trees.
5. Acquasilvocultural system – Combination of tree growing and fish keeping
6. Serisilvoculture involvesgrowing trees and keeping of silkworms
7. Agropastoral – growing of crops and animal keeping

IMPORTANCE OF AGROFORESTRY

1. Environmental protection
2. Source of income
3. A forestation and timber production
4. Maintenance of soil fertility
5. Aesthetic value
6. Labour saving in firewood collection
7. Source of food and feed
8. Source of fuel

IMPORTANT TREES AND SHRUBS FOR PARTICULAR PURPOSES

- The commonest trees and shrubs used for agroforestry include: -

1. Grevillea robusta (Mukima) (silk oak).
 - It is important for timber, fuel wood fodder and bee forage. It can also be used in soil protection,
wind breaker shade etc.
2. Acacia Spp
- Leaves and pods are eaten by animal
3. Leucaen leucocephala –Wind breaker, fodder, Nitrogen fixation provide shade, bee forage.
4. Calliandra- Fuel, wood, fodder, Nitrogen fixation provide shade, bee forage.
5. Sesbania Sesban
- Can be used as fodder, for nitrogen fixation, shade, fuel wood.
6. Makharmia spp
- Provide timber for construction, can also provide shade soil protection and bee forage.

Other trees

1. Persea Americana (Avocado)

- Fodder, fruit production, shade and fuel wood.
2. Mangifora Indica (mangoe tree)
- Used for fruit production, shade tree, Wind breaker, soil protection, fuel wood.
3. Cajanas canjan (pigeon pea)
- Proteinous feed for human, used as fodder, used as firewood.
4. Croton macrostature (mukinduri)
- Can be used as fuel, timber, poles, and handles.
Flame tree
- Making wood curving bee forage, and as a medicinal tree.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AGROFORESTRY TREES

1. Fast growth rate

2. Deep rooted
3. Nitrogen fixation ability – able to fix nitrogen e.g. legumes
4. By product production ability
5. Be multipurpose in nature
6. Should not poses competitive ability with main crops
7. Have cropping and looping ability
Cropping ability to show crop characteristics
Looping - ability to

8. Have appropriate canopy- Should not shade the main crop in the field
9. Nutritious and paratable

ROLE OF AGROFORESTRY IN SOIL AND THE CONSERVATION

1. Forest plays a major role in protecting the water catchment and serving as wind break.
- Also it acts as a shelter belt in arid and semi-arid areas.
2. Soil erosion has led to siltation and soil fertility decline but this has been minimized by growing
of trees in the farm.
3. Restoration of water bodies and reducing water. Due to reduced water lack of trees in the land
had led to the drying of water bodies and water pollution.

NB forestation program should be installed in highland and marginal areas.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT CROP GROWTH IN AGROFORESTRY
 1. Soil nutrients – trees compete with crops for nutrients in the soil
2. Soil moisture both trees and crops compete for moisture in the soil.
3. Shade- different crops have different adaptations for light e.g. some crops should be grown in
pure stand e.g. maize.
4. Pest and diseases - this include nematodes, which are associated with trees like sesbania sesban.
- They affect bananas, beans and potatoes
- Care should be taken during crop rotation. Sesbania should be alternated with cereal.
- The disease armilaria melea is very common in trees and tea and hence they should not be
alternated.
5. Animals and birds birds like quelea quelea which are more serious in crop production can lead
to decline in yield.

Negative Effect of Trees

1. Habouring diseases and pests

2. Hobouring birds
3. They may act as weeds
4. Competition with crops for water and nutrients
5. Allelopathic

Trees and Shrubs to avoid at certain site

1. Eucalyptus spp
- Should not be planted near water sources because it will absorb the water
- It should not be planted on arable land as the root have allelopathetic effects on crops
2. Tall trees
- Should not be planted near farm building because they may fall and damage the building, there
roots will break the building stone gradually.
3. Bushy trees and shrubs should not be near farm building because it can harbor predators
-Tall trees planted with main crop of a lower canopy should be pruned to prevent interception of the
rainfall.
4. Cyprus trees have leaves that produce acidity in the soil preventing undergrowth beneath the
tree. These trees should not be planted within the farm but at the periphery.

Tree nursery
Types of tree nursery

1. Permanent nursery Nursery established on long term basis to forest large pieces of land.
- It is a forest nursery where a few species are raised in large numbers e.g. pine, Cyprus,
Eucalyptus.
2. Extension nursery nursery established depending on local demand for local community.
- The species in this nursery include fodder, timber ornamental trees.
- Seedlings are raised in small numbers by various groups such as women groups, youth groups
NGO chief’s office.
3. Temporary/satellite/ flying nursery
- These are short lived nursery
- They are established 2-3 years to meet seedling demand of project
- Species raised depends on the demand of the project e.g. for daily production- calliandra and
leucaena, Fuel: - eucalyptus
4. Stock nursery
Nursery raised for months for holding seedlings purposed for sales.
Seedling requirements

1. Should be of required species

2. Should be ready at the right time
3. Should be of right size and sturdiness
4. Produced in sufficient number

Nursery operations

1. Planning
2. Recording
3. Controlling: controlling of all stages from seed collection to confinement of seedling for planting.

Some of the stages include

(i) Seed collection

(ii) Storage
(iii) Pre-treatment
(iv) Sowing
(v) Soil mixing
(vi) Pricking out
(vii) Standing out
(viii) Cultural practices (weeding, watering, root pruning
(ix) Protection from pests, animals etc
(x) Grading
(xi) Packaging
(xii) Dispatching

Factors to consider when choosing nursery site

There are 2 types of factor

1. Management factors
2. Silvicultural practices

Management

1. Nearness to permanent water source

2. Nearness to labour camp
3. Good accessibility
4. Central location
5. Land availability
6. Cost

Silvicultureal factors

1. Soil – Good texture, sandy loam or forest soil

2. Climate
- Avoid extreme temperatures
- Avoid frost pockets (valley bottom)
- Avoid areas prone to hailstones
- Avoid windy sites (hilly tops)

Nursery designs and layout

 1. Perimeter fence – this can be done by use of live fence e.g. cyprus, or offcuts.
2. Gate – should have lockable gate
3. Size- As small as 1 meter or as large as 2 hectares
4. The bed should be aligned North South orientation to allow enough sunlight
5. Width – Usually 1 – 1.3m to allow efficient weeding watering and nursery bed attendance.
6. Length. It depends on the size of nursery need.
7. Path – Are of 75cm in width between beds to allow easier management during watering and
weeding
8. Water points-
9. Rows across the length to divide the nursery length.

NURSERY STRUCTURE

1. WATER TANKS
2. Office – used for keeping records and acts as store for seed.
3. Maturing beds (Swaziland bed) made of offcuts
4. Pricking out shed
5. Roof is made up of iron sheet
- It is also used for providing shade.

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE SIZE OF NURSERY

1. Level of planting programme – one should be aware of seedling demand.

2. Methods of raising seedlings – bear rooted method occupies less area.
- Container method occupies more areas
3. Nursery life of plants
Ceremonial trees take more than 1 year in the nursery hence requires large spaces.

NURSERY TOOL AND EQUIPMENT

Wheelbarrow
Horse pipe
Pangas
Pruning saw
Dibler
Offcuts
Label
Jembe
Piano wire used for pruning root
Nails
Measuring tape
Spray pump

Types of nursery bed

1. Raised
2. Sunken

Raised nursery bed

- Raised 15cm from the ground level
- Practiced in high potential areas
- Drain excess water from the bed.
Sunken
 - Sunk 15cm below ground level
- A polythene is spread at the bottom to retain water and also act a remedy to pruning root
- Common in dry areas
- Conserves water
Seedbed preparation
- Should be prepared adequately to enhance drainage.
- A mixture of sand, soil and gravel is made in layers of specific depth.

