Without a rigid cell wall, animal cells can change shape easily.
This cellular
flexibility supports the overall movement and functioning of animal tissues.
The plant cell wall is primarily made of cellulose, a type of carbohydrate
formed by many glucose units linked together. Cellulose in our diet acts
as roughage, helping in digestion. Some microorganisms, like fungi and
bacteria also have a cell wall to provide protection and structural support
to their cells.
Pause and Ponder
1. What argument would you give for the necessity of a cell wall in plants
usually fixed in one place versus in animals usually moving from one
place to the other?
2. What consequences would you predict for a plant cell if its cell wall were
to become as flexible as a cell membrane?
3. Why is it important to cut the two potato pieces in roughly equal size and
measure their initial weight before placing them in different liquids?
2.3 The Cell Interior — A Coordinated Working System
You have learnt that most cells have three basic parts: Grade 7
Curiosity
y a selectively permeable membrane called the plasma Chapter 9
membrane,
y a semi-fluid, jelly-like substance called the cytoplasm, and
y a prominent nucleus.
In addition to the nucleus, the cytoplasm contains several sub-cellular
components called organelles, along with other substances present in it,
most of which are only visible with an electron microscope.
Activity 2.4: Let us study
Vacuole Lysosome
Cell membrane
Nucleus
Vacuole
Nucleolus
Chloroplast Endoplasmic
reticulum
Cell wall
Mitochondria
Cytoplasm Cytoplasm
Nucleoid Ribosome
Appendage for (Genetic material) Ribosome
locomotion Ribosome
Golgi body
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 2.10: (a) A typical bacterial cell, (b) a typical plant cell, and (c) a typical animal cell
1. Study the given diagrams of a bacterial cell, a plant cell, and an animal
cell (Fig. 2.10a, b and c).
2. Observe the different structures present in each of them.
3. Record your observations in Table 2.1.
A bacterial cell lacks a well-defined nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles (organelles surrounded by their own membranes). Such cells
are called prokaryotic cells (pro means primitive and karyon means
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Cell: The Building Block of Life 15
nucleus). In prokaryotic cells, most cellular activities take place directly
in the cytoplasm. In contrast, plant and animal cells have a well-defined
nucleus and several membrane-bound organelles. Such cells are called
eukaryotic cells (eu means true, and karyon means nucleus). More
details of the characterstics of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is given
in Table 2.2.
Ready to Go
Table 2.1: Comparison of different kinds of cells based on their structure Beyond
Bacterial Plant Animal Viruses, viroids,
S. No. Cell structures
cell cell cell and prions are
acellular (no
1. Cell membrane
cells) infectious
agents that
2. Cell wall
are too small
to be seen
3. Cytoplasm
under a light
Well-defined nucleus (genetic microscope.
4. Viruses are
material enclosed by a membrane)
composed of
Primitive nucleus or nucleoid (genetic some genetic
5.
material without membrane around it) material with
a protein coat.
6. Membrane-bound organelles Viroids lack
protein coat
around its
Table 2.2: Comparison between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
genetic material,
Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell while prions
Characteristics
are misfolded
proteins which
Primitive nucleus Present Absent lack genetic
material.
Diameter of a typical cell 1 to 10 µm 10 to 100 µm
Can be unicellular
Number of cells in an organism Usually unicellular
or multicellular
Membrane-bound organelles Absent Present
Membrane-bound nucleus Absent Present
Which of the cells given in Fig. 2.10 fall under the categories of prokayotic
and eukaryotic cells?
Ready to Go Beyond
In eukaryotic cells, a network of fine fibres forms the cytoskeleton, which
provides structural support, maintains cell shape, and enables cell movement
and internal transport. It is visible only under an electron microscope as
a separate entity. The cytoplasm may also store starch (in plant cells), or
crystals of calcium oxalate or silica (in some plant cells). These are known
as cell inclusions.
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2.3.1 Why do eukaryotic cells need these organelles?
Eukaryotic cells carry out various life processes in different cell organelles
independently at the same time.
Cell organelles help in building new materials, removing waste, and
providing energy to the cell. They work together to perform all functions of
a cell. In other words, a cell is like a tiny living factory, with each of its part
doing a specific job.
