Engineering Graphics Notes Orthographic Projection | Points & Lines
ENGINEERING GRAPHICS
Complete Study Notes
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Orthographic Projection • Reference Planes • Auxiliary Planes
RHSV & LHSV • Projection of Points • Projection of Lines
Traces (HT & VT) • True Length • True & Apparent Angles
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Engineering Graphics Notes Orthographic Projection | Points & Lines
SECTION 01
Reference Planes — Quick Recap
Before studying auxiliary planes and side views, you must understand the three principal reference
planes used in orthographic projection.
Plane Orientation Divides Space Projection Name
HP — Horizontal Plane Lies horizontally Above & Below Top View (Plan)
VP — Vertical Plane Stands vertically (front) Front & Behind Front View (Elevation)
PP — Profile Plane Perpendicular to HP & Left & Right sides Side View (End View)
VP
Key Reference Lines
• XY line — Intersection of HP and VP. Used as reference line in 2D drawing.
• X₁Y₁ line — Intersection of PP with HP and VP (for side view).
• When HP is rotated downward 90°, it comes into the plane of drawing → gives 2D
orthographic view.
Four Quadrants — At a Glance
Quadrant Position of Point Front View (VP) Top View (HP)
1st (I) Above HP, In Front of VP Above XY Below XY
2nd (II) Above HP, Behind VP Above XY Above XY
3rd (III) Below HP, Behind VP Below XY Above XY
4th (IV) Below HP, In Front of VP Below XY Below XY
KEY NOTATION
For point P: p' = Front View (on VP) | p = Top View (on HP) | p'' = Side View (on PP)
a = distance of point from VP | b = distance from HP | c = distance from PP
Standard: Engineering drawings in India follow 1st Angle Projection (BIS standard).
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Engineering Graphics Notes Orthographic Projection | Points & Lines
SECTION 02
Auxiliary Vertical Plane (AVP)
DEFINITION
AVP is a plane that is PERPENDICULAR to the Horizontal Plane (HP)
but INCLINED to the Vertical Plane (VP) at some angle φ.
It stands vertically like VP, but is rotated at an angle in the horizontal direction.
Position of AVP in Space
• AVP is vertical — it stands upright just like VP
• AVP is NOT parallel to VP — it makes angle φ with VP
• Since it is perpendicular to HP, its intersection with HP is a straight line X₁Y₁
• The projection obtained on AVP is called Auxiliary Front View (AFV) or Auxiliary Elevation
How to Draw Auxiliary Front View (AFV) — Steps
1. Draw the XY line (reference line between HP and VP).
2. Draw the X₁Y₁ line on the Top View at angle φ to XY. This is the edge view of AVP on HP.
3. From the top view of the point (p), draw a PERPENDICULAR to X₁Y₁.
4. On this perpendicular, mark height = same as height of front view (p') above XY.
5. The point obtained is the Auxiliary Front View (p₁') of the point on AVP.
GOLDEN RULE — AVP
Height in Auxiliary Front View = Height in Front View (above/below XY line)
Draw perpendicular from the TOP VIEW to X₁Y₁ line
Measure the height (from FV) along this perpendicular beyond X₁Y₁
Where Does the Point Lie Relative to AVP?
Position of Point Condition AFV Location
In front of AVP Point is on observer's side of AVP AFV on near side of X₁Y₁
Behind AVP Point lies beyond AVP from AFV on far side of X₁Y₁
observer
On AVP Point is exactly on the plane AFV coincides with the point
Above HP, In front of AVP Like 1st quadrant w.r.t. AVP AFV above X₁Y₁, near side
Below HP, In front of AVP Like 4th quadrant w.r.t. AVP AFV below X₁Y₁, near side
EXAMPLE — AUXILIARY FRONT VIEW ON AVP
Given: Point P is 30mm above HP, 20mm in front of VP. AVP makes 45° with VP.
Step 1: Draw XY. Front view p' = 30mm above XY. Top view p = 20mm below XY.
Step 2: Draw X₁Y₁ at 45° to XY through a convenient point on the top view.
Step 3: From top view p, draw perpendicular to X₁Y₁. Let foot of perpendicular = m.
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Engineering Graphics Notes Orthographic Projection | Points & Lines
Step 4: Beyond m, mark m–p₁' = 30mm (same height as p' above XY).
Result: p₁' is the Auxiliary Front View of point P on AVP. ✓
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Engineering Graphics Notes Orthographic Projection | Points & Lines
SECTION 03
Auxiliary Inclined Plane (AIP)
DEFINITION
AIP is a plane that is PERPENDICULAR to the Vertical Plane (VP)
but INCLINED to the Horizontal Plane (HP) at some angle θ.