Sieved forest soil 12cm

Mixture of soil and sand 13cm

Pure sand 30cm

Stone and gravel 80cm

The method above lowers susceptibility to diseases such as dumping off.

Conditioning/hardening of seedlings

 Root pruning
 Hardening off
 Introduction of Mycorrhizae
 Stripping or topping
 Inoculation with rhizobia and frankia

Root pruning

Involves cutting tap root inorder to encourage fibrous root development

- Increases surface area for water and nutrient absorption

- Help in reducing succulent growth of the plant
- It increases root : shoot ratio

Methods of root pruning

1. Under cutting
2. Side cutting – use piano wire
3. Pot turning
4. Use of polythene sheet
1. Hardening off
- This is done by reducing shadding and watering before planting out
- Done 4 – 6 weeks before planting out
- It reduces succulent growth
- It increases woodiness hence the plant become more steady
- Help to reduce transplanting shock
2. Mycorrhizae - it is a fungus found in the root. It forms an association with the roots of certain
trees e.g., Eucalyptus and pine.

Advantage of mycorrhizae

- Enhance uptake of nutrient especially phosphorus

 - Improve water uptake
- Increase drought resistance
- Enable the plant to withstand high soil temperature
- Destroys certain toxins in the soil
- Protect plants against soil pathogens
- Promotes growth through the effect on growth regulators and hormones

INNOCULATION WITH RHIZOMBIUM AND FRANKIA

- Rhizobium is a bacteria found in association with legumes.

- -Frankia Frankia is a Actinomycetes fungi found in association with trees.

Stripping/Topping
Stripping is the removal of lower leaves before planting out leaving only 3 leaves at the tip.
Topping is cut seedlings 15 – 25cm above the ground and leaving them to sprout.
This helps to retain seedling in the nursery especially when waiting for rain to avoid overgrowing.
AGROFORESTRY SYSTEM

1. Shifting cultivation

- Also refered as bush fallow/slash and burn /swidden agriculture

- It is land use system in which the forest land is cleared and cropped for few years (5 -20) then left
for regeneration of bush fallow period.
- Common practices in tropics and associated with sparse population.
- The actual work involves clearing of bushes and trees followed by burning of debris then plants
are planted.
- It is mainly used to grow food crops e.g. maize, beans potatoes, cassava.

Disadvantages

1. Soil erosion
2. Leads to weed infestation
3. Burning affect chemical composition of the soils e.g. increase exchangeable basis, increase in PH
and decrease organic matter
4. Depletion of soil fertility

Improvement

1. Adding of fertilizer
2. Planting of leguminous plants
3. Conversion of land to tree planting.

2. Improved fallow system

- This system aim at shorting the furrow period instead of 5 – 20 years. It becomes 2 – 3 years.
- Growing leguminous trees e.g. Sesbania will help in improving system
- The above species have ability to fix nitrogen easily and fast hence improve soil fertility.

3. Hedgerow intercropping
- Is restricted to steep slope
 - Mainly practiced to control soil erosion
- Trees/shrubs are planted across the contour
- The steeper the slope the closer the hedgerow
With time the lower part of the land accumulates deposits from soil eroded from the upper part. This
result to more crop yield on lower parts than the upper parts.

Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Hedgrow

111111111111111111 Plants

4. Taungya System
- Originated from Barma
- Taung – stands for hill
- Ya – cultivation
- Hence referred to as hill cultivation
- It was used to regenerate teak tree at low cost
- Originally started as a shifting cultivation practice and later adopted as an afforestation method.
N/B: In east Africa it is referred to as shamba system.
- It involves planting of Agricultural crops in early stages after clearing the forest before
establishing forest plantation.
- It is considered a step further in the process of transformation from shifting cultivation to
Agroforestly.

1st year 2nd year 3rd year 4th year

Crops Crops and Crop and trees trees

tree

NB: This practice has been carried out in the following area : South Africa, East Africa, part of West
Africa.

It is suitable in establishing plantation of some tree species e.g. pine and eucalyptus

FACTORS FAVOURING SHAMBA SYSTEM IN KENYA

1 Extensive natural forest resource

 2 Cheap method of establishing forest plantation
3 Large number of landless who keep leasing land
4 Availability of labour.

NB Shamba system in Kenya today is referred to pelis plantation establishment livelihoodness scheme
established in the year 2000
Other Agroforestry Systems
1. Alley cropping
2. Home gardening
3. System Boundary planting
4. Scattered trees in rangeland or farm land
5. Woodlots system
6. Tree for soil and water conservation system
7. Plantation crop system
8. Sand dune fixation system (found in ASAL regions
9. Plantation forestly
10. Mult cropping
11. Entomoforestry

HOME GARDEN SYSTEM

This are intimate association of annual and perennial crops as well as livestock within the compound of
individual houses being managed by labour from the family.
They are traditional systems found in tropical environment. They are well developed and consists of
trees /shrubs. They also consist of herbaceous plant and vines
They are mainly planted and maintained by family members and the products are mainly intended for
household conssumption.
Tropical home garden has high species diversity and complex systems.
Example of home garden system: -

1. Javanese home garden – Java

2. Chagga home gardens – slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro.
3. Central highland gardens – Mt. Kenya, Aberdare
4. Eastern highland – Mt. Kenya
5. West Kenya – Mt. Elgon
6. South Nyanza – Kisii highland
7. Coastal belt – Coast
Characteristics
1. Endemic species: certain species are only found in specific regions and not others.
2. Species diversity: different types of species are found in home gardens.

NB: Home gardens have been interfered with to give cash crops production e.g. coffee tea as well as
horticultural production e.g. French bean, peas etc.

- Vertical stratification of species in home gardens.

- This strafication arise due to variation and high number of species.
 1

5 4 3 4

Sporadic disease: - A disease that occurs occasionally.

1. Dominant trees - They are light demanding species. They are also called sun trees.
2. Middle canopy- Tolerant to shade
3. Shrub layer – they are also shade tolerant
4. Perennial crop – Bananas, sugarcane.
5. Annual crops - Maize beans
6. Annual crops – Sweet potatoes.

Advantage of home gardening stratification

1. Soil and water conservation

2. Nutrients recycling (closed nutrients cycle)
3. Biodiversity conservation – this is due to different vegetation species
4. Diversification of products – e.g. wood
=timber, charcoal, poles firewood
Food fruits seeds
Medicinal value neem tree aloe vera
Warbugia ugandensis

Animal fodder sesbania sesban

5. Better sure utilization

6. Boundary planting
 This is done for demarcation of boundaries (both internal or external)
  Trees are planted along boundaries
 Spacing is between 5 – 10m depending on purpose of this trees i.e.
 1 – 10m for firewood and charcoal
 3 – 5 m for poles
 7 – 10m fir timber
 1 – 3 m for shrubs and fodder

NB: 1 – 3 metre should be left away from the boundary to avoid root development to neighbours
plot.

Trees used include Grivelia robusta and it is managed through: -

 Pollarding
 Coppicing
 Pranning
 These are minimum interaction of crop because trees are in the boundaries.

7. Woodlot system
- It involves planting trees in a portion of land which may be less productive, it may also
be idle rocky or steepy.

Advantages

1. Provision of fire wood

2. Provision of timber
3. Agriculture practice
4. Act as fodder bank

8. Alley Cropping
- A system that has come up through research which involves growing of crops
leguminous trees and shrubs.

Importance

1. There is periodic pruning of trees/shrubs to reduce shade.

2. Biomass after prunnind decompose to recycle nutrients.
3. Wood products are used as a source of fuel.
4. Pruned leaves and stem can be used as fodder for livestock.
5. More economical to utilize land on trees and crops.

NB: The system can increase crop yield up to 3 times after a period of 4 years.

