1) Heterotrophic Nutrition

• Heterotrophic nutrition in humans occurs in five stages

You can remember using the acronym Izzie’s Dog Ate An Egg
o Ingestion: the process by which food is taken into the body via the mouth.
o Digestion: the process by which food is broken down into simple, soluble food
molecules.
o Absorption: the process by which the soluble food molecules, produced in digestion,
move into the body fluids and body cells.
o Assimilation: the process by which the body uses the soluble food molecules absorbed
after digestion.
o Egestion: the process by which undigested food material is removed from the body.

• In humans, the system that handles nutrition is the digestive system. It is its job to convert
food to a form the body can use.
• The digestive system consists of:
o The alimentary canal / gastrointestinal tract / gut
o Liver and Gall bladder
o Pancreas
• The alimentary canal is a muscular tube, about 8-9 meters,
that runs from the mouth to the anus. Each section is
adapted to carry out its own special function. The parts
of the alimentary canal are the mouth, oesophagus, stomach,
small intestines, large intestines and anus.
a) The Mouth
• Ingestion starts with the mouth. This is where food is taken into the body, by the hands.
• Digestion occurs in two ways in the mouth, chemical and mechanical.

i) Mechanical Digestion in the Mouth

• Mechanical digestion is done by the teeth. Mastication (chewing) is done by the teeth and
tongue.
• The tongue turns and stirs the food while the teeth chew and break the food into smaller
pieces.
• Mechanical digestion is very important because:
o Breaking down food into small pieces increases the surface area for enzymes in the
mouth t effectively work (more surface area is exposes for the enzymes to work on).
o Food is broken up to make it easier to pass through the alimentary canal.

The Teeth
• There are four types of teeth in the human mouth.
o Incisors
o Canines
o Premolars
o Molars
• Teeth make food particles smaller for swallowing and movement of food through the
alimentary canal easier. Their action increases the surface area of food so that saliva and
gastric juices can get to all the food, making chemical digestion faster.

Parts of the Teeth

• Enamel – covers the crown, very hard outer surface. Protects the teeth, preventing it from
damage
• Dentine – greater part of the tooth, it is bone-like but softer than enamel
• Pulp Cavity – the space where blood vessels and nerves are present. It forms dentine and
helps to protect teeth.
o Blood vessels – take food and oxygen to cells, removes carbon dioxide from cells
 o Nerves – help teeth sense hot and cold
• Cement – bone-like structure that lines root and holds the tooth in place
• Gum / gingiva – has fibres/periodontal ligaments that attach to the cement around the teeth
and hold them in place.
• Crown – the part of the tooth that is above the gum. It is used for mastication
• Neck – between the crown and the root, is in gum for support
• Root – the part of the teeth in the gum. It goes all the way to the bone socket, holds the
teeth in place.

Type Position Shape Function Amount

Chisel-shaped with sharp edges. To cut food, to bite off
Incisor At the front of the jaw 8
One root pieces of food
To grip and pierce
Cone/dagger shaped and pointed
Canine Next to incisor food, to tear pieces off 4
with one root
food
After the canines, side Flat surface with two cusps, has To grind and crush
Premolar 8
of the jaw two roots food
None in
After premolars, back of Flat surface with four/five cusps.
Molar Crush and grind food children.
the jaw Three roots
Adults - 12

ii) Chemical Digestion in the Mouth

• Chemical digestion takes places while mastication is taking place. The salivary glands in
the mouth produce saliva.
• The saliva contains water, mucus and the enzyme salivary amylase. The water and mucus
moisten and soften the food while the amylase begins to break down starch present in the
food to maltose.
• After the food is chewed properly, it is rolled into a ball-like structure called a bolus and
swallowed to move it into the oesophagus.
o The bolus is water, mucus and chewed food and enzymes.
• There is a flap in the back of the throat which covers the trachea/windpipe while swallowing
called the epiglottis.
b) The Oesophagus
• The oesophagus is the muscular tube that connects the throat to the stomach.
• It runs behind the trachea and the heart. It moves food from the stomach by the stomach by
peristalsis.
• Peristalsis is where circular muscles contract to push food forward. This repeats until the
bolus gets to the stomach.