It is like a tilted floor — inclined, not horizontal.
Position of AIP in Space
• AIP is inclined — it makes angle θ with HP
• AIP is perpendicular to VP
• AIP's intersection with VP is a straight line X₁Y₁ (new reference line)
• The projection obtained on AIP is called Auxiliary Top View (ATV) or Auxiliary Plan
How to Draw Auxiliary Top View (ATV) — Steps
6. Draw XY line. Plot front view p' and top view p of the point.
7. On the front view side, draw X₁Y₁ at angle θ to XY. This is the edge view of AIP on VP.
8. From the front view p', draw a PERPENDICULAR to X₁Y₁. Let foot = n.
9. Mark depth = distance of top view p from XY (depth from VP). Measure it as n–p₁ beyond
X₁Y₁.
10. Point p₁ is the Auxiliary Top View on AIP. ✓
GOLDEN RULE — AIP
Depth in Auxiliary Top View = Depth in Top View (distance from XY line)
Draw perpendicular from the FRONT VIEW to X₁Y₁ line
Measure the depth (from TV) along this perpendicular beyond X₁Y₁
AVP vs AIP — Comparison Table
Feature AVP (Aux. Vertical Plane) AIP (Aux. Inclined Plane)
Perpendicular to HP VP
Inclined to VP at angle φ HP at angle θ
X₁Y₁ lies on HP VP
Projection obtained Aux. Front View (AFV) Aux. Top View (ATV)
Value carried over from Height from Front View Depth from Top View
Perpendicular drawn from Top View to X₁Y₁ Front View to X₁Y₁
EXAMPLE — AUXILIARY TOP VIEW ON AIP
Given: Point Q is 25mm above HP, 35mm in front of VP. AIP makes 30° with HP.
Step 1: Front view q' = 25mm above XY. Top view q = 35mm below XY.
Step 2: Draw X₁Y₁ at 30° to XY on the front view (VP) side.
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Engineering Graphics Notes Orthographic Projection | Points & Lines
Step 3: From q', draw perpendicular to X₁Y₁. Foot of perpendicular = n.
Step 4: Beyond n, mark n–q₁ = 35mm (depth of q from XY).
Result: q₁ is the Auxiliary Top View of point Q on AIP. ✓
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Engineering Graphics Notes Orthographic Projection | Points & Lines
SECTION 04
Profile Plane — RHSV & LHSV
DEFINITION — PROFILE PLANE (PP)
The Profile Plane is perpendicular to BOTH HP and VP.
Placed on either the left or right side of the object.
Projection on PP is called the Side View / End View / Profile View.
RHSV — Right Hand Side View
• PP is placed on the RIGHT side of the object and VP
• Observer looks from the RIGHT side toward the left
• PP intersects HP along line X₁Y₁ (perpendicular to XY)
• In 1st Angle projection: RHSV appears on LEFT side in drawing
• In 3rd Angle projection: RHSV appears on RIGHT side in drawing
LHSV — Left Hand Side View
• PP is placed on the LEFT side of the object and VP
• Observer looks from the LEFT side toward the right
• In 1st angle projection: LHSV appears on the RIGHT of the front view
How to Plot Side View (RHSV) — Steps
11. Draw XY line. Draw X₁Y₁ perpendicular to XY at its right end.
12. Plot front view p' = b mm above XY (height from HP).
13. Draw a horizontal line from p' toward and across X₁Y₁.
14. From X₁Y₁, mark distance = a (distance of point from VP) to the right.
15. This gives p'' — the Right Hand Side View of the point.
THREE KEY DISTANCES
a = distance from VP → appears as width in RHSV (measured from X₁Y₁)
b = distance from HP → appears as height in FV and also in RHSV (same level)
c = distance from PP → how far the point is from the profile plane itself
All 16 Cases — Point Projection Summary
# Position of Point FV (p') TV (p) SV (p'')
1 1st quadrant: Above HP, Front Above XY Below XY Right of X₁Y₁, above XY
VP
2 2nd quadrant: Above HP, Above XY Above XY Left of X₁Y₁, above XY
Behind VP
3 3rd quadrant: Below HP, Behind Below XY Above XY Left of X₁Y₁, below XY
VP
4 4th quadrant: Below HP, Front Below XY Below XY Right of X₁Y₁, below XY
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Engineering Graphics Notes Orthographic Projection | Points & Lines
VP
5 On HP, in front of VP On XY Below XY On XY level, right
6 On VP, above HP Above XY On XY On X-axis extended
7 On both HP and VP (XY line) On XY On XY At intersection point
8 On HP, behind VP On XY Above XY On XY level, left
9 On VP, below HP Below XY On XY Below intersection
10 Above HP, on PP (RHSV) Above XY, at Below XY, at On X₁Y₁, above
X₁Y₁ X₁Y₁
11 Below HP, on PP Below XY, at On X₁Y₁ On X₁Y₁, below
X₁Y₁
12 In front of VP, on PP On XY at X₁Y₁ On X₁Y₁ below On X₁Y₁
XY
13 Vertical line above HP Line above XY Point on XY Horizontal line on SV
14 In front of VP only (on HP) On XY Below XY Right by a, height 0
(depth a)
15 Behind VP only On XY Above XY Left of X₁Y₁ by a
16 At origin (all 3 planes) At XY origin At XY origin At X₁Y₁ origin
EXAMPLE — RHSV OF A POINT
Given: Point A is 40mm above HP, 30mm in front of VP, 25mm from PP (RHSV).