Limitation
 1. Failure to prune trees/shrubs may result to competition for water and nutrient with crop.
2. It is limited to highlands and not asal region due to low moisture content.
3. Require spacing of between 2 – 10m to reduce competition.

Crops grown are

Maize, cowpeas beans

Tree shrubs

Caliandra and lucina

(a) Wind break shelter belt systems

- The system is adopted mainly for reducing the speed of wind.
- Trees are planted perpendicular to the direction of wind.
- It has more layers and more developed trees arrangement
- They are mainly used in desert where wind speed is strong.

PLANT BREEDING

This is an art and science of intentional genetic alteration of crop plant species to better them
serve of mankind

Why is it an art

It is an art because its highly objective i.e. it cannot be tested but it depends on one observational
skills.

Why is it a science

It is highly objective. It can be tested or verified based on scientific principles of plant science.

Objectives of plant breeding

Objectives depends on the needs of the farmers and consumers.

They include: -

1. Yield increase
2. improved quality
3. Asthetic value beauty
4. Pest resistance
5. Disease resistance
6. Adaptation
7. Adapted to mechanization
8. Cropping system
 9. Physical or abiotic stresses.

Importance of plant breeding

1. 50% gain in yield and improvement of major crops has been attributed to plant breeding.
- The other 50% is attributed to good agronomic practices and environmental condition.
2. It has lead to release of new varieties that are:-
- Resistant to pest and diseases hence decrease in cost of production
- Having a wide adaption which gives yield stability

Relationship of plant breeding to other disciplines

1. Genetics
2. Botant
3. Agronomy
4. Plant physiology/ plant brochemistry
5. Plant protection e.g., plant pathology entomology
6. Statistics
7. Social economic science.

Basic activities/phases of plant breeding

1. Setting or establishing objectives.

- It is based on indentified problems to be solved from a particular crop
2. Finding/ creading generational variability
3. Selection and creating testing of desirable genotype
4. Evaluate the best among the alteratives
5. Seed increased/multiplication.

Approaches of plant breeding

(a) Conventional or biometrical approach

It is based on observation and experience.
(b) Statistical or biometrical approach
It relies on statistical parameters of variance, means heritability h 2

(c) Biochemical/physiological approach

Genetic control of some biochemical process in the plant and how the processes relate to
the final trait to be improved.
(d) Biotechnological approach
This is where it involves tissues and cell culture technology. DNA recombinant
technology (plant genetic engineering).

AGENCIES/ INSTITUTION INVOLVED IN PLANT BREEDING

 1. IIIA International institute of tropical Agriculture
Mandate
- Legumes
- Roots and tuber crops
- Headquater is in Ibadan in Niger

2. CIAT – (entire for internatinave Agriculture tropical

Mandate crops

Beans and cassava

3. CIP – Central international de la papa mandate crops

Potatoes
Ho2 lima peru

4. IRRI International Rice Research Institute

Mandate crop

Rice

Hedd quarters

Loss banos [Link]

5. CIMMYT – Central international de la mejora miento de maize y trigo

Mandate

Maize

Wheat

Triticale (wheat Evye)

Hq Mexico city

6. ICRISAT

International crop research institute for semi and tropic

Mandate crops

Millet sorghum
 7. ICARDA

International centre for Agricultural Research for dry areas

Hq Allepo – Syria

Manade crops

Originaly dealt with berry but moved to wheat and dryland legumes e.g. chick peas.

(b) National Agencies

1. K.A.R.I – Kenya Agricultural research Institute
2. C.R.F. - Cofee Research Foundation

Mandated Crop

Coffee

Found in Ruiru

3. TRF – Tea Research foundation

Mandate - Tea
Hq Kericho
4. KSRF – Kenya Sugarcane Research Foundation
Mandate
Sugarcane

5. KEPHIS Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Services.

Origin of plant breeding

- Man used to survive as hunter and gathers therefore man started living in
groups/community. This brought to an accumulation of dirt ending up in improving soil
fertility.
- This lead to accidental seed which germinated giving forth to better plants than they were
where they were collected.
- They realized the crops they have been going for can do well where they were living.
This resulted to man selecting the best one.
- Babylonian and Asyrians cross pollinated date palms as early as 700 BC.
- Modern plant breeding become famous after rediscovering of Gregory medal in 1900
which provided a wide range of knowledge in science of genetics.
Reproductive system in plant in Relashion to plant breeding

Modes of reproduction
1. Asexual reproduction (apomixes)
2. Sexual reproduction (Amphilmixis
Sexual reproduction
Modes of pollination

Modes of pollination
1. Self pollination/autogamy/herbatual inbreeding
2. Mixed pollination
3. Cross pollination / allogamy/herbatual outbreeding

NB Sexual reproduction involves the union of make and female gamets to produce sexual seeds
or spores
A: Self pollination crop plant Autogamous plants
- This involves the transfer of pollen grains from another to the stigma of the same plant
or another flower with the same plant.
- The plant is said to be self pollinated when cross pollination is not more than 5%.
Mechanism involved or features that enhance self pollination
1. Clerstogamy:- The flower (perfect) which will never open at all.
2. Chasonogamy where a perfect flower opens after pollination and fertilization has
taken place.
3. Formation of a cone of anthers (sterminal column) around the stigma e.g. in
solanacea family.
4. Stigma and stamen may be hidden
As the flower opens
Genetic consequences of self pollination

1. The implication is that there will be no genetic variation

2. It will result to continous setting which will cause rapid increase of homozygosity or gene
get fixed. This result in information of inbreed lines or pure lines i.e. (homozygous
genotype in all hozi.
B: Cross pollination allogamous crop plants.
-This is the transfer of pollen grains from an anther of one flower to a stigma of another flower.
In a different plant of the same species.
There should be less than 5% self pollination

Features/mechanism enhancing cross pollination

(i) Dichogamy – Different maturation time of stamen and pistil.

- There are 2 types of dichogamy
(a) Protandry The stamen of the pollen in the another mature earlier than the pistil or
stigma e.g. carrots.
(b) The stamen or the pollen in the anther matures earlier than the stamen or anthers e.g.
avocado.

(ii) Monoecism :- male and female parts are position in different parts of the plant e.g.
maize.
 (iii) Dioecisms Each plant have different sex i.e. one plant having male or female
parts e.g. paw paw.
(iv)Adoptation to insect pollination
(v) Selfing incompatibility
- It is also refered to as self sterility
- This is a physiological process that prevent occurrence of self pollination even though both
stamen and pistil are perfect, fertile and mature at the same time.
- It is genetically controlled.
- There are 4 types of setting incompatibility.
1. Gamitalphitic self incompatibility
2. Sporophytic self incompatibility
3. Heteromophyc self incompatibility
4. Herkogamy self incompatibility
(vi) Male sterility
- A condition characterized by non functional pollen (male gametes) while the female
gametes function normally.
Genetic consequences of cross pollination
1. You always get new genotype or additional genetic vbariation
2. Recessive allele remain hidden in the heterozygous genotype.
3. In each cycle of cross pollination there is a reshuffle of genetic material occasionally
caused by recombination and segregation of genes.