c) The Stomach
• At the bottom of the oesophagus is a ring of muscle, sphincter muscle, that opens to release
food into the stomach
• The stomach is a muscular organ that lies to the upper left abdomen
• The stomach churns the bolus. As it is churned, the pits in the stomach secrete gastric juices,
which contain:
o Mucus – protects the lining of the stomach from HCl
o Hydrochloric acid (HCl) – provides and acidic environment for rennin and pepsin
to work & kills pathogens
o Pepsin – begins protein digestion
in the stomach, proteins are broken
down to peptides.
o Rennin (in babies) – present in
baby mammals, it clots the protein
in milk so it can be digested.
• Churning and digestion takes place for
about 2 hours. The result is chyme, a more
liquid state.
• The pyloric sphincter muscle at the bottom
of the stomach opens, releasing the chyme
into the small intestines
d) The Small Intestines
• Chyme enters the duodenum from the stomach; it is still acidic because of the HCl present.
• Liver cells make bile and store it in the gall bladder.
• Gall bladder secretes bile, through the bile duct into the duodenum.
o Bile emulsifies fats by breaking them down into smaller droplets, increasing the surface
area for enzymes to digest fats.
o Bile also contains bile pigments; these are waste products but are removed from the
body through the alimentary canal.
• Pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which has sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3), the
enzymes trypsin, lipase and pancreatic amylase.
o NaHCO3 neutralizes the HCl so the pancreatic enzymes can work in the slightly alkaline
environment, which is optimum for them.
o Trypsin continues to break down peptide chains to smaller peptides
o Lipase breaks down fats to fatty acids and glycerol
o Pancreatic amylase continues to break down starch to maltose
• Peristalsis keeps chyme moving from the duodenum, through the jejunum into the ileum.
• Along the way, intestinal juices containing enzymes are secreted.
• The enzymes are maltase, sucrase, lactase and peptidase (erepsin)
o Maltase: Maltose → glucose molecules
o Sucrase: Sucrose → glucose and fructose
o Lactase: Lactose → glucose and galactose
o Peptidase: Peptides → amino acids
• By the time chyme gets to the ileum, all the complex molecules would be broken down into
simple forms.
• Absorption begins to take place in the ileum and continues into the large intestines.
• Simple molecules are absorbed by diffusion, active transport and water is absorbed by
osmosis.
• The small intestines have adaptations that allow them to absorb nutrients

Adaptations of the Small Intestine

• The intestines are very long, so it maximises the amount of absorption that can take
place.
• The inner surface is covered in finger-like projections called villi (singular – villus)
o These further increase the surface area for absorption
• Villi have capillaries that quickly carry the products of digestion away, so that
molecules can keep diffusing in
o Capillaries also absorb vitamins B and C, animo acids and some water and
monosaccharides
• Villi have lacteal that quickly absorb and carry away fatty acids, glycerol, vitamins A
and D.
• Villi wall s have epithelial cells lining them.
 o Epithelium is only one cell thick, allow products of digestion to pass through
quickly.
• Epithelial cells have microvilli, which extend to further increase the surface are for
absorption.

STRUCTURE OF THE VILLI

e) The Large Intestines
• Peristalsis keeps food moving into the large intestine/colon.
• Water and mineral salts are absorbed here.
• As water is removed the food becomes more and more solid.
• By time it gets to the rectum, only unwanted substances are left. At this point it is faeces
• Faeces contains bile pigments, undigested fibre, dead cells, mucus and dead pathogens.
• It is stored here until anal sphincter relaxes and releases through the anus,
• The removal of faeces is egestion.

f) Assimilation
• The carbohydrates (glucose, fructose, galactose) and amino acids are taken to the liver by
the hepatise portal vein.
• The galactose and fructose are converted to glucose, and all glucose molecules are sent into
circulation.
o Glucose is used by all the cells in the body for respiration
o Any excess is converted to glycogen and stored in liver and muscle cells
o Excess may be converted to fat and storied in liver and adipose (fatty) tissue, under the
skin and surrounding organs.
▪ Glucose converted to fat in liver and transported to fatty tissue by blood
• The amino acids are taken used by all body cells to make proteins which are for
o Growth and repair
o To make hormones and enzymes
o Excess is converted to fats or glycogen and stored
o Excess may also be deaminated (broken down) in the liver and converted to urea and
excreted in urine
• The fatty acids are carried from the lacteal into the circulation, where they are taken to cells
to be used
o To make cell membranes of newly formed cells and organelles
o In respiration sometimes
o If there is any excess, converted to fats and stored in adipose tissue under skin and
around organs

g) The Liver
• The liver plays a vital role in the control and use of biological molecules used by the
body.
• The liver s responsible for
o Store glucose as glycogen for later use
o Convert glycogen to glucose when it is needed
o Removes excess cholesterol through the digestive system as part of the bile
o Removes excess amino acids as urea
o Produces bile and emulsifies fats
o Stores vitamins and release them when they are needed
 Functions of Each Nutrient

Class Sources Functions

Sweet foods (fruits, cakes, jams, etc.) To provide energy (17 kJ/g): energy released when
Carbohydrates Starchy foods (yams, potatoes, rice, respired. For storage: glycogen granules stored in many
pasta, bread, etc.) cells.

To make new cells for growth and repair, to make

Fish, lean meat, milk, cheese, eggs, enzymes, to make hormones, to make antibodies, to
Proteins
peas, beans, nuts provide energy (17 kJ/g): used only when stored
carbohydraes and lipids have been used up.

Butter, vegetables, oils, margarine, To make cell membranes of newly formed cells, to
Lipids
nuts, fatty meals provide energy (39 kJ/g), for storage, for insulation.

