Mutualistic bacteria are also found in the digestive tracts of ruminants and

termites where they are responsible for the digestion of cellulose into simple
sugars.
Mycorrhizal fungi and the roots of higher plants
Filamentous fungi known as mycorrhizas can penetrate and become
associated with the roots of higher plants. The fungi increase the
absorption surface area of the roots. The fungus in turn, gets sugars from
the plant.
Symbiosis in general: [Link]

Diseases caused by micro-organisms

Organisms that cause diseases are called pathogens. You are required to
study only one disease from each of the four groups of micro-organisms
discussed below.

Key terminology
pathogen Infectious biological agent or organism that causes disease
An agent who carries and transmits an infectious pathogen into
vector another living organism.
Living cell in which a virus (or foreign molecule or microorganism)
host multiplies or hides.
Refers to a sudden increase in the number of cases of a disease
epidemic above what is normally expected.
Refers to an epidemic that has spread over several countries or
pandemic continents, usually affecting a large number of people

Diseases caused by viruses

Rabies
Rabies affects both domestic and wild animals such as dogs (Figure 16),
jackal and mongooses. The rabies virus is passed from one animal to
another in saliva. Humans usually get infected when they are bitten by a
rabid animal.
 Figure 16: Dogs infected by rabies often foam at the mouth.

After a person has been bitten by a rabid animal, there is an incubation

period of up to 60 days during which time the victim shows no symptoms.
After this period the victim may show one or more of the following
symptoms:
• headaches and fever
• sore throat
• nausea
• fatigue or tiredness

These symptoms are followed by an agitated phase where the victim has
convulsive seizures, salivates and fears water (hydrophobia). They also
have difficulty in swallowing and breathing. Once the symptoms of the
disease appear, there is no cure and the patient dies within 10 days from
heart failure or breathing difficulties.

Rabies can be managed as follows:

• vaccination of dogs and livestock in areas where the disease is found
• immunization of people with high-risk occupations such as veterinarians
• immunization of travellers going to areas where the disease is found
 • training of health workers and veterinarians
• destroying of animals infected with the disease

Treatment of rabies
• It is difficult to treat the disease, so it is important to avoid being bitten by
animals infected by rabies.
• Wild animals which suddenly appear to be tame should not be touched.
• If there is contact with an animal which is behaving suspiciously, the
person should seek medical attention immediately.

HIV / AIDS

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is a sexually transmitted

disease caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) (Figure 17).
The virus weakens the immune system by infecting and destroying the
immune cells which are known as the CD4 – cells.

Figure 17: HIV virus in the blood stream

The HI virus is spread mainly through the transfer of body fluids such as semen
and blood from an infected person to another person by one of the following
ways:
• sexual intercourse
• blood transfusions of untested blood
• sharing contaminated syringes (e.g. drug users)  from an infected mother
to the foetus
The virus in not transferred in the air, in saliva or by shaking hands with an
infected person.

The effects of HIV/AIDS on an individual include:

• A lack of symptoms during the first phase of infection which can last years.
• Flu like symptoms which include headaches, fever, tiredness, and the
swelling of lymph glands in the armpits, throat or groin can occur.
• As the immune system weakens symptoms such as repeated cold-sore
infections, prolonged fevers, night sweats, chronic diarrhoea (runny tummy), etc.
occur. Extreme weight loss can also occur.
• A weakened immune system allows secondary or opportunistic infections
to occur. These include respiratory infections, pneumonia, epilepsy, dementia,
skin cancers, lymph cancer and tuberculosis.
• In the final phase of HIV infection, the disease is known as AIDS. Death
can occur in this phase due to secondary infections.

HIV/AIDS affects families in the following ways:

• If the breadwinner becomes ill there is no income and a family may
become poverty stricken.
• The virus is transmitted to an unborn child during pregnancy.
• If both parents are infected and die, their children become orphans.
• Brothers and sisters may be separated from each other if the parents die.

The economy of a country is also affected by HIV/AIDS:

• The disease is more common in young working people and reduces the
labour force especially in the mining industry.
• The costs of treatment and care are high.
Management of HIV/AIDS requires:
• Testing for the virus in people who are at high risk (e.g. health workers,
prostitutes, drug users).
• Counselling and treatment for infected people with antiviral drugs.
• Strengthening the immune system of infected persons.
• Treatment of secondary infections.
 • Education and the prevention of infection by not having sexual intercourse
(casual sex) or using protection such as a condom.

Influenza

Influenza is commonly called “flu” and is caused by the influenza virus. The
virus spreads through the air when a patient coughs or sneezes (Figure 18). It
can also spread through contact with bird droppings or contaminated surfaces.

Symptoms include:
• a sore throat
• muscular pain
• headaches  coughing.

Symptoms usually only last a few days, but some strains of the virus can be deadly.