Examples of cross pollinated plants

1. Maize 4 pawpaw 7
2. Pumpkins 5 8
3. Caster 6 9

(c) Mixed pollinating crop plant

- The plant are usually self pollinating but with more than 10% (10 – 30% Cross
pollination.
- It happens depending on environmental condition
Examples
Cotton peagon peas
Broad beans

Parts of a flower

- Flowers are reproductive structures whose evolutionary origin is unclear, but which are
sometimes regarded as collection of highly specialized leaves.
- Some parts used to describe flowers include the following.
a) Infloresence A collection of flower which may be more attractive to pollinating insects
than a small solitary flower.
b) Receptacles Top of the flower stain (pedices) from which flower parts arise.
c) Perianths – It consists of 2 wharls of structures called perianth segments i.e. sepals and
petals.
d) Calyx – collection of sepals
e) Sepals – usually green and leaf like structures that enclose and protect the flower buds.
f) Corolla – collection of petals
g) Adroecium –collection of stamen forming the male reproductive system of a flower.
h) Gynoecium – Collection of carpel forming the female reproductive system of a flower.
i) Ovules – Structure in which the embryo sack develop and which after fertilization
becomes seeds.
j) Hermaphrodite (bisexual) plant - A plant where male and female sex organs borne on the
same flower.
k) Dioecious (unisexual) plant –Male and female sex organs borne on separate plants pawpaw,
poplar, holly.
l) Monoecious – Separate male and female sex organs on the same plant e.g. maize.

anther
stamen

stigma

filament

style

Petal – collection of
petals is called
corola

ovary

ovule

Bract Receptacle

Sepal- collection of sepals is

called calyx
Asexual Reproduction Apomizis

- In Asexual there is no union of male and female garments hence the progenies are
garments hence the progenies are exact replica of the maternal parents (clone)
- There is no genetic variation unless through mutation. Reproduction can be achieved
through vegetative parts e.g. Tubers, bulbs, split bulbs.
- Through formation of asexual seed spore in a process called. (agamospermy)

Forms of Agamospemy

1. Gametophyc
2. Pseudogamy/pseudoapagamy/false union
3. Adventitious embryo

Variation in asexual reproducing plant (Apomietic)

1. No garmetic variation and if any it might be due to

(i) Somatic mutation
(ii) Somatic recombination

Types of apomitic plants

1. Obligate apomitic plant

2. Facultative opomitic plants

Obligate reproduce only asexual means

Facultative asexual plant they occasionally undergo sexual reproduction

Advantages of Apomiocis

1. Develop faster
2. Low cost of producing and maintaining them
3. You can develop genotype that can breed true to type regardless to heterozyosity.

Disadvantages

1. They can annuisance the breeder when sexual progeny is required.

2. There is element of seed sterility
 3. It is not always easy to achieve it due to a number of genes involved.

Heterosis/Hybreed vigour

- It is the opposite of inbreeding depression

- It is manifested by a particular quantitatively inherited character when it’s expression in
the f1 hybrid exceeds the expression in f1 hybrid the expression of characteristics of
parental line grown under comparison.

Criteria used in plant breeding to accurately specify the magnitude of heterosis effect

1. Comparison of the f1 mean with the mid-parent i.e. the average of e parental value

% increase due to heterosis = f1-mp X 100

Mp

Where f1= pregany mean value

2. Comparison of the f1mean with the mean of the higher of the 2 parents
% heterosis= f1- Hp X 100
HP

When HP = mean value of the higher parent

3. Comparison of the f1 mean with the mean of f2 population of the same hybrid
% heterosis = f1- f2 X 100

F2

Improvement by clonal selection

Comparison of several colones within a variety or among variety may reveal clones which
perform better than others.

- The better clones can be selected and used as new varieties

- The observed variation with a variety may originated mutation or somatic crossing over.

Improvement of hybridization

- Sexual reproduction is possible in some vegetative propagated plant to produce viable

seeds.
- Often special care is needed in handling such cases.
 - Sexual reproduction can be used to produce new hybrids from which selection can be
made to obtain better performing biotypes.
- The selected biotypes can then be propagated asexually as new cultivars.
- Sugarcane, onion, cassava are some of the crop that can be improved by hybridization.

Polyploidy

This is the duplication of whole set of individual chorosome.

- There are 2 forms of polyploidy namely

- Euploidy
- This is the exact multiples of the basic chromosomes number of the gene.
Aneupoloidy not exact multiples of the basic chromosomes number are duplicated.
EFECT OF POLYPLOIDY
Some superiority has been noted of some polyploidy cultivated plants over non-polyploid
related diploid plant as supported by the following general observation on polypoids.

(a)Gigantisms of polypoid

Polyploidy is often aci by an increase in cell and tissue.

This in turns leads to enlargements of fruit seed, flowers an roots.

(b) MULTIPLES GENE EFFECT

Gene are also multiplied during chromosome multiplication hence the effect of individual gene
adds up.

The large number of gene found in polypoids probably makes them able to achieve increases in
performance that might not be possible in non-polypoid plants.

(c) POLYPOIDY AND VARIABILITY

Great difference in hybrids of different species that are distantly related to one another favour
hybrid vigour.

(d) polypoids and variability

Polipoidy are tobe more stableand able to tolerate a wide range of environmental conditional

MUTATION BREEDING

This is deviation of improved cuttivers or plant by induced mutation of existing varieties.

Mutation breeding utilizes mutation and selection of population of limited variability.

Induced mutation is another way of generatic genetic variability in the plant breeders materials
followed by selection of desirable mutants.

Causes nature of mutation

1. natural causes –they are caused due to environmental factors e.g. temperature.

2. induced mutation –this is done by use of mutagenic agents e.g. ionizing radiation (x-rays
[Link] gamma rays neutrons)

3. chemicals mutages

the following chemical can cause mutation in plant

ethyl methane sulphonate.

Nilo ethyle layer

Advantages of mutation breeding

[Link] lead lodging resistant varieties in [Link] 1 NJORO I

2 DISEASES resistance varieties

3 good quality food in some crops

4increased crop yield

5it has lead to application in biological control program.

[Link] cytoplasmic male sterlivity in maize,berry and tomatoes.

Disadvantages

Large number of population have to screened inorder to indentify useful mutants.

2promising mutants may have some qualities defects

3mutation breeding often involves handling dangerous mutagens that can cause physical defects.

BREEDING FOR DISEASE RESISTANCE

A disease is enterferance to physiological proceses that cause limitations of full expersion of the
phenctype of individuals or cause them to give poor yield of desired product or effect the quality
of such products.

Growing of disease resistant crops varieties can prevent losses due to pathogens like fungi,
bacterial, viruses nematodes and insects pests.
The kind and amounts of loss caused by plant diseases and pests vary with crop products. The
pathogen, the local environments the control measure used and the combination of this factors.

Before starting a breeding programe to introduce resistance to a disease in a crop the breeder
must consider the following 3 factors.

1. The economic of the particular disease to determine whether the losses are large enough and
frequent to justify the time and money required.

2. The nature and genetic variability of resistance in the crop species and possibly in related wild
species.

3. The genetic variability of virulence in the pathogen.

(a) Immune –no proliferation or the pathogen in the host.

(b) Resistance – restriction on the penetration or growth of the pathogen in the host
(c) Susceptible –a susceptible has no apparent restriction on the growth of the pathogen in
the host.
(d) Pathogen- any organism that causes a disease.
(e) Pathogenic- used to describe the reaction of a pathogen to host species.
(f) Virulence- this is used to describe the reaction of a particular race of the pathogen e.g.
when a race grows in a particular host, variety it is considered to be virulent in resistant
variety it would be a virulent.
(g) Vertical resistance – Host variety resistant to a specific race or races of the pathogen. It
is also called gene resistance as it is controlled by a single major gene moderately
resistant to a wide range of races of the pathogen. It is also called polygenic resistance to
indicate it’s probable genetic control
(h) Tolerance – This is used to indicate that although the host is parasitized by the pathogen
it tolerates the infection and the yield is not reduced significantly as a result.