Let us explore these specialised structures present inside a cell.
Nucleus
Double-layered Nucleus — House of coded
nuclear membrane Nucleolus instructions
Nuclear pore The nucleus has a double-layered
covering called the nuclear membrane,
Nucleus
Chromatin
which has pores that allow the transfer
of material between the nucleus and
the cytoplasm. The nucleolus is the
dense round body in the nucleus, where
synthesis of ribosomal subunits take
Chromatin place. These subunits then exit the
nucleus to cytoplasm where one large
Chromosome and one small subunits assemble to
Fig. 2.11: Structure of a nucleus form ribosome (Fig. 2.11).
The nucleus contains chromosomes, which are visible as rod-shaped
structures only when the cell is about to divide. Chromosomes contain
information for inheritance of characters from parents to the next
generation in the form of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules.
Chromosomes are composed of DNA and specific proteins. DNA molecules
contain the genetic information. The functional segments of DNA are called
genes. In a non-dividing cell, this DNA is present as part of chromatin
DNA material. Chromatin material is visible as an entangled mass of thread-like
structures. Whenever the cell is about to divide, the chromatin material
Fig. 2.12: From cell
gets organised into chromosomes (Fig. 2.12).
to DNA
Threads of Curiosity
Some cells are specialised to perform specific functions. For example, mature Red
Blood Cells (RBCs) in humans do not have a nucleus (enucleate). The absence of
a nucleus provides more space for haemoglobin, allowing it to transport a larger
amount of oxygen to all cells of the body. Since they lack a nucleus, they cannot
repair or divide themselves. As a result, their lifespan is short and they survive
approximately for 120 days. Do you know any other cells without nucleus?
Prokaryotic cells do not have a well-defined nucleus. Their DNA is
present as a single circular molecule associated with specific proteins. The
region containing this genetic material is called the nucleoid.
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Cell: The Building Block of Life 17
Ribosomes — The protein factories
These are tiny structures may be present
either freely in the cytoplasm or attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes are the sites of
protein synthesis. Smooth
endoplasmic
Endoplasmic Reticulum reticulum Rough
(ER) — Manufacturing factory endoplasmic
reticulum
The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is a large organelle
Ribosome
that spreads like a network within the cytoplasm of the
cell. The ER is continuous with the outer membrane
of nuclear envelop. The ER plays a key role in the
synthesis and transport of proteins, fats (lipids), and
apparatus
some hormones in some of the specialised cell. The
Golgi
structure of the ER in a cell varies depending on its
function. There are two types of ER: Plasma
membrane
y Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): It looks
rough under an electron microscope because Vesicles
it has ribosomes attached to its surface, and is
mainly involved in protein synthesis and protein
secretion (for example, in gland cells, such as Fig. 2.13: Endoplasmic reticulum and
pancreatic cells). Golgi apparatus — pathway for protein
processing and secretion
y Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): It does
not have ribosomes on its surface, and therefore,
looks smooth. It is involved in the synthesis, and Meet a Scientist
storage of fats and hormones (Fig. 2.13).
The Golgi
Golgi apparatus — The packaging and apparatus was
shipping centres first observed in
1898 by an Italian
If you carefully look at the diagram of a cell scientist, Camillo
(Fig. 2.10b and c), you will notice stacks of flattened, Golgi, in the nerve
sac-like structures. Together, these stacks form the cells of a barn
Golgi apparatus (Fig. 2.13). It is functionally linked owl. Using special
to the ER, the cell membrane and the other cell staining techniques, he observed
organelles. The Golgi apparatus acts like the cell’s a thread-like network. Early
microscopes could not resolve it
post office. It modifies, sorts, and packages proteins
clearly, therefore, many doubted
and/or lipids into vesicles for transport, secretion, its existence. However, electron
or lysosome formation. microscope observations
confirmed it decades later.
Lysosomes — The clean-up system
When the structure was
Cells produce waste materials and damaged, clearly seen and confirmed, it
worn-out organelles during their activities. was named the ‘Golgi apparatus’
How does the cell prevent these wastes from in his honour.
accumulating inside it?
Lysosomes are single membrane-bound sacs
filled with enzymes, which can break down
unwanted proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and even
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