Figure 18: Flu viruses can be spread by coughing

Viruses do not respond to antibiotics. Flu is best managed with the use of
vaccines. Flu viruses mutate rapidly to form new strains which means that a
new flu vaccine must be developed each year.
To avoid catching flu, people must wash their hands regularly. People who
are already infected should not cough or sneeze without covering their
mouths.
Diseases caused by bacteria

Blight

Blight is the term given to plants which suddenly wilt (droop) and die. It is
caused by several different bacteria. Blight is a significant problem for
commercial farming as it affects crops such as apples, grapes and tomatoes
(Figure 19).

Figure 19: Tomatoes affected by blight

Symptoms of blight include:

• drooping or dried up shoots and stalks
• lesions (‘sores’) on the leaves
• flowers that turn black and die
• death of the whole plant if not treated

Blight must be managed as follows:

• only disease-free stock should be planted
• pruning tools must be disinfected
• cutting back should only be done on dry windless days
• affected plant material should be burnt to avoid spores from spreading
Cholera
Cholera is commonly found in areas where there is overcrowding, unsafe
drinking water and a lack of proper sanitation (Figure 20). Cholera is caused
by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae.

Figure 20: Cholera breeds in unhygienic places

Symptoms of cholera include:

• watery diarrhoea (runny tummy) which leads to dehydration  vomiting

Note that some people do not show any symptoms of cholera but can
become carriers of the disease.
Management of the disease should include:

• access to clean drinking water or water purification tablets

• preventing the spreading of the disease by proper sanitation and disposal
of sewerage
• infected people must be given fluids with added electrolytes to drink
• severely infected people will have to be put on a drip
• the bed linen and clothes of infected people must be disposed of
• anything which cholera patients have touched must be washed in hot
water and sterilized using chlorine bleach
• people living in cholera areas should be educated about the importance of
hygiene and be encouraged to boil water before drinking.
 Treatment of cholera involves:
• rehydration
• antibiotic treatment

Tuberculosis

The bacterium, Mycobacterium tuberculosis causes the lung disease

tuberculosis (TB) (Figure 21). The bacterium can also attack other parts of
the body such as the kidneys, brain and spinal cord.

TB is spread through the air when infected people cough or sneeze. The
bacterium spreads quickly in confined, overcrowded spaces where there is
poverty and poor sanitation.

mycobacterium
tuberculosis

Figure 21: TB commonly infects the lungs

TB can infect anyone who breathes in the bacterium but usually only
develops in people with weak immune systems such as babies, young
children, HIV positive people, drug users, diabetics and poverty-stricken
people.
The effect of TB on infected persons includes:
• extreme tiredness and weakness
• loss of appetite and weight
 • chills, fever and sweating at night
• excessive coughing
• chest pains
• coughing up blood

Management of TB requires:
• identification of infections through X-rays, skin tests or tissue cultures.
• educating the patient regarding the completion of treatment.

Treatment of TB involves:
• Treatment with a number of drugs over a period of about 6 months. When
patients do not complete their treatment, they can develop a drug-resistant form
of TB which is very difficult to treat. Patients are often kept in a TB hospital for
treatment and to make sure they take their medication.
• DOTS (Directly Observed Treatment Short Course) was developed so that
someone makes sure that the patient completes their treatment.

Anthrax
Anthrax is caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis. It affects goats,
cattle, sheep and horses. The spores are either inhaled by the animal or
they enter through wounds. Once inside the body, the bacterium enters the
bloodstream and multiplies very rapidly. It releases very strong toxins and
causes tissues to breakdown, bleeding and eventually death.
Humans become infected when they are exposed to infected animals or
their products. The following symptoms appear in humans:
• severe breathing problems and shock,
• inflammation of the gastro-intestinal tract,
• a painless skin ulcer with a black necrotic area in the middle (Figure
22).
 Figure 22: A typical symptom of an anthrax infection
Anthrax can be managed by:
• Vaccination of stock animals.
• If there is an outbreak of anthrax, animals showing signs of infection
must be isolated and treated with antibiotics. All the other animals that have
been in contact with the infected animals must be vaccinated.
• The bodies of dead animals must be burned to destroy spores which
could survive for up to 90 years.
• Humans that have come into contact with anthrax must wash with
antimicrobial soap and their clothes must be burned.
• The bodies of humans that have died from anthrax should be
cremated to avoid the disease spreading further.

Diseases caused by Protista

Malaria

Introduction to Malaria: [Link]

• Malaria is a life-threatening disease found mainly in tropical and sub-

tropical areas of the world.
• Malaria is caused by the protozoan Plasmodium vivax and is spread by
the female Anopheles mosquito.
• The female Anopheles mosquito is called the vector.
 • A vector carries a disease-causing organism from an infected host to a
new host.
• The malaria parasite requires two hosts (mosquitoes and humans) to
complete its life cycle.

Symptoms of malaria include:

• early symptoms that can be mistaken for flu
• fever and shivering
• headache
• joint pain
• vomiting
• convulsions
• anaemia
If left untreated, malaria may lead to the infected person falling into a coma,
followed by death.
The effects of malaria on the economy include:
• Loss of income if the breadwinner cannot work or dies, resulting in
poverty.
• Malaria treatment is expensive. Poor people in undeveloped countries
cannot afford treatment.