FACTORS THAT MAKES PLANTS AVOID INFESTATION/ESCAOE DISEASE

INFESCA

(a) Absence of a pathogen from an area:-

- A crop being cultivated in a new area leaving behind it’s pathogen. This can also be
achieved through fumigation or sterization.
(b) Absence of vectors from an area
- Some pathogens requires vectors to transmit them especially the viruses hence absence of
vectors exclude them.
(c) Cultural practices to avoid or diminish disease attack. Some varieties may escape
infection or suffer reduced losses if their lives avoid the disease peak. E.g. growing early
maturity varieties, crop rotation, crop hygiene e.t.c.
(d) Morphological structures of the plant in disease escape.
- Some plant structure helps a variety to escape infection e.g., sorghum midge where the
Numaba sorghum of West Africa have long purpery glumes which are not pushed open
by anthers so that the midge cannot lay eggs in the Thorets.
(e) Resistance to entry of pathogen in host
- This is a non active host response e.g. preventing the pathogen entry by phenolic
compounds in onions outer leaves as it prevents germination of onion smudge spores
this resistance to penetration can be attributed to any of the following.
1. A water repellant waxy buyer on the plant surface that makes adherence of spores
containing droplets more difficult, it also limits the exudation from the plant of nutrient
which a pathogen might use in the entry stage of ‘infestation’ infection.
2. A cuticle is a direct mechanical barrier to prevent penetration
3. Pre-existence cork buyer can also add to prevent penetration.
4. Epidermal structures such as hairs, can help to restrict penetration

(f) AResistance to spread of pathogen within the most.

- The spread of pathogen in a host can be prevented through the following.
1. Developing of a cock layer after injury to isolate the point of infection hence acting as a
barrier to the pathogen and also to the toxic substances it may produce.
2. The cytoplasm of the resistance host may dissolve the hyphae of the invacling pathogen.
3. Formation of necrotic reactions that prevent further infection after an infection.

(g) Resistance of plants to insects

- Plant resistance mechanisms to insects can be divided into 3 broad categories.
1. Non- preference – plant displays a degree of resistance by exerting an adverse effect on
the insects behaviour.
- This will deter insect from feeding on egg laying.
2. Antibiosis plants may exert an adverse effect on the growth and survival of the insect e.g.
inhibited growth death and prolonged to maturity.
The following 3 forms of antibiosis are known
(i) Physicals tissue toughness as a result of lignifications and high silica content that make
plant to feed or Oviposition
(ii) Biochemical i.e. presence of some chemicals inhibit the growth and development of
insects.
(iii) Nutritional deficiencies – absence of a specific nutrient required by an insect can serve
to make a plant resistant
3. Tolerance – is a plant may be capable of supporting an insect population without loss of
vigour or recuction in crop yield.

GENETIC BASIS OF DISEASE RESISTANCE

- Disease resistance is genetically controlled character.

- A complex genetic relationship between the host and the pathogen.
- There is great variability with the pathogen species and also with the host species.
- A given pathogen species may have several races each different in ability to infect or
attack various host genotype.
- Some races may have the ability to attack some plant types and fail to infect others.
- Breeding for disease resistance has been dependant on these important observation.

Variability system in pathogenic fungi

- Plant resistance to diseases is susceptible after a given period of time due to rise of new
races, that could infect known resistant plants.
- The following are mechanism by which fungi rise to new races.

1. Sexual reproduction
- Through segregation an recombination of genes during meiosis it lead to new races.
2. Mutation
- Through mutation it lead to effective evolving of new virulent races of pathogens.
3. Heterokraysis
- It’s a form of asexual recombination in which the whole nuclear are exchanged between
dicaryotic hyphae of different spaces of the fungis.
This nuclear exchange may affect the pathogenicity of the fungal races.
4. Parasexualism or somatic hybridization
-2 Haploid nuclear join to form a diploid which then divide meteorically to form
recombination followed by a rare haplordization to give rise to new races of the
pathogen.
5. Cytopl;asimic changes within the organism which enables to attack the host is another
source of new virulent race.

Variability in host species

- Host plants of a given species differ in their reaction to pathogen depending on their
genetic make-up.
- Some plants are suscpeptible while others are resistant. The duration of resistance varies
among plants. This discovery increasing efforts by breeders to breed disease resistant
varieties for release to farmers.

Identification

Techniques used to transfee resistance from wild varieties to cultivated one.

- Conventional crossing and back crossing

- Chromosome transfer using either addition or substitution lines recombinant DNA
technology.
 Identification of physiological laces

- In breeding for disease resistance efforts are usually made develop varieties that are
resistant to all races prevalent in a given area.
- Identification of physiological races of a particular pathogen species is usually based on
differences in types of infection produced in a given group of selected varieties called
host testers or differentials.

Breeding Disease Resistant Cultivars

Sources of disease Resistance gene

1. Resistant gene within the crop species. This can be various varieties of the same species
including a differential set resistant varieties.

- Land races though of poor yield often serves as valuable source of genes for disease
resistance hence the importance of conserving them.
2. Resistance genes from wild crop relatives.
- Three techniques can be used to transfere resistance from related wild species to a
cultivated farm. This are.
(a) Conventional crossing and back crossing i.e. introgression
(b) Chromosome transfer using either addition or substitution lines
(c) Recombinant DNA technology
3. Iduced mutation
- Positive results have obtained whereby induced mutations have confired resistance to
various diseases in several crops including wheat, rice, peanut and others.

Methods of breeding for resistance

- Resistant varieties which are found to be superior in other important character are
selected to replace susceptible cultivars.
- Back + cross procedure are used incorporating a resistance gence in an otherwise
desirable genotype.

Strategies for bleeding for disease resistant cultivars

Through development of varieties with broad Genetic Bases.

- This can be achieved in 3 ways.

(a) Use of combination of major genes (gene pyramiding) This gene which has not
previously been used in the local commercial varieties.
- This extends the useful life of each of the resistance genes involved. It also offers ones
means of exploiting any significant stabilizing selection against races carrying multiple
genes for virulence.
 (b) Use of general or non specific resistance.
- This operates against a larger number of races. It is polygeneticaly controlled hence it’s
likely to be easily overcome by the pathogen as in the case of specific resistance.
- Varieties with general resistance often show a more stable disease reaction, such variety
rarely suffer severe attacks. From new races of the pathogen and are not subject to the
dramatic breakdown of major gene resistance.

(c) Combining specific and nonspecific resistance

- The resulting resistance become more effective and provides more permanent resistance
through this combination the spread of disease is much more retarded.
2. Use of multiline resistance or interaction resistance.
- A multiline cultivar is one that is composed of a mixture of isogenic each possessing a
different major gene for resistance.
- It is aimed at introducing genetic diversity for disease resistance into a homogeniods crop
thus maintaining uniformity in morphology, yield performance and product quality.
- Varieties with different genes for resistance are selected and closed separetly to best
available local variety.
3. GENE DEPLOYMENT
- It is carried out in 2 ways in time and space. The idea is to produce a series of different
varieties with different genes and release them in turn, over more than one cycle or
release them at different location or region.

Use of interspecific Diversity

This creates stability mixed mono culture or mixed cropping can be effectively used to
reduce disease outbreak.

Role of cultural practices

- Good management practices added to genetic resistance provides unbeatable

combination in reducing crop hazards and eliminating source of disease.
- Removal of alternative host also reduces the number of new races involving time to time.

SEED PRODUCTION PROCESSING AND DISTRIBUTION

- When a breeder has developed a variety gadget to be a candidate for release to growers
several decisions must be made with regard to it’s face i.e. whether the variety should be
released or discarder, whether the variety should be recommended for a particular
production area only and how the know variety is to be identified. The process of variety
or culture release and subsequent certification multiplication and distribution is generally
the same in most countries.
- The primary function of the breeder is to develop new varieties and carryout serious
studies on them to justify their release before presenting a request for release to an
official variety release agency which may be a government organ or a private
organization.
- The plant breeder present information on the proposed selection collected over the period
of testing and evaluation. This includes yield performance, quality, disease reactions
morphological characteristics and all the other available data.
- The breeder is required to provide a complete summary of his findings including
deficiencies as well as the advantages of the new variety and in what ways its superior be
existing cultures.
- The variety release agency or certification agency is the overall in charge and oversees all
the step followed before the seed is released to the growers and it also administer
regulations of production and marketing that are designed to assure variety purity and
reasonable standards of seed quality.
- Public seed testing labs have been established in most countries to achieve above
mentioned functions.
- Once approved by the certification agency the material is made available to commercial
seed production agencies which can be government owned normally having the
equipment and experience to grow clean, and market large quantities of pure seed.
- The commercial seed production company would then sell the seed to private sellers or
co-operative who inturn would sell the seeds to farmers/growers.

