QUANTUM COMPUTING COMPLETE STUDY NOTES
2 MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. Advantage of Deutsch–Jozsa Algorithm:
The Deutsch–Jozsa algorithm determines whether a function is constant or balanced using only one query,
whereas a classical algorithm may require multiple queries.
2. Input State Used in Deutsch–Jozsa Algorithm:
The input state is usually initialized as:
|0■^⊗n |1■
3. Need for Shannon’s Noiseless Channel Coding Theorem:
It helps determine the minimum number of bits required to encode information efficiently without losing data.
4. Minimum Number of Bits Required to Encode Information:
The minimum number of bits is given by the entropy of the source.
5. Schumacher’s Quantum Noiseless Channel Coding Theorem:
It states that quantum information can be compressed to the von Neumann entropy limit without significant loss.
6. Quantum Channel Capacity:
Quantum channel capacity is the maximum amount of quantum information that can be reliably transmitted
through a quantum channel.
7. Example of Supervised and Unsupervised Learning:
Supervised learning: Email spam classification
Unsupervised learning: Customer clustering
8. Optimization in QML:
Optimization in Quantum Machine Learning refers to adjusting parameters of a quantum model to minimize error
or maximize performance.
9. Quantum Circuit in Qiskit:
A quantum circuit in Qiskit is a sequence of quantum gates and measurements used to perform quantum
computations.
10. Purpose of Generative Models in QML:
Generative models in Quantum Machine Learning are used to generate new data samples similar to the training
data distribution.
8 MARKS - DEUTSCH–JOZSA ALGORITHM
Introduction:
The Deutsch–Jozsa algorithm is one of the first quantum algorithms that demonstrated the power of quantum
computing over classical computing.
Advantages:
1. Exponential speedup
2. Demonstrates quantum parallelism
3. Uses quantum interference efficiently
4. Foundation for advanced quantum algorithms
5. Fewer computational steps
Disadvantages:
1. Limited practical applications
2. Requires ideal quantum conditions
3. Complex hardware requirements
4. Oracle construction difficulty
5. Sensitive to errors
Conclusion:
The Deutsch–Jozsa algorithm proved that quantum algorithms can outperform classical algorithms for certain
problems.
8 MARKS - QUANTUM FOURIER TRANSFORM
Introduction:
Quantum Fourier Transform (QFT) is the quantum version of the Discrete Fourier Transform.
Working Principle:
QFT transforms quantum states into frequency-domain representation.
Formula:
|x■ → (1/√2^n) Σ e^(2πixy/2^n)|y■
Steps:
1. Apply Hadamard gate
2. Apply controlled phase rotation gates
3. Swap qubits
4. Measure output
Applications:
1. Shor’s algorithm
2. Quantum phase estimation
3. Signal processing
4. Period finding
5. Quantum algorithms
Advantages:
1. Exponentially faster
2. Efficient for large systems
3. Requires fewer computational steps
Conclusion:
QFT is a powerful and fundamental operation in quantum computing.
16 MARKS - SHANNON’S NOISELESS CHANNEL CODING
THEOREM
Introduction:
Claude Shannon introduced the noiseless channel coding theorem in information theory.
Statement:
A source producing information with entropy H can be encoded using an average of H bits per symbol.
Entropy Formula:
H(X)= -Σ p_i log■ p_i
Analysis:
1. Data compression limit
2. Efficient coding
3. Removal of redundancy
4. Lossless communication
Significance:
1. Foundation of information theory
2. Efficient storage
3. Faster data transmission
4. Basis for compression algorithms
5. Optimization of communication systems
Importance of Shannon Entropy:
1. Measures information content
2. Determines minimum code length
3. Basis for compression techniques
4. Helps reduce redundancy
5. Improves transmission efficiency
6. Important in multimedia applications
Advantages:
1. Provides mathematical measure of information
2. Enables efficient coding
3. Reduces storage and communication cost
Limitations:
1. Assumes statistical independence
2. Practical coding may not reach exact entropy limit
Conclusion:
Shannon entropy is the basis of efficient source coding and modern communication systems.
16 MARKS - TAXONOMY OF COST FUNCTIONS IN QML
Introduction:
Quantum Machine Learning combines quantum computing with machine learning.
General Cost Function:
C(θ)= (1/N) Σ L(y_i, ■_i)
Types of Cost Functions:
1. Fidelity-Based Cost Functions
Formula:
F(|ψ■,|φ■)=|■ψ|φ■|²
2. Expectation Value-Based Cost Functions
Formula:
C(θ)=■ψ(θ)|H|ψ(θ)■
3. Classification Loss Functions
Formula:
MSE=(1/N) Σ(y_i-■_i)²
4. Distance-Based Cost Functions
5. Hybrid Quantum-Classical Cost Functions
Role of Cost Functions:
1. Performance evaluation
2. Guides parameter updates
3. Improves model accuracy
4. Enables learning in variational circuits
Optimization:
θ*=arg min C(θ)
Gradient Update Rule:
θ_(t+1)=θ_t - η∇C(θ_t)
Optimization Methods:
1. Gradient-based optimization
2. Gradient-free optimization
Challenges:
1. Barren plateau problem
2. Noise and decoherence
3. High computational complexity
Conclusion:
Cost functions and optimization are essential for training quantum machine learning models.