Vitamins
• An organic compound made up of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and other elements such as
Phosphorus.
• Vitamins are needed in small amounts in the body, as they cannot be made by the body.
• Examples of vitamins:
o Vitamin A
o Vitamin B1/Thiamin
o Vitamin B2 Riboflavin
o Vitamin B3/Niacin
o Vitamin C / Ascorbic Acid
o Vitamin D
o Vitamin E
o Vitamin K
Properties of Vitamins

• Some vitamins are only soluble in water, water-soluble

• Some vitamins are only soluble in fats, fat-soluble

Importance of Vitamins

• They are important for growth and reproduction

• Some function as coenzymes, i.e. enzymes cannot work properly without them.
 Different Vitamins and Functions

Vitamins Sources Functions Results of Deficiency

• Dry unhealthy skin and cornea.

Increased susceptibility to
• Helps to keep the skin, cornea infection.
Liver, cod liver oil, yellow and and mucous membranes • Reduced vision at night or
A orange vegetables and fruits, healthy. complete night blindness.
green leafy vegetables • Helps vision in dim light. • Xerophthalmia: eyes fail to
• Strengthens the immune system produce tears leading to dry
damaged cornea and sometimes
blindness

Whole-grain cereals and bread, • Aids in respiration to produce • Beri-Beri: weakness and pain in
energy the limb muscles, difficulty
B1 brown rice, peas, beans, nuts,
• Important for the proper walking, nervous system
yeast extract, lean pork
function of the nervous system disorders, paralysis.

• Pellagra: skin, digestive system

Fish, lean meats, whole-grain • Aids in respiration to produce and nervous system disorders
B3
cereals, yeast extract. energy resulting in dermatitis, diarrhoea
and dementia

• Scurvy: swollen and bleeding

gums, loose teeth or loss of teeth,
• Keeps tissues healthy, red-blue spots on the skin, muscle
West Indian cherries, citrus fruits, especially the skin and
C and joint pain, wounds do not
raw green vegetables connective tissue. heal.
• Strengthens the immune system • Increased susceptability to
infection

• Promotes the absorption of • Rickets in children: soft, weak,

calcium and phosphorus in the painful, deformed bones,
Oily fish, eggs, cod liver oil. ileum. especially limb bones, bowlegs.
D Made in the body by the action of • Helps build and maintain • Osteomalacia in adults: soft,
sunlight to the skin strong bones and teeth weak, painful bones that fracture
• Strengthens the immune easily, weakness of limb muscles
system • Poor teeth
 Minerals are inorganic substances that are required in small amounts for healthy growth and
development.

Different Minerals and Functions

Element Sources Functions Results of Deficiency

Calcium (Ca) Dairy products, yogurt, • To build and maintain • Rickets in children
green vegetables healthy bones and teeth • Osteoporosis in adults:
• Help blood to clot at cuts brittle, fragile bones
• Weak brittle nails
• Tooth decay
Phosphorus (P) Protein-rich foods (milk, • To build and maintain • Weak bones and teeth
cheese, meat, poultry, fish, healthy bones and teeth • Tiredness, lack of energy
nuts) • To make ATP
Iron (Fe) Red meat, liver, eggs, • To make haemoglobin • Anaemia: reduced
beans, nuts, dark green number of red blood cells
leafy vegetables in the blood, pale
complexion, tiredness,
lack of energy
Iodine (I) Sea foods, fish, shellfish • To make the hormone • Cretinishm in children:
and seaweed, milk, eggs thyroxine retarded physical and
mental development
• Goitre in adults: swollen
thyroid gland in the neck
• Reduced metabolic rate
leading to fatigue in
adults
Sodium (Na) and Na: table salt, cheese, cured • Needed for the transmission • Muscular cramps
Potassium (K) meats of nerve impulses and
K: fruits, vegetables muscle contraction
• Help maintain the correct
concentration of body fluids
Fluorine (F) Fluoridated tap water, • Strengthens tooth enamel • Tooth decay more
fluoride toothpaste making it more resistant to rapidly than normal
decay

Water
Water is an inorganic compound that is essential in a balanced diet. The human body is about
65% water.

• Water dissolves chemicals in cells so that they can react

• Water dissolves substances so that they can be transported around the body (products of
digestions are dissolved in blood plasma)
• Water dissolves waste substances so that they can be excreted from the body (urea)
• Water acts as a reactant (hydrolysis which occurs during digestion)
• Waer acts as a coolant removing heat from the body when it evaporates from sweat.
Roughage (Dietary Fibre)
Roughage is food that cannot be digested. It consists mainly of the cellulose of plant cell
walls, lignin or plant xylem vessels, husks of brown rice and bran of whole-grain cereals.
Roughage adds bulk to the food, which stimulates peristalsis so that food is kept moving
through the digestive system. This helps prevent constipation and reduce sthe rish of colon
cancer.