Seed production and distribution

The seed can be classified into for classes as it passes from breeders seed up to the stage. It
is sold to farmers. This classes are.

1. Breeders seed
This is a seed or vegatatively propagated materials produced by the breeder
Breeders seeds comes from a small increase that the breeds feeds is a true genetic
representation of the variety.
Seeds increase begins during advanced yield trials or uniforms yield trials so that
adequate seed would be available for the production of foundation seed.
2Foundation seed
Breeders seed is planted in field not subjected to volunteers plant of the same crop and
keep free of weeds.
-the field is then roqued several times during the season to remove off-types.
The harvest from this crop bulked and it is called foundation seed . it is common for this
work to be done by specific foundation seed farms that are publicaly owned in most third
countries.
 Registered seed

Foundation seed is normaly turned over to an agency or a small group of highly experienced
growers who plant it to produce registered seed. This registered seed is the progeny of highly of
the foundation seed its production and handling must be approved and certified agency and its
quality must be such that its suitable for the production of certified seeds.

Certified seed

Certified seed is the progeny of the registered seed i.e registered is planted to provide certified
seed .

This is then seed produced on a large scale to meet the need of growers . it must be produced and
handled in such a way as to meet the standard set by the seed certifying agency.

[Link] year involved from the time of variety released to the build up of commercial stock this
is the time added to the end of breeding program before a variety is grown on a large scale.

Extension and post release studies

-After the release of a variety information must be made to the grower about the new release . the
ministry of agriculture have elaborate extension programes which provide information to farmers
on the attributes and agronomic packages recommended for the new cultivar . the success or
failure of a new variety rests within the grower who uses experience and judgment to compare
the new variety against those already available to the management system.

-Growers try new variety on a limited area for an a year or two years and conduct their own
evaluation before extending to large areas. After a variety has been accepted by growers it is
necessary for plant breeder to make a follow up study on the performance of the variety to take
note on any problem that may arise. This will provide an opportunity for plant breeders to make
further improvement on the variety if these are any problem associated with it in terms of its
performance in the field, quality of the desired product, strange characteristic e.t.c.

FORAGE CROPS

These are plants which grow naturally or are planted by man. They are of two types.

1fodder crops which forage crops that are harvested at certain stage and fed to the livestock

2. pasture crops this are forage crops harvested at directly by livestock through grazing

Pasture

A pasture is a land on which forage crops are grazed on directly by livestock

Classification of pasture
 - Pasture can be classified into.

(a). pasture stand

In this class the pasture may be

(1). Pure stand pastures

This pastures have either grasses or legumes on them, it May have only one type grass or a
mixture of different grasses.

-it may also have only one type of legumes of a mixture of different legumes.

(11). Mixed stand pasture

This pasture the grasses legumes are grown together

Pasture establishment

In this class pastures in this class pastures are classified as;

(i) Natural pastures this are pasture grasses or legumes that grow naturally and
extensively for both domestic and wild animals. They are mainly mixed stands
pastures.
(ii) Artificial pastures/ hays Thi
s are grasses and legumes planted by man purposely for livestock feeds.
- They are normally of high quality and give high yields.

C. Classification on the basis of altitudes or zones

- This pastures are classified as

1. High altitude grasses pasture and legumes

- This are pastures which are found at high altitudes of 2500 m A.S.L. or higher.

This pastures are ever green and show vigorous growth throughout the year. They are suitable
for dairy and sheep farming e.g.

grasses: Giant sectarian

Kikuyu grass Rhodes grass

Nandi Setaria legumes

Molasses grass Kenya white clover

Louisiana while clover Lucerne

Subterranean clove

(II) Medium altitude pasture

This are pastures found at the……………………

This favours beef, goat, sheep and dairy farming

Giant setaria

Guatemala grass

Legumes

Lucerne

Example Grasses Silver leaf desmodium

Rhodes grass Green leaf desmodium

Nandi sataria Sivatio stylo

Star grass

Makueni guines

Congo signal

Malava guinea

(III) Low altitude pasatures

This are pasture found in marginal areas of Kenya below 1500m A.S.L. this area receives little
rainfall and usually indegegenous livestock like camels, donkey cattle, sheep and goats are kept.

- This zone is characterizes by natural pastures.

Example

Grasses Makarikari grass

African fox tail Red oat grass

Maasai love grass Hyparrheia (thatch grass)

Likoni guinea Giant star grass

Bothriochlwa Glycube

Para grass centro

Andropogolo

Cymhopogan

Digitaria

Legumes

Stylo

Other pastures crops Fodder shrubs

Weed grasses Leucaenia

Cough grass Atrippex

Nut sedges

Sporobolus

PASTURE ESTABLISHMENT

- Pastures can be established by use of seed rhizomes or splits

Selection of planting materials

- Planting material selected should bear the following characteristics.

(1) Should be adopted to prevailing environment condition.
(2) Should be fast growing inorder to give a good ground cover which will help control soil
erosion.
(3) It should be a variety that alse to give high herbage yield per unit area.
(4) It should be of high quality nutritative value.

Land preparation

- Land should be ploughed and harrowed to a fine tilth before planting. This is done before
onset of rains by removing all the perennial weeds.

Planting materials

- This are mainly seeds but there are some established vegetative.
- Seed rate
 - The seed rate for a pasture grass is 1.5 kgs – 2kgs of the pure germinating seed (PGS).
This seed in Kenya are produced by the Kenya seed company but distributed by various
agents throughout the country.

Seed quality

- Seed are normally sold in 2 lots Namelu:

- High quality seeds- this are seeds with 13 – 25% (pgs)
- The standard quality this are seed with 12.5% pgs

Legume seed rate

This depends on the seeds size e.g. 2kg/ha for the tiny seeds like clovers. 2 – 3 kgs/ha for the
medium seed e.g. desmodium and Lucerne which is planted in rows of 30 – 45cm at a seed rate
of 8 – 10 kgs/ha as pure stand.

N/B vegatatively propagated pasture grass such as Rhodes grass and Kikuyu grass should be
planted to ensure a rapid ground cover.

Fertilizer application at

Forage crops require phosphorus for proper root development and establishment. The type and
rate of fertilizer depends on the soil conditions of a particular area. E.g. single superphosphate
SSP 20% P2 0s and 12% S is applied at the rate of 200kg/ha for grasses and legume mixtures
because of its sulphur contents. For pure grasses it’s recommended to use compound fertilizer
like NPK 20:20:0 or 23:23:0 at a rate of 200kg/ha which ensure rapid establishment due to the
presences of starter nitrogen.

Legume seed innoculation

- This is addition of effective rhozobia to leguminous seed prior to planning to promote

nitrogen fixation.
- This is done in areas where soil is deficient in nitrogen. It involves coating of the legume
seed with pelleting especially in acid soil and peat best Rhozobia. Some Rhozobia strains
are naturaly found in the phorus potassium and rainfall.
- -Others are introduced through inoculation.

Examples of Rhozobium strain

Crop Rhizobium species

Lucern Rhizobium melioti

Cloves Rhizobium trifolli

Beans Rhizobium phaseols

 - Most pasture reeds are small hence they should be covered lightly after broadcasting.
- There are 3 main methods of sowing pasture crops this are.
1. Direct sowing
- This involves establishment of a pasture crop in a clean seed bed. Where no other crops
are growing. Seeds are first mixed with fertilizer thoroughly broadcasted and then
lightly covered by use of a rake to about 3mm deep a depth of more than 5mm often
results in poor germination.