a = 30mm (from VP) | b = 40mm (from HP) | c = 25mm (from PP)
Front View a': 40mm above XY (on VP)
Top View a: 30mm below XY (on HP)
RHSV a'': 40mm above XY-extension, 30mm to the RIGHT of X₁Y₁
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Engineering Graphics Notes Orthographic Projection | Points & Lines
SECTION 05
Projection of Straight Lines
A straight line in space can be in many positions relative to HP and VP. Its projections (views) and
the angles it makes depend entirely on its spatial position.
KEY TERMS
FV / Elevation (a'b'): Projection on VP (Front View)
TV / Plan (ab): Projection on HP (Top View)
True Length (TL): Actual 3D length of the line
θ (theta): TRUE angle of line with HP
φ (phi): TRUE angle of line with VP
α (alpha): APPARENT angle in Front View (α ≥ θ always)
β (beta): APPARENT angle in Top View (β ≥ φ always)
HT: Horizontal Trace — where line pierces HP
VT: Vertical Trace — where line pierces VP
Important Relationships
• Apparent angles are ALWAYS ≥ True angles: α ≥ θ and β ≥ φ
• When a line is parallel to a plane, its projection on that plane = True Length at True Angle
• FV Length = TL × cosθ | TV Length = TL × cosφ
• For oblique line: Height difference = TL × sinθ | Depth difference = TL × sinφ
All 8 Positions of a Line — Cases
Case 1 — Line Parallel to Both HP and VP
CASE 1
Condition: Line is parallel to HP AND parallel to VP (runs along XY direction)
Front View: TRUE LENGTH, horizontal, parallel to XY
Top View: TRUE LENGTH, horizontal, parallel to XY
θ = 0°, φ = 0°
Example: A(30,20,10) to B(80,20,10) → Both FV and TV = 50mm horizontal
Case 2 — Parallel to HP, Inclined to VP (angle φ)
CASE 2
Condition: Line is horizontal (parallel to HP) but tilted at angle φ to VP
Front View: SHORTER than TL, horizontal line (no height change)
Top View: TRUE LENGTH, inclined at φ to XY → TRUE ANGLE visible here
Example: Line 60mm, 20mm above HP, at 30° to VP
TV = 60mm (TL) at 30°; FV = 60 × cos30° = 52mm horizontal
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Engineering Graphics Notes Orthographic Projection | Points & Lines
Case 3 — Parallel to VP, Inclined to HP (angle θ)
CASE 3
Condition: Line is parallel to VP (no depth change) but inclined at θ to HP
Front View: TRUE LENGTH, inclined at θ to XY → TRUE ANGLE visible here
Top View: SHORTER than TL, horizontal line (parallel to XY)
Example: Line 70mm, 15mm in front of VP, at 40° to HP
FV = 70mm (TL) at 40°; TV = 70 × cos40° = 53.6mm horizontal
Case 4 — Perpendicular to HP (Vertical Line)
CASE 4
Condition: θ = 90° — Line stands vertically, perpendicular to HP
Front View: Vertical line = TRUE LENGTH (perpendicular to XY)
Top View: A single POINT (both ends project to same point on HP)
Case 5 — Perpendicular to VP
CASE 5
Condition: φ = 90° — Line points toward/away from observer
Front View: A single POINT (both ends project to same point on VP)
Top View: Line perpendicular to XY = TRUE LENGTH
Case 6 — Line Lying on HP
CASE 6
Condition: Both ends have zero height (line lies ON HP)
Front View: Coincides with XY line (on XY)
Top View: TRUE LENGTH at true angle φ to XY
Case 7 — Line Lying on VP
CASE 7
Condition: Both ends have zero depth from VP (line lies ON VP)
Front View: TRUE LENGTH at true angle θ to XY
Top View: Coincides with XY line (on XY)
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Engineering Graphics Notes Orthographic Projection | Points & Lines
SECTION 05 (CONTINUED)
Case 8 — Line Inclined to BOTH HP and VP (Oblique Line)
MOST IMPORTANT CASE — OBLIQUE LINE
Condition: Line makes angle θ with HP AND angle φ with VP (neither view gives TL)
Front View: Inclined at apparent angle α > θ, length < TL
Top View: Inclined at apparent angle β > φ, length < TL
FV Length = TL × cosθ TV Length = TL × cosφ
Height difference of ends = TL × sinθ
Depth difference of ends = TL × sinφ
To find TL & true angles: Use Rotating Line Method or Auxiliary Plane Method
Summary Table — All Line Positions
Ca Position Front View Top View TL visible?