The best way to manage malaria is to avoid being bitten by mosquitoes in

areas where malaria occurs. This can be done by:
• staying indoors between sunset and sunrise.
• covering doors and windows with gauze to stop mosquitoes from entering
rooms.
• sleeping under mosquito nets.
• applying insect repellents to exposed skin.
• wearing long sleeves and pants if you need to be outdoors at night.
• drain places where there is standing water e.g. drains, ponds, gutters, old
tyres etc., as mosquitoes breed in standing water.

Anti-malarial drugs can be taken before entering a malaria area. Drugs are
available to treat people infected with malaria.
Governments in malaria areas need to provide health-care facilities like clinics.
They also control the breeding of mosquitoes by spraying with DDT, an
insecticide.

Diseases caused by fungi

Rusts
• Rusts are a group of fungi that infect crop plants (tomatoes, beans etc.),
grasses and flowering plants such as roses, hollyhocks, and snapdragons.
• The hyphae of the fungus burrow into the plant tissue and destroy it.
• Bright orange raised areas can be seen on the surface of the plant leaves
which resemble rusted metal when infected (Figure 23).

Figure 23: Rust is commonly seen on the underside of leaves

Management and treatment of rust include:

• planting of rust-resistant crops or plants
• keeping plants healthy by adding nutrients to the soil or their water
 • sterilizing of equipment, especially pruning (cutting) tools
• spaying with fungicides (chemicals which kill fungi)
• burning of affected plant material to prevent the spores from spreading

Thrush
• Thrush is caused by a yeast (fungus) called Candia albicans.
• Thrush can grow on any part of the body but favours moist areas such as
the mouth, vagina and upper parts of the digestive tract.

Oral thrush (in the mouth) is characterised by white sores on the tongue
and in the mouth (Figure 24). Symptoms include difficulty with eating and
an uncomfortable burning in the mouth. Thrush is common in bottle- and
breast-fed babies and in people with false teeth.

Figure 24: Oral thrush

Vaginal thrush commonly occurs in pregnant women and women using oral
contraceptives (birth control tablets). Tight-fitting pants and underwear can
encourage thrush to develop. Vaginal thrush is characterised by severe
itching, a burning sensation when urinating and a greyish-white vaginal
discharge.
Other factors that contribute to the development of thrush include:
• a weakened immune system caused by HIV / AIDS or chemotherapy
• diabetes – candida thrives on high blood sugar  moist skin folds in
overweight people
• babies with wet nappies for a prolonged period
• poor health as a result of stress, lack of sleep, poor diet rich in sugars 
excessive use of antibiotics

Thrush can be managed by reducing the factors that the fungus favours for example:
• wear loose-fitting clothes and cotton underwear especially when it is hot
• do not use perfumed soaps and bubble baths
• eat a well-balanced diet that is low in refined sugars
• probiotics should be taken if antibiotics are taken over a long period of
time
• treat oral thrush with an antifungal mouthwash. Antifungal creams can be
applied to the affected areas. In extreme cases, systemic treatment in the form of
tablets may be necessary
• dentures (false teeth) must fit well and be sterilized often
Ringworm
Ringworm is caused by a fungus and not a worm. Fungal spores can live and
spread on the skin of both humans and animals (Figure 25). Ringworm is
often spread by contact with affected pets in a home.

Figure 25: Ringworm affects both humans and animals.

Symptoms include itchy sores (often circular-shaped) on the skin.

Management and treatment include:
• treatment of the skin with antifungal ointments
• treatment of pet animals in the home
• avoid sharing clothes with an infected person

Athlete’s foot
Athlete’s foot is a fungal infection found mainly between the toes and on
the arches of feet (Figure 26). It is caused by the fungus Tinea pedis. The
fungus feeds on the keratin (protein) in the skin and results in flaky and
cracked skin. The cracks allow bacteria to enter.
This fungus thrives in warm, moist places. It may be contracted by walking
barefoot in public places such as showers, public swimming pool areas
and changing rooms

Figure 26: Athlete’s foot

Athlete’s foot can be treated and managed as follows:

• keep the affected areas dry
• wear open sandals when it is hot
• wear clean, cotton socks if you need to wear closed shoes. avoid nylon
socks
• wash feet well and dry well between the toes
• apply fungal ointments or powders to feet if they are infected
• avoid infections by wearing slip-slops in public showers
The following videos give a short introduction to these diseases:
Tuberculosis [Link]
HIV/AIDS [Link]
Ringworm [Link]
Cholera [Link]
Rabies [Link]
Influenza [Link]
Thrush [Link]

Activity 4: Diseases
Complete the following table:
Organism Management and
Disease responsible Symptoms cure

rabies

AIDS

influenza

cholera

tuberculosis

anthrax

malaria

thrush

ringworm

athletes foot

rusts

blight
(36)