2. Under sowing
- It involves establishment of a pasture under a cover crop usually maize.
- Maize is planted as recommended by weeded 2-3 weeks after the onset of rains.
- Pasture seeds are then broadcasted with the recommended amount of fertilizer no further
weeding should be done.
- Maize is harvested early to expose the young pasture seeding to sunlight.
3. Over sowing

It involves establishing of a pasture legume in an existing grass pasture. This sowing surpreses
the growth of the existing pasture by burning, slashing or hard grazing together with slight soil
disturbance. Just before sowing.

A heavy dose of single superphosphate at the rate of 200kg/- 400kg/ha is also recommended.
Keep the grass pasture short until the legume pasture is well established.

Management of pasture

Management of pastures

(i) Weeding
Weeding should be controlled as much as possible from invading the pastures.

(ii) Effects of weed on pastures

1. They reduce life span of pastures
2. They compete with forage crops for nutrients sunlight, moisture.
3. Weed reduce the quality and herbage yields
4. Some weed may result in livestock poisoning e,g thorn apple Datura Stramomonium
5. They interfere with forage fertilization

Weed control measure on pastures

1. Timely land preparation this ensures a clean seed bed with less subsequent weed
problems.
 2. Slashing this ensures that he broad leafed weed are eliminated before the flowering
stage hence preventing the formation of weed seeds.
3. Application of selective herbicides This is mainly done on pure grass pastures e.g. 24
– D is applied against broad leafed leaves.
NB Non – Selective herbicides can be applied as a pre-emergence application.
4. Uprooting of weeds very effective where weeds are scattered.

(b) Top Dressing

Application of plant nutrients after the pastures has established.

Reasons for top dressing

1. To add or replenish soil nutrients and ensure proper nutrients balance.
2. Increase the herbage yield.
3. Improve the nutritive value of the crop[
4. Correct or amend both physical and chemical properties such as soil structure and
moisture holding capacity
5. To enable the soil micro organisms to break down organic residue into available
nutrients.
Top dressing material
It depends on the crop and soil nutrients status. Inorganic fertilizers are better top dress material
than organic manures since they release their nutrients much faster

Pure grass pasture require large amount of nitrogen and occasionally potassium. While grass,
legume mixtures requires phosphorus potassium, calcium and sulphur for nitrogen fixation.

Rate of application
This is related to the nutrient uptake by the forage crop in question e.g. in pastures fertilizers and
broadcast at the beginning of rains, small as a time to reduce losses through runoff percolation
and volatilization.

C. TOPPING
this is the removal of stormy fibrous material left over after a period of pasture grazing. This
stimulates fresh growth, it is done at the onset of rains and subsequently during a wet spell
preferably followed by top dressing. Its done through slashing, mowing and burning.

D. Re seeding/Gapping
It is done when the grass or legume is partially denuded ot an extent of re-filling the gaps.

E. Some pastures are seriously affected by heavy grazing leading to low herbage product. Cush
pastures require controlled grazing though paddocking tethering and strip grazing.

Pest Control
This most common pest in pasture is moles that make underground tunnels destroy of pasture
crops hence killing them. Soils from such tunnel cover the pasture crop which results in
denudation of pasture. More are controlled by trapping, use of rodentcides and use of cats.

Pasture utilization
-large quality declines with age, the quality components are: soluble sugar, starch, protein,
organic matter and digestibility.
Digestibility declines due to increase in crude fibre content as the herbage mature.

Frequency of defoliation
Defoliation is the grazing in pastures and cutting for feed in fodder crops.
Frequency of defoliation refer to how often the forage stand in grazed and cut for feed.

Effects of very early defoliation (less than 4 weeks)

1. The forage has very high moisture content of about 90%.
2. The forage has very high protein content on the weight basis
3. It has very low dry matter content hence low dry matter yield.
4. It has very low crude protein yield
5. It has high dry matter digestibility but low digestible nutrients
6. Frequent early defoliation leads to a graded weakening of the stand followed by empty
patches with invasion and eventual reduction in the productive life of the stand.
Effects of rate defoliation (more than 10 weeks)

1. The forage has high dry matter content hence high dry matter yield.
2. It has high cellulose content hence its woody and fibrous.
3. It has high lignin, cutin tannin and silica content which are all indigestible
4. It has low crude protein content
5. Has low leaf to stem ratio
6. It has low dry matter digestibility

NB The time of the defoliation and subsequent frequency should strike a compromise between
dry matter yield and the quality components between dry matter yield and the quality
component mainly curde protein and digestibility
Grazing should be done 4 – 6 month after planting depending on the species and the amount of
rainfall during the establishment period.
- Subsequently grazing is done on a 4 – 8 week interval.

Reasons for paddoking

1. To control grazing and ensure sufficient regrowth before grazing is resumes.
2. To ensure better forage utilization and less wastage through trampling and selective
grazing.
3. Facilitate conservation of excess pasture inform of hay or standing forage.
4. To maintain a favourable grass legume balance where applicable.

Carrying capacity of a forage

This is the ability of the forage stand to maintain a particular number of livestock units per unit
area.
It depends on herbage yield and the animals daily requirement.

Stocking rate
It refers to the number of animal or livestock units maintained per unit area of land.

NB: To determine the carrying capacity and hence the proper stocking rate for a particular forage
stand, dry matter yields per unit area per unit time and the live weight of the animal to be fed are
considered.

Example
A dairy cow consumes 2.5kgs DM for every 100kgs. How much dry mater consumed by a
jersey cow weighing 400kgs live weight per year.

2.5kgDm Per 100kg’s 365/per year

100

400 X 2.5 X365 = 3650

100 1,000
3.65 tonC Dm/Year
How much Dm will quency 450 kg per one year

2.5 X 400 X 365 = 4.1 tone of DM/year

100 100

Ayrchire
Weighing 500kg live weight
2.5 X 500 X 365 = 4.6t of Dm/year
100 100

-Carrying capacity is increased by intensive management practices such as irrigation,

fertilizer application, manure use of supplementary roughage e.g. agro individual by
products like molasses.

Under stocking

It is the stocking rate below the carrying capacity of the pasture.

Effects of overstocking
1. Insufficient regrowth period for the forage hence effects similar to those of very early
defoliation.
2. Overgrazing and loss of soil cover leading to erosion.
3. Invasion of undesirable species especially weeds and shrubs.

Intensity of defoliation
This is the proportion of herbage removed through grazing and that of residue forage in fodder
crops it refers to the r ratio of the forage . In fodder crops it refers to the ratio of the forage
grazed or cut to what is left.
Pasture should be grazed until 70% pf the aerial herbage is eaten up which concedes with 5cm
stubble. For short grasses such as kikuyu grass and 10.15 cm for taller grasses such as Rhodes
grass.

NB: Frequency and intensity of defoliation should be planed in such away that sufficiently
mature forage with high crude protein content is ensured at each defoliation without sacrificing
the productive life of a forage stand.

GRAZING SYSTEM
There are 3 main types of grazing systems. This are.
1. Rotational grazing
2. Continous grazing
3. Zero grazing

A. Rotational grazing

- This is the practice of allowing livestock to feed on part of a pasture for a period down to a
certain level be they moved to the next. This is organized in an orderly sequence such
that by the time the animals are returned to the place where they started the pasture will
have properly regenerated.
Advantages
1. Livestock make maximum use of pasture
2. It reduces the build up of pests and diseases
3. Animals waste are distributed evenly in all fields or peacocks
4. Pasture area is given time to regrow before it is grazed again.
5. Excess pasture can be harvested for conservation
6. It is possible to apply fertilizers in parts of the pasture which are not in use and also reseeding
and weeding.