se
1 Parallel to HP & VP TL, horizontal TL, horizontal Both views
2 Parallel to HP, inclined to VP Shorter, horizontal TL at φ to XY Top view
3 Parallel to VP, inclined to HP TL at θ to XY Shorter, horizontal Front view
4 Perpendicular to HP TL, vertical Point Front view
5 Perpendicular to VP Point TL, perp. to XY Top view
6 In HP (on HP) On XY line TL at φ to XY Top view
7 In VP (on VP) TL at θ to XY On XY line Front view
8 Oblique (inclined to both) Shorter at α>θ Shorter at β>φ Neither view
Traces of a Line — HT and VT
DEFINITION — TRACES
A TRACE is the point where a straight line (or its extension) PIERCES a reference plane.
HT (Horizontal Trace): Where line meets or pierces HP. Lies ON HP.
VT (Vertical Trace): Where line meets or pierces VP. Lies ON VP.
Properties of Traces
Property HT (Horizontal Trace) VT (Vertical Trace)
Lives on HP (height = 0) VP (depth = 0)
Front view of trace Always ON XY line Above or below XY
Top view of trace Below or above XY Always ON XY line
Actual trace found in Top view (ht) Front view (v't')
How to find it Extend FV to XY → project down to Extend TV to XY → project up to
TV FV
MEMORY TRICK
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Engineering Graphics Notes Orthographic Projection | Points & Lines
HT lives on HP → Front View of HT is ON XY (zero height on HP)
VT lives on VP → Top View of VT is ON XY (zero depth on VP)
The 'other view' of the trace gives the actual trace location.
The 'own view' is always on XY.
How to Find HT and VT — Construction
16. Plot front view a'b' and top view ab of the line AB.
17. TO FIND VT: Extend top view (ab) until it meets XY line. Meeting point = vt (TV of VT,
always on XY). From vt, draw vertical projector upward to meet extended front view line. That
intersection = VT (actual trace on VP).
18. TO FIND HT: Extend front view (a'b') until it meets XY line. Meeting point = ht' (FV of HT,
always on XY). From ht', draw vertical projector downward to meet extended top view line.
That intersection = HT (actual trace on HP).
19. Note: If line doesn't intersect a plane within its actual length, extend the line to find the trace.
EXAMPLE — FINDING HT AND VT
Given: Line AB. A is 20mm above HP, 15mm in front of VP.
B is 50mm above HP, 40mm in front of VP.
Step 1: Plot FV: a' = 20mm above XY, b' = 50mm above XY. Draw a'b'.
Plot TV: a = 15mm below XY, b = 40mm below XY. Draw ab.
Step 2 (VT): Extend TV backward past a → meets XY at vt.
From vt, draw vertical up to meet extended FV → VT found on VP.
Step 3 (HT): Extend FV backward past a' → meets XY at ht'.
From ht', draw vertical down to meet extended TV → HT found on HP.
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Engineering Graphics Notes Orthographic Projection | Points & Lines
SECTION 05 — TRUE LENGTH & ANGLES
True Length and True Angles
When a line is oblique (inclined to both HP and VP), NEITHER the Front View NOR the Top View
gives the True Length. We must use special methods.
Method 1 — Rotating Line Method (Rabatment)
To Find True Length and θ (true angle with HP)
FROM FRONT VIEW
Step 1: Take front view a'b'.
Step 2: With a' as centre, rotate b' until a'b' becomes horizontal (parallel to XY).
New position of b' is called b₁'.
Step 3: Length a'b₁' = TRUE LENGTH.
Step 4: Angle that original a'b' makes with horizontal = α (apparent angle).
Now rotate: the angle a'b₁' makes with XY extended from a' = θ (TRUE angle with
HP).