Methods of rotation grazing

1. Paddocking
- A paddock is a fenced portion of pasture in which animals are restricted for grazing.
Paddocking is grazing livestock in one paddock for a short period and then moving them to
another. The size of paddock depend on carrying capacity of pasture.

- Water troughs are placed between paddock such that animals can drink water from either
paddock. This saves energy and labour in changing from one paddock to another.
Paddocking though expensive saves herding labour.

2. Strip grazing
This allows livestock to graze on restricted portions of the pasture at a time and then moving
them to the next. It is done on a very high quality pastures.
- Electric fences can be used to enclose animals in a given strip of pasture.
- Herding can be done to restrict animals to stay within the strips
- Temporarily fences can also be used.

TETHERING

- This involves tying an animal to a post with a rope such that it feeds within a restricted area.
The rope may have a metal ring which slides along a strong wire supported by poles.

B: ZERO GRAZING/STALL FEEDING

- It is a practice of laying animals in a permanent feeding enclosure known as a stall.

- Feed is cut and taken to the animals in the stalls, animals are provided with plenty of clean
water together with mineral links.

Advantages
1. There is quick accumulation or manure.
2. Animals make use of the feed without wastage
3. Animals produce high yields due to less wastage of energy.
4. It is easy to control diseases and parasites.
5. It requires little land.
6. It allows higher stocking rate.

Disadvantages
1. It requires high initial capital
2. It requires high management skills
3. It is labour intensive. i.e. it require a lot of labour.
4. Diseases can easily be spread.

C. Continous Grazing/herding
- This is the type of grazing where the pasture is not allowed any resting period.
- The pastures and the animals wander all over the area on daily bases. The animals have
to be herded to control their movement as they graze. Their system can result to
overgrazing if the stocking rate is not controlled.
- It is commonly in arid and semi arid areas.
- It is the method used by nomadic pastoralist.

FODDER CROPS
The forage crops are grown allowed to mature them out and given to livestock as feeds. Animals
are then not allowed to graze on them directly because they easily degenerate. The fodder has
higher herbage production per unit area of land.
Fodder crops can be conserved and be sold if produced on large scale.

Examples of fodder crops

Napier grass (Pennisetum purpuneum)
SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT NUTRITION
Common terms
1. An element is a fundamental substance that consists of atoms of one type which are defined
by the number and arrangement of electrons I the orbital.
2. A Mineral This is an inorganic substance usually made up of one or more element that is
formed under given temperature pressure condition and it’s characterized by unique set of
chemical and physical properties.
3. Soil productivity This is the capacity of the soil to produce a certain amount of crop yield
per unit area of land.
4. Soil fertility This is the chemical nature of the soil that can be defined as the ability of soil to
provide essential plant nutrients in adequate and balanced amount to support the set level of
crop yield.
5. Nutrient this is the element or chemical compound which is required by an organism e.g.
plant for metabolism and growth.
6. Deficiency This is a condition where an element is low quality in plant tissue such that the
plant will show certain characteristic symptoms leading to measurable/observable features.
7. Toxic element This is an element of which when taken up by plant in excess will impair the
normal performance of the plant e.g. Al and Mn

Beneficial element
- These are mineral element which either stimulate growth but are not essential or might
not be essential to plant under certain condition.
Plant Nutrition
This is the process of absorption and utilization of essential element for plant growth and
reproduction. There are 17 main elements, important for crop growth. The table below shows
the 17 elements and their Ionic forms observed by plants.

ELEMENT IONIC FORM AVAILABLE TO PLANTS

Carbon CO2
Oxygen Co2, O2-, OH- CO32-
Hydrogen HoH, H+
Nitrogen NH+ NO3-
Calcium Ca2+
Potassium K+
Magnesium mg2+
Phosphorus H2 PO4-, HPO4-
sulphur SO42-, HSO4- HPO4-
Chlorine CL-
Iron Fe2+, Fe3+
Boron H3BO3, H2BO3-
Manganese Mn2+
zinc Cu2+
copper Cu2+ CU (OH)+
molybdenum MoO42-
Cobalt Co2+
Carbon hydrogen and oxygen are mostly obtained from water and air while the rest is from the
soil and solid.
- Nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, and sulphur are required in large quantities hence
called Macro Nutrients N.P.K. are the primary nutrients while calcium, magnesium and sulphur
are secondary nutrients. These primary nutrients cannot be substituted with any other element.

- The rest are required in relatively low amount and are called micro nutrients or trace
elements.
- The plants growth are dependent on a favourable combination of the following six
environmental factors. i.e.

Hight Air
Mechanical support Water
Heat Nutrients

Soil can supply all of them with exception of light. The condition that is least optimal will limit
plant growth hence the law of Minimum. Which states that the level of plant production can be
no greater essential plant growth factors.

Mechanism of plant nutrient up-take

Prior to absorption into root cell, nutrients reach the surface of root by 3 mechanisms.

1. Mass flow - this is the movement of plant nutrients in the flowing soil solution i.e.
(water) it is the most important as it delivers the largest amount of nutrients of about
80%.
2. Diffusion – this is the movement by normal dispersion of the nutrient from a higher
concentration through the soil water to areas of lower concentration of that nutrient.
3. Root interception – this is the extension of the root into new soil areas with untapped
supplies of nutrients in the soil solution.

The mechanism of absorption into the root cells are.

1. Carrier transport (active process) for a nutrient to cross a cell membrane into the cell.
It is believed that each ion must be attached to a carrier. The carrier nutrient complex can
pass through the membrane into the cell.

The carrier utilize energy utilize energy and thus enable transportation of nutrients against
concentration gradient.

2. Facilitated diffusion
- As cations are absorbed hydrogen ions are excreted into the soil solutionor more organic acid
anions are produced inside the cell to balance the absorbed cations likewise as nutrients
anions are absorbed and/or hydrogen carbons HCO 3- are excreted into the soil solutions
inorder to maintain the electron balance in the cell.

3. Simple diffusion (passive process)

Plants also absorbed nutrients through the stomata e.g. carbon inform of carbon dioxide and
hydrogen inform of water but in small amounts

4. Transpiration pull

As the plant transpire more water is absorbed from the fall with some nutrients with some
nutrients dissolved in it.

Factors affecting nutrient availability/uptake

- The factors that affect metabolism and thereby the availability of respiratory energy will
directly affect nutrient uptake.

They include:-

1. Temperature in soil which affects microbial activities.

2. Oxygen supply which is usually altered by management practices like compaction which
affects the amount of oxygen reading the roots.
3. Concentration of the nutrient- the higher the concentration the higher the likelihood of more
uptake up to a given level.
4. Soil moisture or water content- Which influences the rate of nutrient movement.
5. The density and distribution of roots e.g. phosphorous uptake is favoured by root
proliferation.
6. Soil reactions (Soil PH).
7. Source of nutrient – The strength in which the nutrient is held (available.
8. Antagonism- Some enzymatic and other biochemical reactions requiring a given micro
nutrient may be affected by the presences of a second trace element in toxic quantities e.g.
excess copper or sulphate may adversely affect the utilization uptake molybdenum. Excess
phosphate may encourage deficiency of zinc iron, or copper but enhance the absorption on
molybdenum. Heavy nitrogen intensifies copper and zinc deficiencies.

Plant nutrient

- Plant nutrients are divided into 2 major groups this are macro nutrient and micro nutrient.

Micro nutrients
- This are also referred to as major elements and they are needed by plants in large
quantities for growth and development. They cannot be substituted growth and
development. They cannot be substituted by any other element. They include Nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium referred to as Primary Macro nutrients and calcium
magnesium and suphur referred to as secondary macro nutrients. All this elements are
found in the soil. They include the following.
-