Shortcut: With a' as centre, radius = TL, draw arc to meet horizontal through a' → gives b₁'.
To Find True Length and φ (true angle with VP)
FROM TOP VIEW
Step 1: Take top view ab.
Step 2: With a as centre, rotate b until ab becomes parallel to XY.
New position of b is called b₁.
Step 3: Length ab₁ = TRUE LENGTH.
Step 4: The angle ab makes with XY = β (apparent angle in TV).
The angle ab₁ makes with XY = φ (TRUE angle with VP).
Check: Both methods must give the SAME True Length value!
Method 2 — Auxiliary Plane Method
20. To find θ and TL: Draw an AIP perpendicular to VP with X₁Y₁ parallel to front view a'b'.
Project the line onto this AIP. The projection = True Length at true angle θ with HP.
21. To find φ and TL: Draw an AVP perpendicular to HP with X₁Y₁ parallel to top view ab.
Project the line onto this AVP. The projection = True Length at true angle φ with VP.
Complete Example — Oblique Line (Full Solution)
FULL WORKED EXAMPLE
Problem: Line AB = 75mm long. θ = 30° (with HP), φ = 45° (with VP).
End A: 20mm above HP, 15mm in front of VP. Draw FV, TV, find HT & VT.
STEP 1 — Calculate projected lengths:
FV length = TL × cosθ = 75 × cos30° = 75 × 0.866 = 65mm
TV length = TL × cosφ = 75 × cos45° = 75 × 0.707 = 53mm
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Engineering Graphics Notes Orthographic Projection | Points & Lines
STEP 2 — Find height of B above HP:
Height difference = TL × sinθ = 75 × sin30° = 37.5mm
A is 20mm above HP → B is 20 + 37.5 = 57.5mm above HP
STEP 3 — Draw Front View a'b':
a' = 20mm above XY. b' = 57.5mm above XY.
Horizontal distance in FV = 65mm. Draw inclined line a'b'.
Apparent angle α = angle a'b' makes with XY (α > 30° = θ)
STEP 4 — Draw Top View ab:
a = 15mm below XY. TV length = 53mm inclined.
Depth difference = TL × sinφ = 75 × sin45° = 53mm
b = 15 + 53 = 68mm below XY (approximately, depending on direction).
Apparent angle β = angle ab makes with XY (β > 45° = φ)
STEP 5 — Find VT: Extend TV ab to XY → vt. Project up to meet extended FV → VT.
STEP 6 — Find HT: Extend FV a'b' to XY → ht'. Project down to meet extended TV → HT.
STEP 7 — Verify TL: Rotate FV → get 75mm. Rotate TV → also get 75mm. ✓
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Engineering Graphics Notes Orthographic Projection | Points & Lines
QUICK REFERENCE CARD
Final Quick Reference — All Topics
Symbols & Meanings
Symbol Meaning Where to find it / Key rule
θ (theta) True angle with HP When line || VP (in FV), or rotating line from FV
φ (phi) True angle with VP When line || HP (in TV), or rotating line from TV
α (alpha) Apparent angle in FV Always α ≥ θ. Measure in Front View.
β (beta) Apparent angle in TV Always β ≥ φ. Measure in Top View.
HT Horizontal Trace FV of HT is on XY. Extend TV to XY, project down for HT.
VT Vertical Trace TV of VT is on XY. Extend TV to XY, project up for VT.
TL True Length Rotating line or auxiliary plane method for oblique lines.
AVP Aux. Vertical Plane (⊥ Gives AFV. Transfer HEIGHT from FV. X₁Y₁ on HP.
HP)
AIP Aux. Inclined Plane (⊥ Gives ATV. Transfer DEPTH from TV. X₁Y₁ on VP.
VP)
RHSV Right Hand Side View PP on right. Height = FV height. Width = depth from VP.
LHSV Left Hand Side View PP on left. Same rules, mirrored direction.
CRITICAL RULES — NEVER FORGET
1. If line is PARALLEL to a plane → Projection on that plane = True Length + True Angle.
2. If line is INCLINED to both planes → BOTH views shorter than TL; apparent angles >
true angles.
3. To find TL and true angles → Rotating Line Method OR Auxiliary Plane Method.
4. HT: front view is on XY. VT: top view is on XY. NEVER confuse these.
5. For AVP: Height carried from FV. For AIP: Depth carried from TV.
6. RHSV: Height from FV + Depth from VP. Both taken at right of X₁Y₁.
7. FV Length = TL × cosθ TV Length = TL × cosφ
8. Both rotating-line methods must give the SAME True Length (use as verification).
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